• A resource is a naturally occurring substance

which is currently, or potentially, economically

extractable

•An ore is an economically recoverable

mineral deposit.

•A reserve is the total amount of known ore.

 What is an ore?

An ore is an aggregate of minerals from

which one or more minerals can be
extracted profitably.
An ore is a geochemical anomaly.
Geologic processes have concentrated
certain metals in the earth’s crust, such as
silicon and alumina, while others are
concentrated in the mantle and core.
Processes within and on earth’s crust, many
of which are fluid related, can be powerful
agents for concentrating metals in mineral
deposits. It is such deposits that are
profitably mined, giving them the
distinction of being called an ore.
• For a deposit to be profitable, mineral ore must be concentrated
relative to the average compositions of common crustal rocks

• For example, Fe ore must be concentrated by about a factor of six over

the average crust composition

• In contrast, Au must be concentrated by about a factor of 10,000

The rock cycle, great concentrator of the elements
Some unusual process must:

1) remove specific elements, compounds or

minerals from ordinary rock,

2) transport these elements, compounds, or

minerals

3) concentrate the elements, compounds, or

minerals preferentially at one spot or zone
where the transport stops.
 Formation of ore

removal
concentrate
 the primary mechanisms for
concentrating minerals into ores
involves either:

sorting by density

sorting by solubility.
 Weathering and erosion as a
mechanism of separating and
concentrating chemical constituents
Mechanical weathering and erosion
can concentrate minerals
 Placer deposits.

placers: deposits of heavy mineral

particles in stream bed.
Steps for making a placer

1. weathering removes mineral particles

from country rock.

2. kinetic energy of high velocity stream

transports mineral particles.

3. where kinetic energy drops suddenly,

high density particles stop, lower density
particles continue
Chemical weathering and erosion
can concentrate minerals
 Bauxite – aluminum ore
Progressive dissolution of silica from clays
in wet soils will eventually turn the

kaolinite clay Al2Si2O5(OH)4

Into

gibbsite Al(OH)3.

these soils become bauxite, a major ore of aluminum.

Settling of crystals in a magma
chamber
can concentrate minerals
Liquid Immiscibility

Oil and water

don’t mix …
As magmas cool, they can split into two liquids
of different composition and density.

– One of these liquids is the silica-rich melt. It has

the most volume

– The other, typically much smaller in volume, can

be rich in metal oxides, sulfides or carbonates.
 High T Low T

Desirable element preferentially concentrated into

low-volume melt
Types of Immiscible Melts

Oxide melts can be rich in Fe (Fe2O3, hematite) and Ti

(FeTiO3, ilmanite).

Sulfide melts can be rich in Ni, Cu, and the platinum-

group elements, in addition to iron sulfur (FeS,
pyrrhotite).

Carbonate melts can be rich in niobium, tantalum, rare

earths, copper, thorium, and phosphorous.
Dissolution by water can
concentrate chemicals
 Aqueous fluids in magma
As magma cools, the volatiles (mostly water and
carbon dioxide) that they contain can form super-
critical fluids.

supercritical fluids are on the verge of making the

phase transition from liquid to gas.

because of their extremely high temperature, many

elements are soluble.

These fluids can concentrate copper, molybdenum,

gold, tin, tungsten and lead.
 Chemical Processes Separate Elements

• Elements can be soluble in aqueous fluids or magma, or in crystalline solids

• Solubility controlled by composition, temperature, pressure, pH, oxidation state

• Crystalchemistry also determines solubility in solids

Charge on ion – crystals must be electrically neutral
Size of ion – must fit into crystal structure
Ions with the same size and charge can substitute for each other
e.g. Fe+2 or Cd+2 in sphalerite, ZnS, but Mg+2, Fe+3 or Pb+2 can’t fit

• Elements that readily form their own crystals can be easily concentrated by nature and
mined by man e.g. Sphalerite ZnS or Galena PbS

• Elements that rarely form their own crystals are hard to concentrate and expensive to
obtain, e.g. Cd, Ga, In
 Four Types of Ore Deposits
Magmatic Ores:

• directly related to igneous magmas

crystal differentiates (e.g. chromite)
pegmatites (silica-rich, fluid-rich magmas – Feldspar)
komatiite lavas are associated with segregations of Ni and Cu sulfides
kimberlite magmas contain diamonds.

Hydrothermal Ores:
• Magmatic heat drives the transport and convection of fluids in the crust
• fluids dissolve and carry elements of economic importance
• minerals precipitate as vein deposits (e.g. fracture fillings)
• large rock bodies with numerous fracture fillings are "disseminated" or porphyry deposits
Metamorphic Ores:
• deposits form in the contact metamorphic zone adjacent to igneous intrusions
• deposits are called skarns and include some important Fe, Cu, and W ores

Sedimentary Ores:
• pure quartz sand is mined for SiO2 - glass industry
• Precambrian banded iron formations are the major source of iron ore
• heavy metals and minerals are concentrated in placer deposits
• limestone is mined for CaCO3 and cement
• marine evaporites are mined for NaCl (road salt) and CaSO4 (for gypsum board =
"dry wall")
• terrestrial evaporites are mined for borates, nitrates, phosphates, etc.
Sedimentary Placer Deposits

A placer deposit is a deposit of sand or gravel containing valuable minerals,

especially by the side of a river, or in the bed of a mountain stream. Placers may
also be deposited by the action of waves.

Resistant minerals may accumulate near outcrops as residual concentrations; may

be washed into streams and accumulate in sand bars or riffles--irregularities in
stream channels; or they may reach bodies of water where they are reworked by
wave action and deposited as beach sands.

Notably, placer environments typically contain black sand, a conspicuous shiny

black mixture of iron oxides, mostly magnetite with variable ilmenitee and
hematite components. Accessory minerals often occurring with black sands are
rutile (Ti), chromite (Cr), wolframite (W), and cassiterite (Sn).

Exceptionally dense substances like gold and platinum group metals will
accumulate in placers
Deposition of placer deposit
Plate Tectonics Runs the Show
Plate Tectonic Driving Mechanisms
 Plate Margins are Where Most of the Action Is

Divergent margin
Convergent margin Convergent margin
Fluids are especially important for concentrating mineral deposits

Figure from Earl Davis, Geological Survey of Canada (printed in IODP Initial Science Plan).
Plate tectonic influence on the global distribution of ore deposits
Convergent Margins:

• host more than 80% of ore deposits.

• Porphyry and hydrothermal deposits associated with magmatic arcs

are primary sources of copper, gold, silver, tin lead mercury and
molybdenum.

• Contact metamorphic deposits (skarns) associated with granitic

plutons at thickened continental margins are sources of tin, tungsten
bismuth and copper

• Serpentinites (altered mantle rocks) obducted at convergent

margins are a primary source of chromium
 Plate tectonic influence on the global distribution of ore deposits

Mid-ocean ridges and back-arc spreading centres:

Massive sulphide deposits are found associated with volcanic marine

environments. They are sometimes referred to as volcanogenic deposits and are
major sources of copper, lead and zinc. They have been classified based on
tectonic setting and associated volcanics:

Cyprus type – associated with mid-ocean ridges and back arc spreading centres
Besshi type – associated with the early stages of island arc formation
Kuroko type – associated with the later stages of island formation.
 Plate tectonic influence on the global distribution of ore deposits

Passive continental margins

• Carbonate platforms can host base metals (copper, lead and zinc)
• epigenetic (formed after the surrounding rocks) or syngenetic deposits (formrd at the same
time as surrounding rocks).
• Large manganese deposits can form in shallow water on shelves. This deposit is composed
of a sheet-like body averaging 3 m in thickness (stratiform).
• Passive continental margins that have experienced marine transgressions are important
locations for the development of phosphorite deposits.
Note: Precambrian banded iron formations (BIF’s) are thought to have formed on the
continental shelf. They are composed of alternating layers of iron-rich material (commonly
magnetite) and silica (chert).