Prismatic - minerals have crystals that show a

uniform cross-section

Tabular - The structure of a mineral or rock that makes it tend to separate into plates of laminae.
Shaped like pad of paper (thin tabular) or a deck of playing cards (thick tabular)

Bladed - Long think crystals may be flattened like the blade of knife. Actinolite is often bladed
Platy - Applied to minerals which develop a crystal form consisting of thin, leaf-like layers. The
mica group of minerals provides a good example; the mineral splits along cleavage planes
which are parallel to rows of alkali atoms in the crystal structure

Equant - Roughly box-like or ball-like, as in pyrite

Amorphous - Amorphous materials are non-crystalline, that is they lack long-range regularity in
their atomic structure. By definition they cannot be minerals. Nevertheless, some natural
amorphous substances have been accepted as minerals.
Cleavage - is the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break, along flat, even surfaces

Fracture

❖ minerals that do not show cleavage when broken are said to fracture

❖ the uneven breakage of a mineral

❖ examples of fracture are conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven among others

Density - is a property of all matter that is the ratio of an object’s mass to its volum

Distinctive Properties of Minerals

❖ some minerals can be recognized by other distinctive properties

❖ (e.g. magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.)

Rocks - are aggregate of minerals. A rock can be composed of single mineral or more
commonly composed of an aggregate of two or more minerals

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of Quartz

Plutonic/ Intrusive Igneous Rocks

❖ From solid magma underneath the earth
❖ Slow cooling

Volcanic/ Extrusive Igneous Rocks

❖ From solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
❖ Fast rate of cooling/crystalization due to huge variance in the temperature between
earth’s surface and underneath

Aphanitic - fine -grained texture; minerals not visible to the naked eye; relatively fast rate of
cooling; prevent formation of large crystals

Porphyrictic - formed through two stages of crystallization where in magma partly cooled below
the surface of the earth providing time for the large crystals to grow before it is extruded to the
surface forming fine-grained matrix (groundmass)

Vesicular - voids created by rapid cooling which cause air bubbles to be trapped inside

Igneous Rocks are also classified according to silica content and relative amouns of K, Na, Fe,
Mg and Ca. They can be classified as felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, practically
based on presence of light and dark colored minerals

Sedimentary Rocks
❖ These are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the earth
 - Sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks, erosion, sediment transport and
deposition (compaction and cementation)
- Common sedimentary features: fossil assemblages and stratification

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

❖ Grains, matrc and cement are the componenets of clastic rocks
❖ Clastic rocks are commonly classified based on particle size
❖ Clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.G. Pyroclastics) and may have undergone some
stages in the sedimentary processes could be classified as sedimentary rocks (e.G.
Volcanoclastic rocks)

Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks

❖ Evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic matter
❖ Classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and dolostone, precipitates (limestone) and
bioclastics (coal, cocquina)

Metamorphic Rocks
❖ Formed below the surface of the earth through the process of metamorphism with the
recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to changes in pressure and tempterature
conditions
❖ Contact and regional metamorphism

Metamorphism - Change in the structure of rock by natural agencies such as pressure, heat or
introduction of new chemical substances

Contact Metamorphism
❖ heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs when a pre-existing rock gets i contact
with magma which in the source of heat and magmatic fluids where metamorphic
alterations and transformations occur around the contact/ metamorphic aureole of the
intruding magma and the rock layers

Regional Metamorphism
❖ Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas the have undergone considerable amount of
mechanical deformation and chemical recrystallization during arogenic event which are
commonly associated with mountain belts
❖ Occurs in a regional/large scale
Project Design
❖ This is the initial stage in formulation a project. This involves review of all
available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government
requirements in acquiring the project, review of social, environmental, political
and economic acceptability of the project, and budgets and organization
proposals
Field Exploration
❖ This stage involves physical activeness in the selected project area

➢ Regional Reconnaissance
- The main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized zones covering
a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional surface
investigation and interpretation

➢ Detailed Exploration
- This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with the objective of
finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones

➢ Prospect Evaluation
- The maine objective is to asses market profability by (1) extensive resource,
geotechnical and engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing and (3)
environmental and societal cost assesment

Pre-production Feasibility Study

❖ The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy of all data and
information collected from the different stages
❖ The purpose is for independent assessor to satisfy interested investors to raise
funds and bring project into production

Mining Methods

1. Surface Mining
❖ Broad category of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral
deposit are removed
❖ Utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earth’s surface
❖ Different types include open pit mining, quarrying, placer mining and strip
mining

2. Underground Mining
❖ Extracting minerals and ores that are buried too far underground to be
mined using surface mining methods
❖ Utilized to extract ore minerals from the ore body is that is deep under the
Earth’s surface
The Milling Process
- Materials extracted or “mined” are rocks composed of both ore and waste
material (part of the rock which contain very little or no element of economic
value)
- The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation
and recovery
- Recovering the minerals from the ore and waste materials can involve one or
more processes where in the separation is usually done in a mill
- Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed
by grinding where the rocks and pulverized

Examples of milling or recovery methods or processes

1. Heavy Metal Separation
❖ The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser
minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals
❖ This is commonly used to separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the
refining processes of extracting copper

2. Magnetic Separation
❖ If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the
waste materials using a powerful magnet
3. Flotation
❖ The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where some
minerals and metals based on physical and chemical properties may
either sink to the bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise to the top
thus separating the minerals and metals from the waste
4. Cyanide Heap Leaching
❖ This method used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed
on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed for dripped on top of
the pile
❖ As the leach solution percolates down through the rocks, the gold is
dissolved into the solution
❖ The solution is processed further to extract the gold. The waste material is
either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a taillings pond, while the
metals are sent for further processing

Energy Resources
- is anything that can be used to generate power for human use
There are two categories of energy resource:
Non-renewable
❖ Energy resources will eventually run out — once used they cannot be used again
Nonrenewable Resources
❖ Is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale comparable
to its consumption
➢ Nuclear fission uses uranium to create energy
➢ Nuclear energy is a nonrenewable resource because once the uranium is used, it
is gone

Nuclear
Disadvantage
● Harmful radioactive waste is created
● Uranium supplies may only last for another 50 years
● Non-renewable
● Radiation May cause cancer

Advantage
● Green House gases are not made
● Only a small amount of fuel is needed to create a lot of energy

Coal, Petroleum, and Gas

- Are considered nonrenewable because they can not be replenished in a short
period of time. These are called fossil fuels

How is coal made?

❖ Before the dinosaurs, many giant plants died in swamps
❖ Over millions of years, the plants were buried under water and dirt
❖ Heat and pressure turned the dead plants intro coal

How are oil and gas made?

❖ Tiny sea plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor. Over time,
ther were covered by layers of silt and sand
❖ Over millions of year, the remains were buried deeper and deeper. The
enormous heat and pressure turned them into oil and gas
❖ Today, we drill down through layes of sand, silt and rock to reach the rock
formation that contain oil and gas deposits

Renewable Resources
 ❖ Are natural resources that can be replenished in a short period of time
● Solar
● Wind
● Water
● Geothermal
● Biomass

Solar - energy from the sun

Disadvantages
● Solar panels are expensive
● When it is cloudy or at night there is not enough light
● Some people don’t like the look of solar panels
Advantages
● The energy from the Sun is free
● The sun does not produce greenhouse gases
● The sun will always be there during our lifetime

Geothermal - energy from earth’s heat

What is it?
❖ Rocks under the ground are hor
❖ Water can be pumped through these hot rocks and warmed up
Disadvantages
● There are not many places where we can build geothermal power stations
● Harmful gases and minerals may occasionally come up from the ground below
● These can be difficult to control
Advantages
● Geothermal energy does not produce greenhouse gases
● The energy source is free and will not run out

Wind - energy from the wind

Wind turbines
❖ have large blades that capture the kinetic energy of the wind
❖ This kinetic energy directly turns a turbine and generates electricity
❖ Wind turbines are source of ‘clean energy’ as they do not produce polluting
waste

Disadvantages
● Lots of wind turbines are needed to produce eough power
 ● Turbines can only be put in windy areas
● It is not always windy
● Some people don’t like the look of the turbines
Advantages
● Wind is renewable
● Wind is free
● No greenhouse gases are made
● There are few safety risks

Biomass - energy generated or produced by living or once-living organisms

Disadvantage
● Inefficient (only 30% efficiency)
● Releases harmful solid carbon particles into the atmosphere
Advantage
● Produces less pollution than fossil fuels
● Does not cause acid rain
● Can be found locally
● It is renewable
Water or Hydroelectric - energy from the flow of water
How is hydroelectric power generated?
❖ Major hydroelectric schemes involve building a dam across a river valley to form
a reservoir
What is it?
❖ Flowing water is used to a turbine which generates electricity
Disadvantages
● The dam is expensive to build
● By building a dam, the nearby area has to be flooded and this could affect nearby
habitats
● If it does not rain much we may not have enough water to turn the turbines
Advantages
● When the electricity is generated, no greenhouse gases are made
● The water used is free
● It is a renewable energy source

Freshwater Resources and Water Pollution

Properties of Water
 ❖ Hydrogen bonds that result from water’s polarity responsible for many water’s
properties
- High heat capacity (Moderates climate)
- Universal solvent

The Importance of Water

❖ All living things need water
- Composes majority of the body organism
- Habitat for many organisms
❖ Helps regulate climate
❖ Shapes earth’s surface
❖ Dilutes & degrades wastes

Water on Earth
❖ About 97% Earth’s water is salty-less than 1% of the planet’s water is available
fresh H2O
❖ Fresh water is distributed unevenly
❖ 2025: ⅓ human population will live in areas lacking fresh water

Water, water, everywhere

❖ Comparison of population sizes and shares of the world’s freshwater among the
continentes (Only 7 countries account fro 60% of global water availability)
❖ Many countries in the Middle East, which has one of the world’s highest
population growth rates, face water shortages

Surface Water
❖ Streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, wetlands
❖ Runoff replenishes surface water

Infiltration - Process of water percolating through the soil and into cracks and
permeable rocks
➢ Zone of Aeration
- Upper soil layers that hold both air and water
➢ Zone of Saturation
- Lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water
Water Table - top of zone saturation

Aquifers - Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock lying below the water table
Water Resource Problems
❖ Too much water
❖ Too little water
❖ Poor-quality water

Changes in Surface Runoff

❖ Prior to 1970 about 10% of storm water became runoff
❖ Now 55% of storm water is transported as runoff as development exceeds 75%
of the permeable soil area

Storm water Runoff (greatest contributor to nonpoint source pollution) contains:

❖ Nutrients
❖ Metals
❖ Suspended solids
❖ Pesticides
❖ Hydrocarbons
❖ Microorganisms
❖ Present in nearly 100% of stormwater samples

Too Little Water

❖ Arid & semiarid lands (growing in extent – desertification)
❖ Irrigation required to produce food

Aquifer Depletion
❖ Removing groundwater faster than it is replenished
❖ Lowers water table
❖ Land subsidence
❖ Saltwater intrusion
- Saltwater seeps into fresh water
- Occurring in South Florida

Water Management
❖ Goal: sustainable supply of high quality water
❖ How do we supply water?
- Building dams
- Diversion
- Desalination - very expensive to build & operate plants

Water Conservation: Municipal

❖ Solutions:
 - Use gray water
- Education: modify habits
- Water-saving fixtures & appliances
- Repair leaks
- Cisterns & rain barrels
- Water gardens

Water Pollution
❖ Physical or chemical change in water that adversely affects the health of humans
or other organisms
❖ Global problem

Eutrophication
❖ Build of nutrients in a body of water
❖ Naturally occurs slowly
❖ Humans cause imbalances by creating pulses of nutrients due to over-fertilizing
crops &lawns and raising animals in confined areas
Nutrients include nitrogen and phosphorus-containing compounds that are essential to
life in small quantities but harmful in excess
Controlling Water Pollution
1. Source Reduction (Pollution Prevention)
❖ Chepeast and most effective way to reduce pollution is to avoid producing it or
releasing it into the environment
- Design products that do not pollute
- Soil Conservation
2. Ban release of pollutants
3. Reward purchasing enviromentally preferable products