METAL DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH IGNEOUS ROCKS OF INTERMEDIATE TO FELSIC

COMPOSITION
(i.e. diorite, monzonite, quartz-monzonite, syenite, tonalite, granodiorite, granite etc.)

Magmatic rocks of intermediate composition are generally characterised by silica (SiO2)

contents in the range 52-66% (e.g. diorite, monzonite), whereas in felsic rocks the silica
content is >66% (e.g. tonalite, granite etc.). Such rocks are known to be important sources
for economic ores for metals such as Cu, Mo, Sn, W, Fe, Ti, Vd, Th and U.

I. PORPHYRY BASE METAL DEPOSITS

These are low grade, large tonnage Cu-Mo + Sn deposits which are closely associated
with porphyritic intrusions (porphyries) emplaced at shallow depth (1.5- 4 km). The
deposits are characterized by intense and extensive hydrothermal alteration of the host
rocks. The mineralization occurs disseminated in the altered zones of the host rocks or in
a complex network of veinlets called stockworks.

Porphyry copper deposits account for about 50% of world copper production whereas
porphyry molybdenum deposits account for 70%. In addition to Cu and Mo, these
deposits also contain significant concentrations of Au, Ag, Pb-Zn and Bi which are
produced as by products.

Regional Geologic Setting

 The majority of porphyry deposits are associated with Mesozoic (250-65 Ma) and
Cenozoic (<65 Ma) mountain or orogenic belts and island arcs. Important
exceptions are the majority of USSR deposits and those of the Applachian in
USA, which are Paleozoic. Precambrian deposits are extremely rare. Most, if not
all, porphyry Cu-Mo deposits are related to present or former subduction zones
(Fig. 1).

 Cu-Mo deposits lie along continental margins such as those of the

Southwestern USA and the Andes.
 Porphyry molybdenum deposits in any given area are always younger than
associated porphyry Cu deposits.

Major occurrences:

a) South-western USA, (Age: 20-163 Ma)

b) Northern Canadian Cordillera, (Triassic-Tertiary; 250-65 Ma)
c) The Andean Province (Chile), (59-4.3 Ma)
d) The Southwestern Pacific Island arcs, (< 16 Ma)
e) Former USSR: Important fields in Kazakstan, Caucasus, Uzbekistan, Siberia etc.,
mostly Paleozoic.

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Fig.1: Block Diagram illustrating geologic/tectonic setting for Porphyry Mo-Cu ore deposits.

Fig. 2: Schematic Illustration of Hydrothermal Alteration and Ore Mineralization in Porphyry Cu-Mo
Sulfide Deposit.

Figs. 1 & 2 Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=porphyry+copper+deposit+model; pinterest.com

(23rd April 2018)

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Porphyry Cu Deposits

Ore Grade: 0.4-1% Cu, most contain 0.6-0.9% Cu equivalent.

Tonnage: Up to 1000 million tonnes. Average tonnage is around 200 million tonnes,
minimum tonnage for commercial deposits 100 million tonnes. A few
deposits contain up to 2 or 3 billion tonnes.

Ore Minerals: Principal sulfides are chalcopyrite,, pyrite, and molybdenite.

Accessory sulfides include bornite, chalcocite, galena, sphalerite etc.

Sulfide mineral assemblage vary from chalcopyrite (cpy)-molybdenite (moly)-pyrite (py)

in the core/inner zone of orebodies, outward through pyrite-chalcopyrite-molybdenite, py-
cpy, py to an assemblage of galena and sphalerite-pyrite, with Au, Ag in solid solution or
as sulfosalts.

Host rocks: Mostly felsic plutonic rocks ranging in composition from adamellite,
through granodiorite to tonalite. Other important hosts include diorite, quartz-monzonite
to syenite. The deposits are typically 1 to 2 sq. km in outcrop.

Mining: Because the deposits consist of large-tonnage, low-grade ore, bulk mining
methods (i.e. open pit or open cast) are used in their exploitation. In case of underground
mining, block caving method is used.

Hydrothermal alteration:

Generally four types of hydrothermal alteration are encountered in porphyry base metal
deposits.
 Potassic alteration – characterized by the development of secondary orthoclase
and biotite or by orthoclase-chlorite, and in some cases orthoclase-biotite-
chlorite. These secondary minerals replace the primary orthoclase, plagiocalse
and mafic minerals of the intrusion.

 Phyllic alteration – also known as sericitization. Is characterized by the

assemblage quartz-sericite-pyrite and minor chlorite, illite and rutile, after
primary feldspar and biotite.

 Argillic alteration – clay minerals are prominent in the argillic alteration zone,
with kaolin being dominant nearer the orebody and montimorrillonite further
away.

 Propylitic zone alteration – this forms the outermost alteration zone around the
orebodies. Typical mineral assemblage include pyrite, calcite,and epidote.

The alteration zones are usually centred on the porphyritic stock in the form of concentric
but often incomplete shells (Figs 2). The potassic alteration zone forms the innermost
shell around the orebody, followed by the phyllic alteration zone, argillic alteration zone
and finally the propylitic alteration zone. Not all these alteration zones are well-
developed in each deposit.
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Porphyry Molybdenum (Mo) Ore Deposits

These have many features in common with porphyry Cu deposits. Host rocks range from
quartz-diorite through quartz-monzonite and granodiorite to granite. The deposits occur
in atectonic to tensional rift environment with A-type (i.e. atectonic or anorogenic),
high-silica, porphyritic granitic intrusives with K2O>Na2O.

Ore grade: Average grades are in the range 0.2-0.5% MoS2

Principal ore mineral: Molybdenite (MoS2)

Stockwork mineralization is more important than disseminated mineralization in

porphyry molybdenum deposits. Orebodies are associated with simple, multiple or
composite intrusions or with dykes or breccia pipes.

Molybdenite occurs in:

 Quartz veinlets with minor amounts of other sulfides, oxides and gangue
 Fissure veins
 Fine fractures containing molybdenite smears
 Breccia matrices

Hydrothermal alteration
Hydrothermal alteration in porphyry Mo deposits is similar to that encountered in
prophyry Cu deposits. Potassic alteration and silicification are, however, more
predominant.

Examples: Mt. Emmons, Climax and Henderson deposits in Colorado, USA.

Questa deposit, New Mexico

Porphyry Sn Deposits

Examples of this type of deposits have been found in the subvolcanic section of the
Bolivian tin province, where large volumes of rock grading 0.2-0.3 % Sn, have been
shown to have much in common with porphyry Cu deposits.

Age: Bolivian deposits are Paleozoic (400-450 Ma)

Ore tonnage: Relatively small, mostly 2-20 tonnes.

The deposits have pervasive sericitic alteration that grades outward into propylitic
alteration, and contain pyrite halos.

Important differences in comparison with Cu deposits include:

 Absence of a potassic zone of alteration
 Host rocks have the form of inverted cones rather than upright cylinders
 Presence of swarms of later vein deposits

Porphyry Sn deposits are generally a minor source for Sn in comparison with pegmatite
and placer tin deposits.
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 II. TIN AND TUNGSTEN DEPOSITS

Economically important tin deposits are closely associated with granitic intrusions of
intermediate to felsic composition. Most of the deposits are hosted by felsic granitic
rocks, the so called “tin granites or stanniferous granites”.

Important deposits of this type occur in Thailand, Malaysia, Europe (especially Cornwall,
England), Bolivia, Brazil, Nigeria, USSR, China, Australia, and Tasmania. Other
occurrences include Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania,
Southwest Uganda, which together constitute the so called “Central African Tin
Province”.

Three distinct tin deposits-bearing environments are recognized:

 A) Post-orogenic granites within fold belts or mobile zones (e.g. Central
African Tin Province)
 B) Anorogenic granitoids associated with major fracturing or rifting of stable
cratonic zones (e.g. Tin-bearing pegmatites, Nigerian Tin Province)
 C) Precambrian cratonic shields, e.g. Rhondonia, Brazil.

In addition to these, there are tin-bearing granitoids associated with layered igneous
complexes of the Bushveld type. Such types of deposits are, however, rare.

Classification of Tin Deposits

a) Stanniferous pegmatites
These are widely developed in many Sn-bearing regions, especially in areas where
mineralization is associated with deep-seated intrusions of felsic granites.
Mineralogically the pegmatites are mainly of quartz-microcline type with albite.
Muscovite, topaz, Li-minerals and tourmaline are also commonly present in these
pegmatites.

Sn is found in the pegmatites as cassiterite (SnO2) disseminated in the pegmatite

body or occurs in large crystals.

Examples: Former USSR, Nigeria, Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi.

b) Quartz-cassiterite veins, stockworks and greisens.

These are commonly associated with granites emplaced at shallow depths. The
mineralization occurs both in endocontact and exocontact zones of the intrusives.

Strong wallrock and host rock alteration frequently accompanies this type of
deposits. Greisenization (greisen: fluorite + topaz + muscovite + quartz
metasomatic assemblage) may be strongly developed in mineralized granite
cupolas and surrounding country rocks, in F-rich intrusive systems.
Tourmalinization is dominant in boron-rich systems.

Up to 70% of cassiterite world production is derived from this type of deposits

and placers derived from the deposits.

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 Examples: important deposits occur in Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia,
Thailand etc.), Portugal, Cornwall (SW England). Other deposits occur in Bolivia,
Nigeria, Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania (Karagwe Tinfield).

c) Cassiterite deposits rich in sulfides or ferruginous silicates or both.

Deposits of this type are closely related to moderately acidic granitoids
(granidiorites and quartz-diorites) emplaced at shallow depths. They include

 Hydrothermal vein deposits

Ore mineralogy includes cassiterite, tourmaline, chlorite, pyrrhotite and
arsenopyrite. Other deposits contain silver, specular hematite, colloform
cassiterite etc.
(e.g. Bolivia, Tasmania, mexico, Argentina, Namibia, Alaska.)

 Skarn deposits; cassiterite is associated with arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, scheelite

and chlorite.
(e.g. Central Asia, Alaska, Namibia)

d) Alluvial and eluvial tin placers

Tin placer deposits are derived from erosion of the primary quartz-cassiterite vein
deposits and pegmatites. Important deposits occur in South East Asia, Central
Africa Tin Province, Nigeria etc.

Cassiterite-Wolframite Association

Close association of wolframite [(Fe, Mn)WO4] with cassiterite (SnO2) deposits is

commonly observed in a number of deposits.

Special note on granitic rocks

At least two distinct major suites of granitic rocks are recognized in various orogenic
belts of the world:
1. I-type granitoids, formed from magmas produced by partial melting of igneous or
meta-igneous rocks. Such rocks are of upper mantle or subduction zone origin. I-type
granitoids are typically metaluminous, i.e. molar Al2O3/(Na2O + K2O + CaO) <1.1

2. S-type granitoids, formed by magmas produced by partial melting of metasedimentary

rocks (i.e. rocks that have been through a cycle of weathering and erosion on the
earth’s surface. S-type granitic rocks are generally paraluminous, i.e. molar
Al2O3/(Na2O + K2O + CaO) > 1.1

I-Type granitic rocks are commonly associated with porphyry Cu, Mo + Sn deposits.

S-Type granites are commonly associated with Sn, W, U, Ta, Mo, Be, Nb and Bi
deposits.

Further readings: Gilbert and Park, op cit (2007); John Ridley (2013), Ore Deposit
Geology; 409 p., Cambridge University Press, UK;

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