LECTURE SERIES I

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
 Metals and Metallic Ores

• A “Metal” can be defined as a solid material which is typically hard,

shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal
conductivity (e.g. iron, gold, silver, and aluminium, and alloys such as
steel).
• A good number of metals are very reactive and tend to form positively
charged ions (i.e. cations) by loosing electrons and combining with
negatively charged species to form ionic compounds.
• Less reactive metals form non-ionic compounds by covalent bonding.
• A few metals occur in nature in native or uncombined (i.e. metallic) state
(e.g. gold, silver, PGM)
• In rocks most metals occur as mineral compounds and only few occur in
native.
• Metal compounds from which metals are extracted commercially
constitute what we call metallic ores.
 Abundant and Scarce Metals
Metals are divided into two main groups based on their average abundance
in the earth crust:
• Abundant (Major) Metals: average abundance in the crust is >0.1% by
weight, (e.g. Fe, Al, Mg, Ca, Na, K, Ti, Mn);

• Scare (Minor) Metals: average abundance is <0.1% by weight, (e.g. Au,

Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Ni, etc.) (see Table below).

• Abundant metals are principle constituents of rock-forming minerals

including silicates, carbonates and oxides,
whereas
• Scarce metals only form own minerals in ore deposits, where their
concentration is high enough to form stable minerals.

• In ordinary rocks, scarce metals do not form their own minerals because
of very low concentration; instead they are incorporated in crystal
lattices/structure of rock-forming minerals through atomic substitution.
 Scarce metals forming metallic ores
• I. Scarce metals forming sulfide deposits or sulfide ores: These
include – Pb, Zn, Cu, Mo, Ni, Ag, As, Sb, Bi, Cd, Co etc.

• II. Scarce metals occurring in native state: These include precious

metals and platinum group elements such as Au, Ag, Pt, Pd, Rd Ir,
Rh, Os.

• III. Scarce metals forming oxides and silicate minerals: These

include metals like Cr, W, Ta, V, Nb, U, Th, Sn etc.
 Ores and Ore Minerals
• In restricted usage, ores are considered as naturally occurring
mineral aggregates from which metals can be extracted
commercially or at a profit.

• In general usage, especially in mining industry, the term ore refers

to naturally occurring solid earthy materials or aggregates which can
be mined and sold commercially.

• Metallic ores commonly represent aggregates comprising ore

minerals and gangue.

• Ore minerals are minerals from which metals are commercially

extracted.
 Ore Minerals …
• Examples of ore minerals include:
– magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), sphalerite (ZnS),
galena (PbS), and chromite (FeCr2O4) , cassiterite (SnO2) etc.

• Others include pentlandite, cobaltite, uraninite,

Gangue Minerals
• Gangue or gangue minerals are materials of no commercial value that are
commonly associated with ore minerals, generally considered as waste
during mining.

• Examples of gangue minerals include silicate minerals (e.g. pyroxene,

olivine, mica, feldspars etc.), calcite, fluorite, quartz, etc.

• Separation of ore minerals from gangue materials to produce mineral

concentrates for metallurgical processing is called mineral processing or
beneficiation.
 Metallic/Ore Deposit and Orebody

• Metallic Deposit: Natural concentration or accumulation of valuable

metals in some crustal rocks, above their normal or average
occurrence in ordinary rocks.

 Metallic/ore deposits essentially represent geological or

geochemical anomalies in the earth crust.

• Orebody
Represent a portion or the entire ore deposit that has been
investigated almost in three dimensions, through exploration by
geological mapping, drilling, and ore sampling and evaluation, and
found to be commercially viable for mining.

 Normally the ore reserves and grade of a given orebody are

fairly established and known.
 Ore Deposit and Orebody….
• An ore deposit may consist of a single orebody or several orebodies
that are closely related and exhibit similar characteristics, but may
be physically separated by geological or structural discontinuities,
e.g. faults, shear zones etc.

Classification of Ore Deposits

• The purpose of the classification is to group deposits with similar
characteristics into classes or sets for learning more about the
deposits being classified and discerning their important or distinctive
characteristics.
 The characteristics for each group of deposits can then be used
for various applications, for example, in the exploration of new
deposits, mining and metallurgical processing etc.

• Different principles or criteria may be used in the classification of ore

deposits for different purposes as illustrated by examples given in
the next slides:
A) Classification based on shape/morphology/structure of orebody

This is useful for mining practice, and include sub-categories:

• Sheet-like deposits: veins or tabular orebodies
• Stocks: massive large three-dimensional orebodies
• Impregnations: disseminated ores

B) Classification based on the useful Metal or Commodity based

Classification
This scheme is useful for the metallurgist, ore-dresser and economist, and
include the following categories/groups:
• Iron and ferro-alloy metals (Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni, Co, Mo, W, V, Ti)
• Precious metals (Au, Ag, Pt, PGM)
• Light metals (Al, Mg, Be)
• Special metals (Hg, Sb, As, Bi, U, REE etc.)
• Non-ferrous metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Sn)
• Strategic metals (e.g. Li, REE, Co)
• Nuclear metals (e.g. U, Th)
C) Classification based on Genesis (i.e. genetic
classification) or Processes of Ore Formation and
Environment of Deposition

This scheme is useful for mineral exploration; deposits are classified

as:
• Magmatic deposits
• Sedimentary deposits
• Metamorphic deposits
• Hydrothermal deposits (magmatic or metamorphic origin) etc
Examples of early classification schemes based
on processes of ore formation
• Niggli’s Classification (1929)
 Plutonic deposits were classified as:
• Orthomagmatic deposits (high temperature ores formed by direct
precipitation from magmas)
• Pegmatitic to pneumatolytic deposits (ores deposited from aqueous-
rich residual silicate melts and gaseous fluids at intermediate depth
and temperature)
• Hydrothermal deposits (ores deposited from volatile-rich aqueous
fluids produced by extreme differentiation of magmas)
 Lindgren’s Classification (1933)
Lindgren (1933) classified epigenetic-hydrothermal deposits according to their
depth and temperatures of formation as follows:

A. Hypothermal deposits:
• Deep-seated environments, high temperature deposits
• Depth: 3000-15000 m, Temp. 300-600oC
• Occurrence: In or near deep-seated acid plutonic rocks in deeply eroded areas.
Usually found in Precambrian terranes, rarely in young rocks. Often found in reverse
faults.
• Ores: Au, Sn Mo, W, Cu, Pb, Zn, As.

B. Mesothermal deposits:
Deposits formed at low temperatures and medium depths.
• Depth: 1200-4500 m, Temp. 200-300oC
• Occurrence: Generally in or near igneous rocks. May be associated with
regional tectonic fractures. Common in both normal and reverse faults.
• Ores: Au, Ag, Cu, As, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, W, Mo, U etc.
 e.g. Silver (Ag) ores of cobalt Ontario, Cu ores of Butte Montana, Ag-Pb
of Idaho (USA)
C. Epithermal Deposits:
Low temperature near surface deposits.
• Depth: Near surface to 1500 m, Temp. 50-200oC
• Occurrence: in sedimentary or igneous rocks, especially in or associated with
extrusive or near-surface intrusive rocks. Usually in post-Precambrian rocks not
deeply eroded since ore formation. Often occupy normal fault systems and joints.
• Ores: Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, Hg, Sb Cu, Se, Bi , U.

Other classifications
In addition to Lindgren’s classification, later investigators have introduced the
following category of ore deposits:
Telethermal deposits: very low temperature deposits formed at great distances
from the source of the hydrothermal solutions, which gave rise to them.
• Depth: near surface, temp. + 100oC
• Occurrence: in sedimentary rocks or lava flows, often in areas where plutonic
rocks are apparently absent.
• Ores: Pb, Zn, Cd, Ge, Hg.
Ore minerals: galena, sphalerite (Fe-poor, rich in Cd), marcasite, cinnabar.
 Other classifications ….
Rose et al. (1979) classified deposits on the basis of various
ore-forming processes and the types of deposit formed.

The deposits include those formed by:

• Chemical processes of deep-seated environment

• Chemical processes of the surface or near-surface

environment, and

• Mechanical processes

Each of theses classes is subdivided according to the

phases involved, i.e. magma, hydrothermal fluid, surface
waters, etc.
 Conclusion
• In general, there is no universally accepted classification of
ore deposits.
 Several classification schemes are in general use;
some are new or being revised.

Different principles or criteria may be used in the

classification of ore deposits for different purposes as
illustrated by examples given in the previous slides.

In recent years, classification based on

environment of ore deposition and rock association
is increasingly favoured. This is the approach that will
be closely followed in this course.