CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY IRON DEPOSITS

Banded Iron Formations

 Annual world iron production and consumption is estimated to be over 1 billion

tons. About 90% of this is obtained from Precambrian Banded Iron Formations
(BIF).

 The term BIF, banded iron formation, has been defined as a “chemical sediment,
typically thin-bedded or laminated, containing at least 15% Fe of sedimentary
origin, commonly but not necessarily containing layers of chert”.

The interlaminations in BIF normally consist of Fe-oxide, Fe-carbonate or Fe-silicate

materials with chert and jasper. Most economic iron formations contain between 25 -
35% Fe.

 BIF have been divided into two broad classes:

I. Algoma-type BIF, and
II. Superior-type BIF

 Geologic Setting
The Algoma-type BIFs are mainly Archean (i.e. > 2.4 b.y.) and were formed largely by
submarine volcanic processes. They are relatively small in size with obvious volcanic-
rock association. They are probably products of hot spring activity proximal to volcanic
centres.

 The Superior-type BIFs are mostly early Proterozoic, formed ca. 2 billion years.
They may or may not include volcanic-rock components. They are much larger,
and usually occur in shallow-continental shelf orthoquartizite-carbonate rock
association. They represent distal marine chemical sedimentation, away from
strong influence of submarine volcanism.

Ore Mineralogy
Fresh BIF generally has complex mineralogy, typically including: magnetite, (Fe3O4),
hematite (Fe2O3), siderite (FeCO3), limonite (Fe2O3.nH2O), Fe(OH)3 or FeO.OH, silica
(SiO2 as chert), and Fe-Mg silicates.

 Sulfide minerals normally occur in the sulfide facies of BIF.

 The term tectonite is used in some literature to refer to a BIF dominated by

magnetite, Fe-silicates and chert + hematite and siderite.

 The term itabirites refers to iron formation consisting mainly of granular quartz-
hematite mixtures (e.g. Brazilian IF, Guilbert & Park, 1986; 2007).

BIF Facies
A well-developed and preserved BIF may consist of four distinct mineral facies, namely:
 Oxide facies, formed in shallow, well-oxygenated waters (high –moderate
fO2)

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 Silicate facies, formed in shallow to intermediate depth (moderate to low
fO2)
 Carbonate facies, formed at intermediate water depth (low fO2)

 Sulfide facies, formed in deep parts of a sedimentary basin (very low fO2)

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  The oxide facies may be subdivided into:

 Hematite subfacies – hematite interlayered with chert or jasper, accumulated

in a strongly oxidizing near-shore environment
 Magnetite subfacies – magnetite interlayered with silica, carbonates, Fe-
silicates or some combination of these minerals. This mineralogy suggests
weakly to moderately reducing conditions.

 The silicate facies contain abundant hydrous ferrous silicates, commonly

associated with magnetite or carbonate-bearing rocks. The mineral assemblage
suggests a slightly oxidizing to slightly reducing environment of deposition, plus
mild post-depositional metamorphism.

 The carbonate facies consist of siderite or Fe-rich ankerite interbedded with

chert. This facies represent a depositional environment in which the oxygen
concentration was high enough to destroy organic material but not high enough to
form ferric compounds.

Sulfide Facies
Black carbonaceous slates, containing as much as 40% pyrite represent the sulfide facies.
It indicates reducing environment, probably stagnant water with little or no circulation.
Deposited at deeper water depth in comparison with the rest of the BIF facies.

Relative abundance of BIF facies

 The oxide facies is the most common and readily recognized from Archean iron
formations.

 Sulfide and carbonate facies are often comparatively thin, discontinuous, and
generally inconspicuous.

Most if not all Archean iron formations are attributed to volcanic exhalative source. They
formed as an intimate part of volcanic rock greenstone belt segments. Individual iron
formations are commonly associated with upper pyroclastic phases of predominantly
tholeiitic to calcalkaline, mafic to felsic, sequences and nearby turbidite assemblages.

Iron formations are widely distributed in the world. Largest and most abundant deposits
occur in Brazil, Venezuela, Lake Superior Region of USA, S. Africa, West Africa
(Gabon, Liberia), W. Australia, Russia, India etc.

Genesis of Iron Formations

Theories for the genesis of BIF include:

 Silica and Fe associated with volcanism were poured out on the seafloor from
submarine hot spring activity.

 Fe and silica carried in true solution from nearby landmasses were

rhythmically deposited as sediments in water, probably in response to seasonal
variations in the composition of water.

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 Iron formation resulted from the upwelling of cold, deep seawater onto a
warm continental shelf. The cold water would be saturated in CO32-, Ca2+,
Fe2+, and silica, and would precipitate ferric oxides, hydroxides or silicates
and chert, with increasing temperature, oxidation and CO2 loss.

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Oolitic Iron Ores

The second most common iron ore type is oolitic iron ore, such as the Jurassic Minette
deposits of France and Great Britain, and the Silurian Clinton ores of North America.

 These are classified under sedimentary ores that do not appear to be related to
volcanism. They are found in rocks of a variety of ages from Proterozoic to
Pliocene.

They are characterized by a distinct oolitic texture. The oolites that constitute these ores
vary considerably in composition. They may be hematite, goethite or limonite, siderite
or chamosite, with or without calcite or chalcedonic silica.

 One of the world’s most extensive deposit of oolitic iron ore is in the Clinton
Formation, New York State and Alabama, USA.

 The deposit is of Silurian age, composed of thin-bedded sandstone, shale, and

oolitic hematite. Fossils are abundant and many have been replaced by hematite.

The deposit is of shallow-water marine origin. The host rocks exhibit cross-bedding,
mud-cracks, animal tracks, oolitic structures and other shallow water features.

 Oolitic iron deposits or ironstones are distinguished from iron formation by:
 General absence of chert
 Having oolitic instead of banded textures
 Mineralogy: their minerals are hematite, goethite or limonite, chamosite,
glauconite and siderite, with no significant magnetite or low-Al iron silicates
such as greenalite or minnesotaite
 Bulk chemistry much higher in Al and P than BIF

Well-known deposits are of Phanerozoic age.

Genesis
There is no general acceptable mechanism for the formation of oolitic iron deposits. The
deposits may be polygenetic. The more favoured hypothesis regarding their origin
postulates that:
 Fe was leached from adjacent, most probably peneplained source (to avoid
clastic dilution) rocks, carried as complex ions, or hydrolysates such as
FeCl2.nH2O or Fe(OH)3.nH2O, or as Fe2+ or Fe3+ ion, and precipitated as a
flocculate, or as a biochemical precipitate by settling, or as a direct chemical
precipitate. Limonite, goethite, and other Fe-minerals were subsequently
dehydrated or compacted during diagnesis.

Oolites formed as a result of biogeochemical or mechanical processes operating in the

depositional environment. The might have formed as micro-concretions in mudflats or as
true oolites in agitated water or both.

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 MANGANESE DEPOSITS

Manganese behaves chemically like Fe. Both accumulate in similar environments and
under similar conditions. The following types of Mn deposits could be distinguished:

1) Volcanogenic deposits associated with:

 Agglomerates, tuffs and other clastic material related to subaerial or
submarine hot spring activity.
 BIF of distal marine exhalite origin.

2) Nonvolcanogenic deposits associated with:

 Lacustrine and fluvial sediments
 Continental terrigenous sediments in geosynclinal or shelf settings

3) Hybrid deposits in sediments of mixed origins (e.g. seafloor Mn nodules)

The world’s largest Mn deposits (100 – 1000 million tons) occur in terrigenous
nonvolcanogenic sedimentary rocks (Gilbert and Park, 1986). These include the Russian
deposits such as
 Nikopol, 1.7 billion tons, ore grade 15-35 % Mn
 Chiatura, covering an area of 150 sq. Km., with 1-3 thick ore beds.

The ore in these deposits consists of oolitic and nodular pyrolusite (MnO2) in a matrix of
Mn oxides. The associated sediments are shales, marls and sandstones. Manganese was
derived from the weathering of granites, syenites and andesitic lavas in the adjacent
country rocks.

Similar but less extensive Mn deposits occur in Arkansas, Virginia and Maine, USA. In
these areas Mn occur in carbonate beds. The deposits are however less economic unless
weathered and Mn concentrated as oxides.

Other economic Mn deposits occur in northern Australia.

In general the deposition of economic sedimentary manganese ores took place in near-
shore basins, especially along continental margins.

Deep Ocean Manganese Nodules

Deep ocean (4-5 km depth) manganese nodules occur as nodular, pea- or golf-ball-size
accretions of Mn- and Fe- oxides, spread on the ocean floor.

The greatest concentrations and the best grades of the nodules are in the Pacific Ocean.
Recoverable nodules are estimated to be 50 billion tons to over a trillion tons (Gilbert and
Park, 1986).

The nodules commonly contain 20 to 35% manganese oxides with some Fe. As much as 2
to 3% of combined Cu, Ni, Co may be also present in the nodules.

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The nodules appear to nucleate or grow slowly, essentially in situ, with Fe, Mn, Co, Ni
and other metals supplied by the sedimentation of colloids and fine particles through the
sea water or from sedimentary oozes (tiny organic debris of siliceous micro-organisms) in
which they lie.

Sources of metals may be volcanic exhalative, terrigenous or even extraterrestrial cosmic

dust or meteorite ash dust.

Seafloor mid-oceanic rise volcanic processes are considered to play an important role in
the genesis of the nodules. They provide ample source for Mn-oxides and other metals
through leaching of ferromagnesian minerals in fine volcanic debris or ejecta off the
MOR, and from rocks through hydrothermal seafloor convection.

Exploitation of Mn nodules

Metallurgical studies have concentrated primarily on the recovery of Cu, Ni and Co and
to a lesser extent Mn, from the nodules. The challenge is to develop efficient and
economic methods for recovering the nodules from the great depths involved (4-5 km
water depth).

Exploitation of the nodules is likely to be beset with political problems. Issues such as
who owns the floor of the deep ocean basins need to be addressed, as these are outside
any territorial boundaries. No law of the sea yet applies to these deposits.

Tanzania Mn Occurences

In Tanzania, a few known occurrences of manganese ore minerals are either of low grade
and/or limited distribution. Small pockets, coatings and veinlets of manganese oxides (30-
45 %) are found in the phyllites and schists of the Ukingan rocks in Njombe district.
Other occurrences include Mangalisa plateau in Mpwapwa district and Karema area in
Mpanda district (Harris, 1971)