Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

Guochun Zhao, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong; State Key Laboratory of Continental
Dynamics, Department of Geology, Northwest University, Xi’an, China
© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction 1
Very Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 2
Very Low- to Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 3
Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at Low-Medium Pressure—Greenschist 3
Very Low- to Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at Medium-High Pressure—Blueschist 3
Medium-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 4
Medium-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at Low- and Medium-Pressure—Amphibolite 4
Medium-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at High and Ultrahigh Pressure—Medium-Temperature Eclogite 4
High-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 5
High-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at the Pressures of <13 kbar—Mafic Granulites 5
High-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at the Pressure of >13 kbar—High-Temperature Eclogite 5
P-T Paths of Meta-Mafic Rocks and Their Tectonic Implications 6
Acknowledgments 8
References 8
Further Reading 8

Glossary
Mafic rocks Typical mafic rocks are basalt, gabbro and mafic dykes, and immature mafic greywacke, which are geochemically
high in Fe, Mg, and Ca, with 52–65% SiO2 and the major minerals being plagioclase, amphibole and pyroxene.
Metamorphic grades A form of metamorphic intensity, classified mainly based on temperatures, including very low-grade
with temperatures of 250–400
C, low-grade (400–55
C), medium-grade (550–650
C), high-grade (650–900
C), and
ultrahigh-grade or ultrahigh temperature (UHT) (>900
C) metamorphism.
Metamorphic facies A range of pressure-temperature conditions over which a particular common mineral assemblage or range
of mineral assemblages are stable (Eskola, 1915). The individual facies are also defined so that rocks of a wide range of
compositions can be assigned to a facies. The most used metamorphic facies include zeolite- and prehnite-pumpellyite-facies,
that represent very low grade metamorphic conditions, greenschist-, amphibolite- and granulite-facies that represent low-
grade, medium-grade and high-grade metamorphic conditions, blueschist- and eclogite-facies that represent high- or ultrahigh-
pressure metamorphic conditions, and hornfels facies that are typically developed during contact metamorphism,
characterized by low-pressure (<3 kbar) but a wide temperature range. Some researchers have set up epidote-amphibolite
facies as a transitional facies between the greenschist facies and amphibolite facies (Fig. 1; Turner, 1981).
Metamorphic P-T-t path The complete set of T-P conditions that a rock experiences during a metamorphic event from the
prograde metamorphism due to early burial or subduction, though peak metamorphism, to late uplift and erosion, is called a
pressure-temperature-time path, or P-T-t path (England and Thompson, 1984).
Pelitic rock A clay-rich sedimentary rock, such as shale and mudstone.

Introduction

On the basis of compositions of parental rocks, metamorphic rocks can be divided into the pelitic (Al-rich), quartzo-feldspathic,
carbonate, mafic and ultramafic series, of which pelitic and mafic series rocks are very sensitive to temperature-pressure variations
and thus regarded as ideal metamorphic rocks to be used to classify the intensity of metamorphism and establish metamorphic
grades, metamorphic zones, metamorphic facies and metamorphic facies series. In addition, metapelites and meta-mafic rocks often
have mineral assemblages that are suitable for estimating P-T conditions of metamorphism and in some rocks, preserve disequi-
librium textures (e.g., replacement textures, reaction rims, symplectites, coronas, etc.) that can be used to infer metamorphic
reaction relations and their relative timing, which can then be utilized to identify metamorphic assemblages and stages (Bohlen,
1987, 1991; Harley, 1989, 1992; Sandiford et al., 1991; Zhao et al., 1999). Therefore, an integrated metamorphic study on pelitic
and mafic rocks can assist in the inference of the metamorphic processes and tectonic settings. Here we focus on the metamorphism
of mafic rocks under different metamorphic grades and metamorphic facies, and discuss their implications for tectonic settings
processes.

Encyclopedia of Geology, 2nd edition https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00153-3 1

2 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

Very Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

Before the 1950s, very low grade metamorphosed mafic rocks were usually considered to be “altered” igneous rocks, rather than
metamorphic rocks. In the 1950s, Coombs and his colleagues studied the so-called “altered” volcanic tuffs and immature mafic
greywackes of southern New Zealand, and showed that these rocks could be studied in the same way as other metamorphic rocks
(Coombs et al., 1959). They divided the metamorphosed, immature, mafic greywackes in southern New Zealand into the very low-
grade zeolite facies and prehnite-pumpellyite facies metabasites.
As shown in Fig. 1, zeolite-facies metabasites represent the lowest metamorphic facies, in which albite replaces more calcic
plagioclase, chlorite appears, and laumontite replaces heulandite in the immature mafic greywackes. A typical mineral assemblage
for a zeolite-facies metabasite is laumontite + calcite + quartz + albite + chlorite, as shown in an ACF diagram (Fig. 2A). Because

Fig. 1 Temperature-pressure fields of metamorphic facies. Modified after Turner FJ (1981) Metamorphic Petrology—Mineralogical, Field and Tectonic Aspects,
2nd edn., New York: McGraw-Hill.

Fig. 2 Very low-grade metamorphism of mafic rocks represented by ACF diagrams. (A) Mineral assemblages for zeolite-facies metabasites; (B) mineral
assemblages for prehnite-pumpellyite-facies metabasites.
 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 3

heulandite is also stable under diagenetic conditions, some researchers consider the appearance of laumontite to mark the low-T
limit of metamorphism.
Prehnite-pumpellyite-facies metabasite is marked by the disappearance of laumontite with increasing grade, and prehnite
+ pumpellyite + quartz become stable, generally along with albite, chlorite, phengite, and titanite. Two typical assemblages for a
prehnite-pumpellyite-facies metabasite are (1) prehnite + calcite + chlorite + quartz + albite, and (2) prehnite + pumpellyite + chlo-
rite + quartz + albite (Fig. 2B), which can develop from the following two metamorphic reactions, respectively:

Laumontite + calcite ! prehnite + quartz + CO2 + H2 O (1)

Laumontite + calcite + chlorite ! prehnite + pumpellyite + quartz + CO2 + H2 O (2)
Metamorphic transitions from the zeolite facies to the prehnite-pumpellyite facies occur at a temperature of 250
C and a depth of
3–13 km (Coombs et al., 1959).

Very Low- to Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

The very low- to low-grade metamorphism of mafic rocks leads to the development of greenschists at low-medium pressure
(2–10 kbar) and blueschists at medium-high pressure (8–27 kbar).

Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at Low-Medium Pressure—Greenschist

Low-grade (400–550
C) metamorphosed mafic rocks at low-medium pressures (2–10 kbar) are generally named greenschist
because the rock is green in color because it contains green chlorite, actinolite and/or epidote (Fig. 3A and B). Such metamorphic
conditions (T ¼  400–550
C and P ¼ 2–10 kbar) are referred to as the greenschist facies (Fig. 1). The most representative mineral
assemblage for greenschist is chlorite + actinolite + epidote + albite + quartz (Turner, 1981). If the original rock contains more
calcium, chlorite may be absent but calcite can appear in greenschist with a mineral assemblage calcite + actinolite + epidote
+ albite + quartz. Fig. 3A shows the ACF diagrams of the two greenschist-facies mineral assemblages.
Epidote and actinolite in greenschists can be produced from prehnite, pumpellyite and chlorite in prehnite-pumpellyite
metabasites through the following reactions (Turner, 1981; Yardley, 1989):

Prehnite + chlorite + quartz ! epidote + actinolite + H2 O (3)

Pumpellyite + chlorite ! actinolite + epidote + H2 O + quartz (4)
Chlorite + calcite ! epidote + actinolite + CO2 + H2 O (5)

Very Low- to Low-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at Medium-High Pressure—Blueschist

At very low to low-temperature (250–500
C) and medium-high pressure (>8 kbar), mafic rocks are generally metamorphosed to
form blueschist, which contains the blue Na-rich amphibole—glaucophane. Such low-T (250–500
C) and relatively high-P
(>8 kbar) metamorphic conditions are also named the blueschist facies (Fig. 1). The most representative mineral assemblages
for blueschists are (1) glaucophane + lawsonite + albite + aragonite and (2) glaucophane + lawsonite + jadeite + quartz, and their
ACF diagrams are shown in Fig. 3B.

Fig. 3 Low-grade metamorphism of mafic rocks represented by ACF diagrams. (A) Mineral assemblages for greenschist; (B) mineral assemblages for blueschist.
4 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

Blueschists can develop from very low-grade zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite metabasites through the following metamorphic
reactions:

Laumontite ! lawsonite + quartz + H2 O (6)

Pumpellyite + chlorite + albite ! glaucophane + epidote + H2 O (7)
Albite ! jadeite + quartz ðimmature mafic greywackeÞ (8)
Blueschists can also develop from greenschists facies rocks through the following reactions:

Actinolite + chlorite + albite ! glaucophane + lawsonite + H2 O (9)

Epidote + chlorite + albite ! glaucophane + lawsonite + H2 O (10)
Blueschists are often regarded as a hallmark for plate tectonics as they can only develop in subduction zones (Stern, 2008).
As blueschists are commonly absent in Archean and Paleo-Mesoproterozoic terranes, some researchers argue that the modern-style
plate tectonics had not started until the Neoproterozoic (Stern, 2008).

Medium-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

The medium-grade (550–700
C) metamorphism of mafic rocks leads to the development of amphibolites at low- and medium
pressure (2–10 kbar) and eclogites at high-pressure (10–27 kbar) and ultrahigh-pressure (>27 kbar).

Medium-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at Low- and Medium-Pressure—Amphibolite

When greenschist is further metamorphosed up to P-T conditions of 2–12 kbars and 550–700
C, plagioclase will change from
albite (An < 10) to oligoclase (An 10–30) via reactions involving Ca-rich minerals such as epidote, whereas amphibole will change
from actinolite to hornblende via reactions involving mafic minerals such as chlorite, leading to the formation of amphibolite that
consists mainly of plagioclase and hornblende, with or without quartz, biotite, garnet or clinopyroxene. The metamorphic
conditions (T ¼ 550–700
C and P ¼ 2–12 kbar) under which amphibolite develops are referred to as the amphibolite facies
(Fig. 1; Turner, 1981). At relatively high pressures, garnet can appear in amphibolite, with a mineral assemblage of plagioclase
(oligoclase) + hornblende + garnet  quartz (Fig. 4A), whereas at relatively high temperatures, clinopyroxene can appear in
amphibolite, with a mineral assemblage of plagioclase (oligoclase) + hornblende + clinopyroxene  quartz (Fig. 4A).
A generalized metamorphic reaction for the transition from greenschist to amphibolite is:

Actinolite + chlorite + epidote + quartz ! plagioclase + hornblende  garnet + H2 O (11)

Medium-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at High and Ultrahigh Pressure—Medium-Temperature Eclogite

When mafic rocks experience medium-grade (550–700
C) metamorphism at high-pressure (13–27 kbar) and ultrahigh pressure
(>27 kbar), plagioclase will not be stable but react with hornblende to produce garnet and omphacite (Na-rich clinopyroxene),

Fig. 4 Medium-grade metamorphism of mafic rocks represented by ACF diagrams. (A) Mineral assemblages for amphibolite; (B) mineral assemblages for
medium-T eclogite.
 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 5

leading to the formation of medium-temperature eclogite, which is characterized by (1) the absence of plagioclase; (2) high-
pressure (10–27 kbar) or ultrahigh-pressure (P > 27 kbar); (3) a mineral assemblage of omphacite (Na-rich pyroxene) + garnet
+ quartz (HP)/coesite (UHP)  kyanite  phengite  rutile (Fig. 4B); (4) green-red color in samples and high density; and (5)
forming in subduction or continent-continent collisional settings. Such metamorphic medium-T and high-P/ultrahigh-P conditions
are referred to as the medium-temperature eclogite facies (Fig. 1).
Medium-temperature eclogites can be produced from garnet-bearing amphibolites through the following reaction:

Hornblende + plagiocalse ! omphacite + epidote + quartz=coesite + H2 O (12)

Medium-temperature eclogites can also be produced from blueschists through the following reaction:

Glaucophane + Na − muscovite ! garnet + omphacite + quartz=coesite + H2 O (13)

High-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

The high-grade (>700
C) metamorphism of mafic rocks leads to the development of mafic granulites and high-temperature
eclogites.

High-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at the Pressures of <13 kbar—Mafic Granulites

Mafic granulites are a class of high-grade meta-mafic rocks that have experienced high-temperature (>700
C) metamorphism at
pressures of <13 kbar (Yardley, 1989). They are composed mainly of anhydrous minerals such as plagioclase and pyroxene
(clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene) with or without quartz, garnet and/or hornblende. In most cases, these anhydrous minerals
in mafic granulites are derived from the dehydration reactions of hornblende from amphibolites when temperature rises to 700
C
or above. According to metamorphic pressures, mafic granulites can be further subdivided into (1) low-pressure (<4 kbar), (2)
medium-pressure (4–10 kbar) and (3) high-pressure (10–13 kbar) mafic granulites, whose characteristic mineral assemblages are
(1) plagioclase + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene  quartz, (2) plagioclase + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + garnet  quartz and
(3) plagioclase + clinopyroxene + garnet + quartz, respectively (O’Brien and Rötzler, 2003). The ACF diagrams of these mineral
assemblages are shown in Fig. 5.
The low-, medium- and high-pressure mafic granulites can be produced from amphibolites through the following generalized
metamorphic reactions (14)–(16), respectively:

Hornblende + quartz ! orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + plagioclase + H2 O (14)

Hornblende + quartz ! orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + plagioclase + garnet + H2 O (15)
Orthopyroxene + plagioclase ! garnet + clinopyroxene + quartz (16)

High-Grade Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks at the Pressure of > 13 kbar—High-Temperature Eclogite

Just as amphibolite transforms to medium-temperature eclogite under high-pressure (13–27 kbar) and ultrahigh-pressure
(>27 kbar) conditions, high-pressure mafic granulite can transform to high-temperature eclogite under the same pressure

Fig. 5 Low-grade metamorphism of mafic rocks represented by ACF diagrams. (A) Mineral assemblages for low- and medium-pressure mafic granulite;
(B) mineral assemblages for high-pressure granulite.
6 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

conditions in which plagioclase will not be stable but react with clinopyroxene to produce garnet and omphacite (Na-rich
clinopyroxene) through the following reaction:

Plagioclase + clinopyroxene ! omphacite + quartz (17)

P-T Paths of Meta-Mafic Rocks and Their Tectonic Implications

As discussed above, mafic rocks (basalt, gabbro, mafic dykes and immature mafic greywacke) can be increasingly metamorphosed
to form metabasite assemblages in the zeolite, prehnite-pumpellyite, greenschist, blueschist, amphibolite, granulite and eclogite
facies (Fig. 1). In fact, these metamorphic facies only reflect their peak metamorphic conditions. In nature, however, a metamorphic
rock may retain some mineralogical and textural features inherited from its early metamorphic history during burial/or subduction.
In addition, the metamorphic rock may also undergo further changes before being exhumed at the surface, for instance during
retrogressive metamorphism. Therefore, a metamorphic rock now exposed on the surface may have experienced different P-T
conditions during the whole metamorphic processes from prograde metamorphism due to early burial or subduction, though peak
metamorphism, to late retrogressive metamorphism due to exhumation, uplift and/or erosion. Such a complete set of P-T variations
with time that a metamorphic rock experiences during a metamorphic event is called a pressure-temperature-time path, or P-T-t path
(England and Thompson, 1984; Thompson and England, 1984).
Variations of pressure and temperature that characterize a metamorphic event are considered to be a function of the tectonic
setting and the heat-generating processes. Therefore, the determination of P-T paths is very important for understanding the tectonic
setting and processes that were operative during a metamorphic event. As previously mentioned, medium- and high-grade meta-
mafic rocks such as amphibolite, granulite and eclogite are of particular significance in this regard because they often have mineral
assemblages that are appropriate for determining metamorphic P-T conditions and preserve textural evidence that can be used to
infer metamorphic reaction relations and their relative timing.
Since the 1980s, metamorphic geologists have carried out extensive metamorphic investigations on various amphibolites,
granulites and eclogites and reconstructed P-T paths for the most important metamorphic terrains of the world. These P-T paths
can be generalized into two broad types: “clockwise” and “anticlockwise” P-T paths, as shown in Fig. 6A and B, respectively, of which
the former shows clockwise P-T paths reconstructed for metamorphic complexes in the Trans-North China Orogen, whereas the
latter shows anticlockwise P-T paths for Neoarchean metamorphic complexes in the Eastern Block of the North China Craton (Zhao
et al., 2000, 2001, 2005).
Amphibolites and granulites with clockwise P-T paths, especially those involving isothermal decompression (e.g., Fig. 6A), often
contain plagioclase + hornblende or plagioclase + orthopyroxene symplectites or coronas surrounding embayed garnet that formed
at the peak stages of metamorphism (Fig. 7); the early prograde assemblage occurs as mineral inclusions enclosed in the peak
minerals such as garnet. In contrast, amphibolites and granulites with anticlockwise P-T paths, especially those involving isobaric
cooling (e.g., Fig. 6B), often contain garnet + quartz symplectitic coronas surrounding plagioclase and hornblende (amphibolite) or
plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and garnet (granulite) formed during the peak stage, and the early prograde assemblage
occurs as mineral inclusions enclosed in the peak minerals (Fig. 8).
In general, clockwise P-T paths, especially for those involving isothermal decompression, suggest a metamorphic event that
involved an initial phase of crustal thickening followed by isothermal exhumation/uplift, which is considered to have formed in
subduction zone or collisional tectonic settings (England and Thompson, 1984; Thompson and England, 1984; Harley, 1988, 1989;

Fig. 6 Clockwise” and “anticlockwise” P-T paths, as exampled in (A) and (B), respectively, of which the former shows clockwise P-T paths reconstructed for
metamorphic complexes in the Trans-North China Orogen, whereas the latter shows anticlockwise P-T paths for Neoarchean metamorphic complexes in the Eastern
Block of the North China Craton (Zhao et al., 2001).
 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks 7

Fig. 7 Microphotographs showing reaction textures in amphibolites and granulites with clockwise P-T paths involving isothermal decompression in the Trans-
North China Orogen. (A) Plagioclase + hornblende symplectite surrounding garnet in the Wutai amphibolite; (B) plagioclase + orthopyroxene symplectite surrounding
garnet in the Hengshan granulite; (C) plagioclase + hornblende symplectite surrounding garnet in the Huaian granulite; (D) plagioclase + clinopyroxene corona
surrounding garnet in the Hengshan granulite. Abbreviations: Cpx, clinopyroxene; Hbl, hornblende; Grt, garnet; Opx, orthopyroxene; Pl, plagioclase; Qtz, quartz;
symp, symplectite.

Fig. 8 Microphotographs showing reaction textures in amphibolites and granulites with anticlockwise P-T paths involving isobaric cooling in the Eastern Block of
the North China Craton. (A) Pre-peak minerals enclosed in a garnet grain forming at the peak stage; (B) mineral assemblage of plagioclase + orthopyroxene
+ clinopyroxene + garnet forming at the peak stage in a medium-pressure mafic granulite; (C) garnet + quartz symplectic corona surrounding clinopyroxene and
plagioclase forming at the peak stage; (d) garnet + quartz symplectic corona surrounding a garnet grain that formed at the peak stage. Abbreviations: Cpx,
clinopyroxene; Hbl, hornblende; Grt, garnet; Opx, orthopyroxene; Pl, plagioclase; Qtz, quartz; symp, symplectite.
8 Metamorphism of Mafic Rocks

Brown, 1993; Zhao et al., 2000). In contrast, anticlockwise P-T paths, especially for those involving isobaric cooling, suggest a
metamorphic event that involved an initial phase of crust being heated and thickened due to intrusion and underplating of mantle
magmas, followed by isobaric cooling after the peak metamorphism, which is considered to have occurred in back-arc basins,
hotspots related to mantle plumes, or continental rifting environments (Sandiford and Powell, 1986; Bohlen, 1987; Ellis, 1987;
Bohlen, 1991; Sandiford et al., 1991).

Acknowledgments

This work is financially supported by NSFC Project (41890831), Hong Kong RGC GRF (17307918) and HKU Internal Award for
Chinese Academy of Sciences (102009906).

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Further Reading

Bucher K and Grapes R (2011) Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks, 8th edn. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Bucher K and Frey M (2002) Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks. Berlin: Springer.
Harley SL (2004) Extending our understanding of ultrahigh temperature crustal metamorphism. Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences 99: 140–158.
Liou JG, Tsujimori T, Katayama I, and Maruyama S (2005) UHP metamorphism and continental subduction/collision. In: Thomas H (ed.) Metamorphism and Crustal Evolution,
pp. 285–313. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.
Miyashiro A (1973) Metamorphism and Metamorphic Belts. New York: Wiley-Halstead.
Tilley CE (1925) A preliminary survey of metamorphic zones in the southern Highlands of Scotland. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 81: 100–112.
Winter JD (2013) Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Pearson New International Edition. Harlow UK.