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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
(BFC21303)

CHAPTER 3.3
METAMORPHIC ROCKS

NAT/FKAAB/UTHM

Introduction
• Metamorphism - the process of changes in texture and mineralogy of
pre-existing rock due to changes in temperature and/or pressure.

• Metamorphic means ‘change of form’.

• The rocks formed due to the transformation of pre-existing igneous or

sedimentary that has been buried deeply within the crust because of
the movements of lithospheric plates.

• These rocks are subjected to changes in the temperature, pressure

and chemical environments inside the earth's crust and thus become
unstable.

• The minerals undergo recrystallization forming new minerals and

new rocks either physically or chemically and the texture, color,
structure and chemical composition are modified.

• The processes that cause these changes are known as metamorphism

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(meta-change; morphe - form/shape).

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Causes and Changes during Metamorphism

• Metamorphism causes changes in texture

(recrystallization, alignment of platy minerals)
and mineralogy (growth of new minerals that
are more stable).

• The processes of compaction and

recrystallization change the texture of rocks
during metamorphism.

Compaction
• The grains move closer together.

• The rock becomes denser.

• Porosity is reduced.

• Example: clay to shale to slate

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Recrystallization
• Growth of new crystals.

• No changes in overall chemistry.

• New crystals grow from the minerals already present.

• A preferred orientation of minerals commonly develops under

applied pressure.

• Platy or sheet-like minerals such as muscovite and biotite become

oriented perpendicular to the direction of force.

• This preferred orientation is called foliation.

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Metamorphic Textures
• Consist of three:

(1) Foliation
(2) Lineation
(3) Non - foliated or granular

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Foliation
• A broad term referring to the alignment of sheet - like
minerals.

• Slaty cleavage – alignment of very fine - grained micas, as

in a slate derived from the metamorphism of shale.

• Phyllitic structure – alignment of fine - grained micas, as

in a phyllite.

• Schistosity – alignment of large mica flakes, as in a mica

schist derived from the metamorphism of shale.

• Gneissic banding – segregation of light and dark minerals

into distinct layers in the rock, as in a gneiss.
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Foliation the orientation of platy minerals that

gives metamorphic rocks a layered appearance

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Lineation
• Lineation: A fabric element that can be
represented by a line.

• Refers to the alignment of elongated, rod - like

minerals.

• Lineation is a texture commonly seen in the

metamorphic rock amphibolites derived from the
metamorphism of basalt.

• E.g. amphibole, pyroxene, tourmaline, kyanite,

etc.
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The flat foliation surfaces are streaked with light and dark
rock. This structural alignment is described as lineation

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Non - foliated or granular

• Those which are composed of
equidimensional grains.

• There is no preferred orientation.

• The grains form a mosaic.

• E.g. quartz or calcite.

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Non Foliated Metamorphic Rock - Marble

Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the

metamorphism of limestone.

It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. 12

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Mineral changes in Metamorphic Rocks

• The process consist of:

(1) Recrystallization
(2) Formation of new minerals

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Recrystallization
• Rearrangement of crystal structure of
existing minerals.

• Commonly many small crystals merge to

form larger crystals.

• Clay in shale becoming micas in slate,

phyllite, and schist.
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Formation of new minerals

• A number of metamorphic minerals which form
during metamorphism and are found exclusively
(or almost exclusively) in metamorphic rocks.

• Garnet - dark red dodecahedrons (12 sides).

• Staurolite - brown lozenge -shaped minerals,

commonly twinned to form "fairy crosses". State
mineral of Georgia.

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Agents of Metamorphism
• The principal agents of metamorphism
are:

(1) Temperature
(2) Pressure
(3) Chemically Active Solution

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Temperature
• The temperature in the crust at a depth of 15 km is approximately
300°C.

• It is noted also that the temperature increases as the depth increase.

• This temperature is sufficient for recrystallization for some minerals to

begin.

• As the rock temperature rises, minerals begin to change from solid

state to liquid state and amount of pore fluid in rocks increases.

• Heat reduces the ability of rock to withstand deformation and

increase the rate of chemical reactions which facilitate the production
of new minerals, i.e. new atomic arrangement.

• Heat is provided by the nearby intrusions of magma or associated

with compression of the crust.
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Pressure
• The effect of pressure varies at different depths in the crust.

• Rocks at shallow depths are relatively cold and brittle, so they can
be altered, e.g. fracture or crack when subjected to high pressures.

• At greater depths, rocks are much softer because of the high

temperatures.

• Under action of pressure, they tend to deform by plastic flow.

• In the region of plastic deformation, pressure influences the types

of new minerals formed and are more tightly packed atomic
structure and thus has greater density.

• Pressure is derived from deep below the earth surface and also
associated with the collision of tectonic plates.
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Chemically Active Solution

• Rocks that crystallize during the metamorphism does not actually melt but occur
in a solid phase state.

• The minerals are greatly facilitated by movement of small amounts of liquid or

gaseous solutions through the rock which acts as a medium of transport for
ions.

• These solutions which travel through the pores and cracks of the rock add and
remove various ions and molecules as the reactions occur.

• In this way new chemical constituents can be brought in contact with mineral
grains so that they may diffuse through the mineral structures during
recrystallization.

• Water may also react as solvent to form another mineral and it can be derived
from:

(1) Entrapped water in parent sedimentary rocks at time of deposition

(2) Large watery liquid and vapors from magma

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(3) Small amount of water from hydrous mineral

Types of Metamorphism
• Three types of metamorphism are:

(1) Contact metamorphism

(2) Regional metamorphism
(3) Dynamic metamorphism

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Contact metamorphism
• Contact metamorphism occurs when country rocks are
surrounded by igneous intrusion and altered by
intruding magma.

• Physical changes such as recrystallization occur due to

contact metamorphism when original minerals in country
rock are permeated by magmatic fluid.

• For example, limestone intruded by hot magma may be

altered from distance of few inch to several miles from
line of contact between the two rocks.

• Heat is the most significant influence in contact

metamorphism.

• Metamorphic rock formed in a baked-zone of the altered 21

country rock (see Figure Contact Metamorphism).

Contact metamorphism

Igneous
Intrusion

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Regional metamorphism
• The zones of rock alteration are much more extensive (large scale) than
rocks altered under contact metamorphism.

• Regional metamorphism occurs due to the effects of both pressure and

temperature.

• The rock layers undergo structural deformation (folded, crushed or fractured)

due to great pressures exerted on it and therefore results in the obliteration of
any indication of fossils or stratification and realignment of mineral grains.

• Regional metamorphism must occur deep within the crust, at least at depths
of 10 km or more and is known to be responsible for the forming of mountain
ranges.

• Specific group of minerals present in rock can be used to infer a certain

metamorphic grade. Rocks subjected to high temperatures and pressures are
of high grade.

• Under various metamorphic grades, different minerals can be produced

from the same original rock.

• For example, kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite have the same chemical 23
composition but different internal structures.

Dynamic metamorphism
• Dynamic metamorphism is produced by variable strain, variable pressure,
variable temperature and high fluid pressure and normally occurs in active fault
zones.

• Dynamic metamorphism is metamorphism of rock masses caused primarily by

stresses that yield relatively high strain (deformation) rates. More simply, it is
metamorphism resulting from deformation.

• Temperatures during dynamic metamorphism are typically elevated and may be

caused by the deformation process.

• Fluids commonly contribute to the metamorphic process, both by altering chemistry

and by aiding recrystallization.

• Dynamic metamorphism occurs in fault zones when country rock is ground up and
partially recrystallized.

• Rocks formed by dynamic metamorphism display a sugary texture, moderate

foliated texture, and small round rock fragments within the foliation.

• Rocks types of Dynamic Metamorphism such as breccias and mylonite.

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Types of Metamorphism

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Characteristics/Grades of Metamorphic Rocks

• Under metamorphism, rocks may undergo changes in

their mineral composition leading to formation of new
minerals and changes in textures.

• Texture of metamorphic rocks is subdivided into:

(1) Foliated Metamorphic Rock

(2) Non Foliated Metamorphic Rock

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Foliated Metamorphic Rock

• During mountain building, rocks are deformed and
exposed to both increased pressures and increased
temperatures.

• At such high temperatures and pressures, rocks can

actually flow plastically producing a parallel
alignment of mineral grains.

• Mineral alignment may also be formed under these

extreme conditions, by the growth of crystals with an
orientation perpendicular to the direction of greatest
pressure.

• The parallel alignment of minerals in a metamorphic

rock is called foliation . 27

Orientation of platy mineral grains with respect to

direction to highest pressure during metamorphism

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Mechanical rotations of platy or

elongated mineral grains

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Cont’d

• Metamorphic foliations (texture) may be:

(1) Slaty
(2) Phyllitic
(3) Schistose
(4) Gneissic

• It is important to remember that foliation is

completely gradational.

• No sharp boundaries exist between the

different types.
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Slaty
• Slaty foliation is a foliation in which microscopic platy
minerals have a parallel alignment (Figure 3.57).

• This parallel alignment causes the rock to tend to break along

parallel planes forming sheet-like pieces and called rock
cleavage.

• Slaty metamorphic rocks are also finely crystalline (Fine

texture, rocks characteristically split into thin slabs) and tend to
appear dull.

• Rocks with a salty foliation are formed at low pressures and

temperatures

• Considered as low grade metamorphic rocks.

• Slate can be converted to phyllite which is coarser grained than

shale if the metamorphism grade is increased.
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Slate

Rock Name: Slate (Metamorphic Rock), Foliated Metamorphic Rock,

Texture: Slaty Foliation
Protolith: Shale/Mudstone
Description: Heterogeneous Protolith Causes Foliation (Banding), Low-grade
Metamorphism, "Slaty Cleavage", Commonly Dark Brown/Gray/Black
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Phyllitic
• Phyllitic foliation is similar to slaty foliation
except that the crystals are slightly larger
while still fine.

• Rocks with a phyllitic foliation tend to be shiny,

sometimes wrinkled or folded rock cleavage.

• These rocks are formed under slightly higher

pressures and temperatures than slaty
metamorphic rocks

• Considered as low to medium grade.

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Phyllite

Rock name: Phyllite is a foliate metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-
grained mica.

Rock Texture: Phyllitic Texture. The surface of phyllite is typically lustrous and sometimes
wrinkled

Rock Description: It is intermediate in grade between slate and schist.

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Schistose
• Schistose foliation is a foliated texture in which the rock is
dominated by visible platy minerals such as micas which are in a
parallel to sub-parallel orientation (Figure 3.58).

• Schistose metamorphic rocks often have a poor rock cleavage.

• The mineral grains are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye
(medium to coarse grained and coarsely banded metamorphic rock).

• The foliation consists of alternate bands of light and dark colored

minerals. Light colored minerals are mainly composed of quartz and
feldspar whereas the dark layers contain biotite, hornblende, augite
and other minerals.

• Rocks having a schistose foliation form under conditions of high

pressures and medium temperatures (from silicic igneous rocks
as well as various types of sedimentary rocks).
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• Considered as medium grade metamorphic rocks.

An Outcrop of Schist

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Schist

Rock Name: Quartz-mica Schist (Metamorphic Rock), Foliated Metamorphic Rock

Texture: Schistose Foliation

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Gneissic
• Gneissic foliation is a coarsely foliated
texture in which there are alternating layers
which are dominated by different minerals.

• Rocks with a gneissic foliation are produced

by exposure to high pressures and
temperatures

• Considered as high grade metamorphic

rocks.
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Gneiss

Rock Name: Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock that has a banded appearance
and is made up of granular mineral grains.

Rock Texture: Gneissic Foliation

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Composition: It typically contains abundant quartz or feldspar minerals.

Types of Foliation

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Non Foliated Metamorphic Rock

• Non - foliated metamorphic rocks have no preferred orientation
of mineral grains.

• The grains are also usually of equal size within any particular rock
sample.

• This texture is common in contact metamorphic rocks but may

also be seen in some regionally metamorphosed rocks (i.e.
marble and quartzite).

• These rocks are usually massive and granular in texture.

• Non-foliated metamorphic rocks may be of high, medium, or low

grade.

• The most common non - foliated metamorphic rocks are quartzite 41

and marble.

Marble

Rock Name: Marble

Rock Texture: Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rock

Protolith: Limestone

Description: No Foliation due to the homogeneous/uniform nature of the Protolith, Light in color, May have
crystals texture, Commonly White, Will Fizz in Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) because it is composed of CaCo
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Quartzite

Rock Name: Quartzite.

Rock Texture: Non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced by the

metamorphism of sandstone
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Rock Composition: It is composed primarily of quartz.

Amphibolite

Rock Name: Amphibolite

Rock Texture: Non-foliated metamorphic rock that forms through recrystallization under conditions of high
viscosity and directed pressure.

Rock Composition: It is composed primarily of amphibole and plagioclase, usually with very little quartz.

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Hornfels

Rock Name: Hornfels

Rock Texture: is a fine-grained non - foliated metamorphic rock with no specific composition.

Description: It is produced by contact metamorphism. Hornfels is a rock that was "baked" while near a
heat source such as a magma chamber, sill or dike.

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Some common igneous and sedimentary rocks and their metamorphic equivalent

Original rock Metamorphic rock

Sedimentary:
Sandstone Quartzite
Shale Slate, phyllite, schist
Limestone Marble
Igneous:
Granitic textured igneous rock Gneiss
Compact textured igneous rock Schist

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A simplified flowchart showing the origin of some of the common metamorphic rock

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Classification of common Metamorphic Rocks

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Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

• The classification of many metamorphic rocks is based on metamorphic texture which
depends on crystal size and, if present, foliation.

• Foliated metamorphic rocks are named according to their type of foliation and any
visible minerals which may be present.

• A rock with a schistose foliation and containing significant proportions of garnets and
micas might be called garnet-mica schist.

• A rock with a gneissic foliation and containing the same minerals as granite may be
called a granitic gneiss.

• Some low-grade metamorphic rocks are named by adding the prefix "meta" to the flame
of their protolith. For example, a meta-conglomerate is the low grade metamorphic
equivalent of a conglomerate.

• Other metamorphic rocks are named on the basis of mineral composition. Marble is a
metamorphic rock composed almost entirely of calcite or dolomite.

• A quartzite is formed by the recrystallization of sandstone under metamorphic

pressures and temperatures and consists mainly of quartz.

• Quartzite can be distinguished from quartz sandstone by the fact that quartzite breaks 50
through grains while quartz sandstone breaks between grains.

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Engineering in Metamorphic Rock Terrains

• The engineering characteristics of

metamorphic rocks can be generalized
into two basic types:

1.Unaltered and unfractured non foliated

metamorphic rocks

2.Foliated metamorphic rocks

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Unaltered and unfractured non

foliated metamorphic rocks
• Considered strong materials and
posses similar engineering properties to
intrusive igneous rocks.

• Few limitations for foundations, tunnels

and dams and remain stable for vertical
excavation slopes.

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Foliated metamorphic rocks

• More similar to sedimentary rocks because of
their tendency to fail along specific planes.

• Foliation planes in this instance are similar to

bedding planes.

• The orientation of foliation planes with respect

to a natural slope or excavation therefore
becomes critical to the stability of the material.

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Effect of Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

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• In a way similar to the igneous and sedimentary

rocks, the ultimate behavior of a metamorphic
rock mass depends upon the degree and
orientation of fractures and the weathering
characteristics.

• These properties must be ascertained prior to

construction of each individual engineering
project.

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ROCK CYCLE

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