Geology & Soil Mechanics

Assoc. Prof.
Ahmed Elgamal
Ph.D., M.Sc., C.Eng., M. ASCE
Part 1: Engineering Geology
Geology & Soil Mechanics
Lecture #5
2021-2022
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Opening

Rock Cycle

Metamorphic
Rock

Presentation End
Metamorphic rock
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The Rock Cycle

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Metamorphic = Changed from an original “parent.”

• Meta=Change + Morph=Form or shape.
• Parent rocks are called “Protoliths”.
• Metamorphism can occur to any Protoliths.
• Sedimentary rock have no Protoliths because they are made of sediments.
• Igneous rock have no Protoliths because they form from magma.
• The Protoliths may be Sedimentary rock, Igneous rock or another older Metamorphic rock.
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Unlike some igneous and sedimentary processes that occur in surface or near-surface environments, metamorphism
most often occurs deep within Earth, beyond our direct observation.

A. Low-grade metamorphism illustrated by B. High-grade metamorphic environments

the transformation of the common obliterate the existing texture and often
sedimentary rock shale to the more change the mineralogy of the parent rock.
compact metamorphic rock slate. High-grade metamorphism occurs at
temperatures that approach those at which
rocks melt.
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What Changes and Why?

 Protoliths undergo pronounced changes in…Êwó^Ë=m^4…j=Êÿ=qÑÆ

• Texture.
• Mineralogy.
 Due to changes in…

• Temperature.
• Pressure.

Metamorphic Rock Characteristics

 Metamorphic rocks have distinctive properties.

• Unique minerals: some that are only metamorphic.

• Unique foliation: a planar fabric from aligned minerals.
 Transformations can change the rock slightly to completely.
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Metamorphic Processes
 Metamorphic change occurs slowly in the solid state.
 Several processes are at work.

• Recrystallization minerals change size and shape.

• Phase change  new minerals form with
 Same chemical formula.
 Different crystal structure.
 Neo-crystallization – New minerals with changes in temperature and pressure.

• Initial minerals become unstable and change to new minerals.

 Original protolith minerals are digested in reactions.
 Elements restructure to form new minerals.
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Metamorphic Processes
 Pressure solution – Mineral grains partially dissolve.

• Dissolution requires small amounts of water.

• Minerals dissolve where their surfaces press together.
• Ions from the dissolution migrate in the water film.
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Metamorphic Processes
 Plastic deformation – Mineral grains soften and deform.

• Requires elevated temperatures.

• Rock is squeezed or sheared.
• Minerals act like plastic, changing shape without breaking.
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Causes of Metamorphism
 The agents of metamorphism are…

1. Heat (T).
2. Pressure (P).
3. Differential stresses.
4. Reaction with heated water(convections).
 Not all agents are required for metamorphism process; they often do co-occur.
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4

1. Heat (Temperature, T)
 Metamorphism occurs as the result of heat.
 Temperature (T) ranges between 2000 C and 8500 C.

• The upper Temperature limit is melting.

• It varies based upon rock mineral composition and water content.
• Heat energy breaks and reforms atomic bonds.
 Sources of heat.
1. The geothermal gradient.
2. Magmatic intrusions.
3. Compression.
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2. Pressure (P)
 P increases with depth in the crust.

• 250 to 300 bars per km (1bar is almost 1atom = 100 kilo-Pa).

• Metamorphism occurs mostly in 2 to 12 kilo bar range.
 T and P both change with depth.
 Mineral stability is highly dependent upon T and P.
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3. Differential Stress
 Pressure that is greater in one orientation.
 A commonplace result of tectonic forces.
 Two kinds of differential stress: Normal and shear.

i. Normal Stress – Operates perpendicular to a surface.

• Tension – Pull apart.
• Compression – Push together.

ii. Shear Stress – Operates sideways across a surface.

• Causes material to be “smeared out.”œÈÿaª^=_Ÿ’è=Ë=_ÂgÎjàj=‚ƒ=lrà~
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3. Differential Stress
 Deformation acts on minerals with specific shapes.

• Equant – Roughly equal in all dimensions.

• Inequant – Dimensions not the same.
 Platy (pancake-like) – 1 dimension shorter.
 Elongate (cigar-shaped) – 1 dimension longer.
 Differential stress causes these minerals to align.
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3. Differential Stress

(a) regional metamorphism related to mountain building at a continent-continent convergent boundary,

(b) regional metamorphism of oceanic crust in the area on either side of a spreading ridge,
(c) regional metamorphism of oceanic crustal rocks within a subduction zone,
(d) contact metamorphism adjacent to a magma body at a high level in the crust, and
(e) regional metamorphism related to mountain building at a convergent boundary
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3. Differential Stress

Regional metamorphism beneath a mountain range related to

continent-continent collision (typical geothermal gradient)
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3. Differential Stress

Regional metamorphism of oceanic crustal rock on either side of a spreading ridge

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3. Differential Stress

Regional metamorphism of oceanic crust at a subduction zone

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3. Differential Stress

d: Contact metamorphism around a high-level crustal magma chamber

e: Regional metamorphism in a volcanic-arc related mountain range (volcanic-region temperature gradient)
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Metamorphic Rock Types

 Two major subdivisions of metamorphic rocks.

•Foliated: has a through-going planar fabric.

 Subjected to differential stress.
 Has a significant component of platy minerals.
 Classified by composition, grain size, and foliation type.
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•Non-foliated : no planar fabric evident.

 Crystallized without differential stress.
 Comprised of equant minerals only.
 Classified by mineral composition.
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Marble - Coarsely crystalline calcite or dolomite.

•Forms from a limestone protolith.
•Non-foliated metamorphic rock.
•Original textures and fossils in the parent are obliterated.
•Used as a decorative and monument stone.
•Exhibits a variety of colors.

Metamorphism
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Part 2: Soil mechanics
Introduction to Soil Mechanics
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Superstructure

Foundation
Substructure
Soft soil

Hard soil
Ground

Bed rock
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Origin of soil from rock

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Sand grains Ordinary kaolinite under

an electron microscope
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Basic Structure of clay

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Two-phase Two-phase Three-phase

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Fine grain soil Coarse grain soil

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ANY QUESTION ???

what why where when who how

Thanks