The Earth: A Dynamic Plant

• Continental Crust – Felsic in composition – 30–50 km thick

• Oceanic crust – Basaltic in composition – 8km thick
• Boundaries between oceanic and continental crust are at the continental shelf
• Boundary between crust and mantle is known as the Moho
• Atmosphere is stratified and thins upwards:
o Trophosphere – Lowest 15km – Contains almost all H2O and mass of atmosphere
o Stratosphere – 15km to 50 km
o Mesosphere – 50km to 80 km
o Thermosphere – 80km to 700km
• Geosphere based upon chemical properties:
o Crust – Varying Proportions of Na, K, Ca, Fe, MG silicates
o Mantle – Comprised of Fe – Mg silicates
o Core – Comprised of Fe and lesser Ni
• Geosphere based upon physical properties:
o Lithosphere – 100km in thickness – strong and solid – consists of tectonic plates
o Asthenosphere – 200km in thickness – plastic and flows
o Mesosphere – Comprises majority of mantle – More rigid than Asthenosphere
o Outer Core – Liquid
o Inner Core – Solid

Introduction to Mineralogy
• Polymorphs have same chemical composition but different structure
• Crystal formation occurs when dissolved ionic species precipitate from a solution
• Crystals of the same mineral have the same angle between corresponding crystal faces
• Chemical classes are defined on the anion present
• Nature of bonds has a major impact on physical properties of a mineral
•

Mineral Properties
• Crystal form – The potential shape a mineral may attain under ideal conditions
• Habit ‐ Overall shape of a crystal, crystal fragment or aggregate of crystals
• Cleavage – Regular form of breakage along preferential planes of weakness – May not be
parallel to crystal face
• Hardness – Moh’s hardness scale from 1 to 10
• Density
• Streak
• Lustre – How light is reflected from a fresh surface
Non­Silicates
• Crystal from is characteristic for a particular mineral and is related to the coordination of
elements in complexes making up the mineral
• Anions are usually bigger than cations so anions coordinate around a central cation
• Carbonates consist of a discrete complex involving a carbon atom surrounded by three
oxygen atoms in triangular coordination
• Oxides often form via weathering near the surface of the earth
• Sulfides are sulfur atoms surrounded by metal cations

Silicates
• Coordination number is the number of oxygen ions arranged around the central cation

Isolated tetrahedra Olivine

Rings of tetrahedra Beryl

Single chain
Pyroxene
Bonded by cations

Double chain Amphibole

Bonded by cations + oxygen (Likely Hornblende)

Sheet (Phyllosilicates) 2 Layer – Kaolinite

Each tetrahedron linked to
3 Layer – Montmorillonite
three others by shared
oxygens
4 Layer ‐ Chlorite

Framework
Each tetrahedron shares all its Felspar
oxygens – Strong bonds in all Quartz
directions – van der Waals

• Montmorillonite and smectite have a tendency to absorb water and swell, causing damage
• Plagioclase demonstrates striations due to twinning – a crystal defect due to a change in the
orientation of growth direction
• K‐feldspar demonstrates Perthite structure – an intergrowth of Na feldspar within K feldspar
due to physical segregation during fractional crystallisation, as earlier former higher
temperature feldspars start to become unstable as the magma continues to cool.
• Perthite structure is evidence for intergrowth of Na and K feldspar phases and slow cooling
Introduction to Plate Tectonics
• Apparent Polar Wandering
o Provides evidence that the continents have moved relative to on another
o Magnetic poles of the earth have apparently moved significantly through geologic
time
o Used to determine relative plate movements through geologic time
• Divergent Margins – Caused by mantle plumes inside the earth – Weakens the crust causing
it to break apart
• Convergent Margins
o Subduction occurs when oceanic plate rides beneath a continental plate
o Collision of continental plates produce fold mountains
• Internal heat of earth drives plate tectonics
• Linked closely to plate tectonics:
o Results in rock cycle of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
o Fold mountains

Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rocks form when molten material or magma cools and crystallizes
• Plutonic (Intrusive)
o Crystallize slowly within the crust
o Coarse grained (phaneritic)
• Volcanic (Extrusive)
o Crystallize rapidly at surface of the earth
o Fine grained (microcrystalline, aphaitic) and amorphous texture
• Felsic
o Higher concentration of SiO2
o Lighter in color
o K‐ Feldspars, Biotite, Hornblende, Quartz
• Mafic
o Lower concentration of SiO2
o Darker in color
o Plagioclase, Pyroxene, Olivine

• Two stages of cooling produce a microcrystalline groundmass and crystalline phenocrysts

• Pyroclastic textures result from combination of explosive fragmentation and rapid cooling
• Magma must originates from partial melting of the upper mantle and lower crust
• Shield volcanoes are very high but have low slopes
• Basaltic magma
o Generated by partial melting of diverging plates – dominates igneous activity of
ocean basins
o Relatively low SiO2 levels
o Low Viscosity and gentle eruptive behaviour
• Silicic magma
o Generated in the Subduction zones
o Relatively high SiO2 levels
 o High viscosity and explosive eruptive behaviour
• Partial melting of upper mantle and lower crust responsible for the spectrum of igneous rock
compositions
• Fractional crystallization is where individual minerals that crystallize from magma are
different in composition to the bulk composition of the liquid magma.
• The sequence of minerals crystallizing from magma as temperature decreases is known as
Bowen’s reaction series:

Stability of Common Minerals under Weathering Conditions at the Earth’s Surface = Reverse of
Bowen’s Reaction Series:

1. Fe oxides 7. Biotite
2. Al oxides 8. Na‐Feldspar
3. Quartz 9. Amphibole
4. Clay minerals 10. Pyroxene
5. Muscovite 11. Ca‐feldspar
6. K‐Feldspar 12. Olivine

Sedimentary Processes and Rocks

• Lithification – Process of transforming unconsolidated sediment to consolidated
sedimentary rock
• Diagenesis – Collective term for changes occurring in the minerals in a sedimentary rock or
sediment in response to increasing pressures and temperatures and the effects of fluids due
to burial.
• Dissolution leads to karst topography
• Hydrolysis – When a mineral reacts with water to form a new mineral containing H+ or OH‐
• Local climate important for determining what type of clay will be produced during hydrolysis
• Sedimentary rocks are classified on texture(grainsize and shape) and mineral composition
• Considered to be mature if:
o Well‐sorted (essentially equidimensional)
o Relatively fine‐grained ‐ Spent a long time in transport medium
o Composed of rounded grain minerals that are relatively resistant to chemical
weathering
• Chemical sediments are grouped by chemical composition

Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks form in the subsurface from pre‐existing igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks
• Environmental factors include depth, temperature, stress state and fluid composition
• Lithostatic stress (ߪଵ ൌ ߪଶ ൌ ߪଷ ) – Influences mineral stability
• Deviatoric stress (ߪଵ ൐ ߪଶ ൐ ߪଷ ) – Influences texture
• Regional metamorphism
o Takes place over large scales
o Often has well developed foliation – Forces applied in one principal direction
 o Driven by heat, deformation and pressure
o Can have slaty cleavage, schistosity and gneissic banding
• Contact metamorphism
o Smaller, local scale version of regional metamorphism
o Localised and driven by heat sources
o No foliation
• Lineations are the parallel arrangement of rod‐like minerals on foliation surface
• Foliation – A planar structure produced during regional metamorphism

Foliated Non‐Foliated
Large Grain Size Quartzite
Gneiss Marble
Granulite
Schist
Small Grain Size Phyllite
Slate Hornfels
• Failure is most likely to occur where foliation planes or other discontinuities in a rock mass
are more or less parallel to the excavation surface.
• Arranged in order of increasing metamorphic grade: Phyllite, schist, gneiss

Geology and Time

• Principle of
o Uniformitarianism
o Original Horizontality
o Superposition
o Cross‐Cutting Relationships
o Inclusion
o Faunal Succession
• Nonconformity – A younger sedimentary or volcanic strata rests on top of and older plutonic
or metamorphic rock
• Angular unconformity – Boundary between a sedimentary or volcanic rock layer that has
been deformed and eroded and a later, horizontal rock deposit that overlies it
 • Disconformity – An unconformity surface between two parallel layers of rock, which is
indicated by fossil evidence or evidence of significant erosion.

• Age Dating
o 238U > 206 PB = 4.5 billion years half life
o 40K >40Ar = 1.3 billion years half life
o 14C > 14N = 5730 years half life

Introduction to Structural Geology

• Three major types of applies stress: compressive, tensile and shear
• When applied stress > elastic limit of a rock, the rock will either fracture suddenly or flow
• Competent behaviour: require high stresses to initiate elastic deformation and fracture
bitterly
• Incompetent behaviour: tendency to deform by ductile flow
• Plutonic igneous rocks which exhibit coarsely crystalline (phaneritic) textures are stronger
than microcrystalline (aphanitic) extrusive igneous rocks
• Ductile flow of rock layers results in folding under compressive stress and thinning under
extension
• The competence of a rock refers to its tendency to resist ductile deformation
• Competency is dependent on strain rate
• Competency contrast may localize ore formation
• Rocks are stronger in compression than extension
• Horsts and grabens are typical of extension forces

Ductile Deformation and Folds

• The effects of deformation depend on:
o Strain rate
o Pressure
o Temperature
o Nature of the deforming material
• Syncline: Closed downwards
 • Anticline: Closed upwards
• Monocline: Step like

Brittle Deformation and Faulting

• Several stages of movement along a fault plane throughout geologic time
• Dip‐slip Faults – The throw of the fault is parallel to the dip of the fault plane
o Normal faults – Extensional Stress – Downward movement of the hanging wall
relative to the footwall
o Reverse faults – Compression Stress – Upward movement of the hanging wall
relative to the footwall
• Strike‐slip Faults – The throw of the fault is parallel to the strike of the fault plane
o Displacement is horizontal – No net extension or compression
o Right Lateral / Left Lateral
o Transform faults or vertical slip strike faults
• Thrust Faults
o Low angle normal faults that involve large displacements
o Crustal thickening – produces Himalayas etc.

Fractures and Joints

• Granite Joining
o Sheeting joints are planar, parallel and very closely spaced
o Exfoliation are curved, concentric and uniformly spaced jointing approximately
parallel to topography
• Orthogonal Joints for due to relaxing confining stresses within bedded sedimentary rocks
• Rapid cooling of molten lava causes it to contract, setting up stresses within the crystal rock.
Basaltic lava flows can form cooling or columnar joins with a hexagonal cross‐section
• Joints influence topography and drainage patters
• Joint surfaces may show striations called slickensides, but not usually
• Joints do not separate different rock types
• Joints influence the location and extent of both physical and chemical weathering
• Spheroidal weathering happens when the corners of the rock cubes are preferentially
weathered

Weathering and Erosion

• Weathering:
o Affects most minerals which formed at high temperature in igneous environment
o Increases the moisture content and porosity of rocks
o Produces both soluble and insoluble substances
o Decreases the density and strength of rocks
o Other minerals side from non‐silicate minerals are formed
• Mass Movement can be caused by:
o Gravity
o Saturation with water
o Ground vibrations (eg. earthquakes)
 o Over‐steepening of slopes/ Excavation
o Freeze‐Thaw Process
o Deforestation
• Erosion by water:
o Can be caused by land clearing
o Proceed from raindrop effect to sheet erosion to rill or gully erosion
o Swelling clays can lead to erosion beneath the surface called piping

Soil Profiles and Their Classification

• O Horizon – Surface accumulation of mainly organic matter
• A Horizon – Mixture of mineral and organic matter. Soluble minerals absent
• E Horizon – Zone of leaching with less organic matter, clays and oxides
• B Horizon – Zone of accumulation of material with little or no parent rock features present
• C Horizon – Transition zone to parent rock with material in various stages of weathering
• R Horizon – Parent rock