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DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

PROSPECTING CRITERIA OF VARIOUS MINERAL DEPOSITS

In the search for mineral deposits it is impossible to examine in detail every square km of the area or
country by, for example, drilling. This would be too expensive, time-consuming and in most cases
pointless. An area where the required mineral resources can be expected to occur is therefore
delimited using prospecting criteria, that is, geological features which directly or indirectly suggest
the presence of a given deposit.

Under prospecting criteria are summarized practical conclusions on stratigraphy, the petrography of
sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks, tectonics, structural geology and the facies concept,
geochemistry, geomorphology, hydrogeology, geophysics, history and mining geology.

There are different criteria according to the branch of science in which it is employed -
1. Stratigraphic criteria
2. Structural criteria
3. Lithological criteria
4. Metamorphogenic criteria
5. Magmatogenic criteria
6. Geomorphological criteria
7. Paleogeographical criteria
8. Paleoclimatic criteria
9. Historical criteria

1. Stratigraphic criteria

If a mineral deposit is associated with certain well defined horizon/strata/beds of a particular age then
it is referred as Stratigraphic criteria. For example, Throughout the world, deposits of coal,
sedimentary copper ore, uranium, lead and zinc, pyrite, sulphur, phosphates and bauxite, sedimentary
iron and manganese ores, placers, clays, carbonates, vanadium and salts are restricted to several
definite stratigraphical horizons. In India economic deposits of iron ore (hematite) occurs in the iron
ore series of the country. Mn deposits are found in kodurite and gonditic rocks of Archean age only.

2. Structural criteria

The structure of the earth's crust is often a controlling factor in the formation of ore deposits. Certain
mineral deposits are confined by geographic, geological and tectonic features which will help us to
understand the occurrence and exploration of ore deposits, and it is referred as structural criteria.

The porphyry type of Cu, Mo, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag deposits of western parts of South America, in parts of
Peru, Chili, Columbia are of subduction zone origin.

Majority of ore deposits are generally formed in structural features such as fissures or fractures which
serve as loci in themselves and as channel ways of hydrothermal solutions, and if the wall rock is
favourable- mineralization results. For example, base metal sulphide deposits of Sargipalli, Odisha.

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Numerous types of metallic and non-metallic deposits of endogenic origin, for example, are confined
to folded areas or, more precisely, to the magmatic bodies intruded into them. These deposits usually
originate in the last orogenic cycle within an area.

In contrast, coal, oil, carbonates, manganese, bauxite and some phosphate deposits are also found in
transitional areas characterized by slight folding and cupolas. Oil and gas deposits are generally
associated with anticlines. Structural conditions also influence the formation of coal deposits, which
often occur in tectonic depressions such as grabens or synclinal zones. Brown coals occur on
platforms only. Bituminous coals are generally confined to folded regions.

3. Lithological criteria

These are based on the paragenetic association of economic minerals with definite rock types. E.g.-
Tin, muscovite, lithium, tungsten, gold, beryl, gemstones etc are associated with intermediate and acid
rocks like syenite, granite, granodiorite etc. Deposits of copper, nickel, cobalt, silver, arsenic and
apatite are formed in basic rocks like gabbro, norite, diorite etc. Deposits of asbestos, talc and
magnesite are associated with ultrabasic rocks metamorphosed by the action of hydrothermal
solutions, such as serpentinites. Chromite, platinum, diamond and corundum deposits are associated
with ultrabasic rocks such as dunites, peridotites etc.

Prospecting experience has shown that carbonate rocks do not contain major Sn, Cu and Au deposits
(in contrast to Pb, Zn); that telethermal Cu deposits of the "red beds" type, in so far as they are not
considered as sedimentary, are associated with sandstones, in contrast to telethermal Pb-Zn deposits
which prefer carbonate rocks; that hydrothermal U4+ ores occur in rocks containing minerals with Fe2+
(diabase, chloritic and hornblende schists), and that Pb-Zn ores are common in quartzites and Au ores
in chloritic rocks.

The lithology of rocks is of special importance for deposits of the placer type. In depressions of river
beds, produced by the selective erosion of lithologically variable rocks, the natural washing of the
alluvium results in the accumulation of heavy minerals and the formation of placers (For example,
gold).

4. Metamorphogenic criteria

Metamorphic deposits form due to mobilization and concentration of elements during regional and
contact metamorphism. Metamorphosed deposit types are numerous, especially among pre-Palaeozoic
and Palaeozoic sedimentary or magmatogenic deposits (e.g. the regionally metamorphosed Krivoi
Rog Fe-deposit, U.S.S.R.; the Broken Hill Pb-Zn deposit, Australia; the Witwatersrand gold deposit,
Rep. South Africa; the contact-metamorphosed Kowary Fe deposit, Poland; the Sonora graphite
deposit, Mexico; and the Naxos emery deposit, Greece).

The metamorphic facies are a criterion for metamorphic deposits. For example, Deposits of native
copper are associated with zeolite facies (Lake Superior, U.S.A.); magnetite-hematitic-quartzites and
Au, U, sulphides, emery, amorphous graphite and asbestos deposits with greenschist facies; silicate
Mn and Zn ores and magnetite-amphibole ores with the glaucophane facies; taconites and itabirites,
Fe-ores, kyanite, sillimanite, andalusite, corundum, emery, crystalline graphite and ilmenite with
hornblende facies; amphibole-pyroxene-magnetite quartzites, garnet, rutile with granulite facies; and
rutile with eclogite facies.

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5. Magmatogenic criteria

Study of the chemical composition of the magma, its differentiation and crystallinity, alterations in the
country rocks, grain size of the igneous rock, the size and fabric of the intrusion and the depth of
magma congealing is important in prospecting for mineral resources. Certain ores are characteristic of
specific kind of igneous rocks whereas others show less consistent affiliation. For example, Sn, W,
and Mo ores are characteristic of igneous intrusive (Bolivia, Nevada, U.S.A., Canada). Basic and
ultrabasic magmas have a sufficient quantity of ore elements (some of them making the rock
melanocratic) but are deficient in volatiles. Because of this they do not contain deposits formed by the
concentration of ore elements through the co-action of volatiles, but rather deposits of Pt, Os, Ir, Cr,
Ti, Ni and Cu ores. These elements do not form volatile compounds but accumulate in the basal part
of the igneous body during magma differentiation and form segregation deposits. In addition to the
metals mentioned above, some industrial minerals such as diamond, asbestos, corrundum, talc and
magnesite are associated with basic and ultrabasic rocks.

6. Geomorphological criteria

Geomorphological criteria are particularly important in the prospecting for ores particularily those
thar require certain physiographic conditions for their formation, concentration and accumulation. E.g.
placer deposits (for the presence of heavy minerals, gold and even radioactive minerals). Sinkholes
may suggest the presence of gypsum or limestone deposits.

Topographic maps, aerial photograps may indicate/show peculiarities in relief eg. Narrow depression,
terraced elevatios etc. which may be worth investigating by the prospector. For example, in Salem
(India), all the magnetite deposits form continuous resistant bands of hill tops easily recognisable
from a diatsnce.

7. Paleogeographical criteria

The paleogeographical factors that are significant in prospecting for mineral resources can be placed
in several categories, each of which demands special attention.
These are:
a). the relief of the source and accumulation areas,
b) the climate,
c) the ancient drainage pattern,
d) the form of the shoreline,
e) the direction of currents in the accumulation area (in the river, sea or lake), and
f) the presence of volcanic centres.

All these factors are affected by tectonism.

Particular attention should be directed to the peripheries of peneplain areas since these are potential
sites of sedimentary chemogenic and biogenic deposits (bauxite, iron and manganese ores, salts,
refractory clays, coal). Also of importance is the topography of the sedimentation area; for example,
refractory clays and diatomites often form at the centre of a lacustrine basin, whereas bauxite and iron
and manganese ores are confined to its margins. Karstic depressions are particularly favourable for the
accumulation of iron and bauxite. The determination of the course of old river valleys is especially
useful in the search for placers and Cu and U deposits.

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8. Paleoclimatic criteria

Palaeoclimatic criteria are particularly important in prospecting for deposits related to weathering
crusts. The residues of some rocks are enriched through weathering with poorly migrating elements to
form economically valuable accumulations, such as Ni-hydrosilicates on serpentinites, Al-rich
latentes on rocks poor in Fe, kaolins on feldspathic rocks, Mn-oxides on Mn-rich rocks (e.g. gondites)
and gossans with Au, Pb and Fe on the corresponding primary deposits. This type of weathering has
occurred since the oldest geological periods; kaolin, for example, has been formed in post-orogenic
phases since the Carboniferous.

Residual and many sedimentary deposits form in a tropical climate. The re-deposition of a weathering
crust rich in Al minerals gives rise to bauxites. Sedimentary Mn and coal deposits also formed in a
humid climate. The formation of the majority of coal deposits during three principal periods — the
Carboniferous, Permian to Jurassic, and the Late Cretaceous to Tertiary — can be explained, like the
formation of thick weathering crusts, by extraterrestrial effects (e.g. an increase in solar activity) or, as
is more probable, by planetary events (e.g. orogenies accompanied by intensive volcanism and
changes in the configuration of the earth's surface). In periods of slight arid weathering fewer deposits
of sedimentary iron ores were formed, since the small quantities of iron liberated by exogenic agents
remained in the weathering crust and were not transferred to sedimentary basins (Devonian, Permian).
The presesnce of red sandstone indicate arid climate.

9. Historical criteria

Historical criteria include written reports on ancient mining, old mine maps, archaeological finds
(hammers, chisels, lamps, remnants of timbering), traces of old mine workings, relics of old dressing
and smelting plants, slag heaps and local names. E.g.- Old mine dumps and shafts were among the
factors which led to the selection of the area of Tynagh (Ireland) for geochemical work, induced-
polarization geophysics and drilling, resulting in 1961 in the discovery of a Pb-Zn ore body hidden
beneath 2-12 m of glacial drift. Europe's largest lead-zinc mine -Mogul in Ireland-was found by
geologic mapping, geochemical soil sampling and geophysical work in Silvermine Mts. which have
been a mining site for a thousand years. Gortdrum (Ireland) Cu-Ag ore body discovered by modern
prospecting methods is situated close to Miner's Hill and 5 km from old Oola Hills mine (Peters,
1978).

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