Chapter 4: Rocks

4.1 Rock formation

Rocks and Minerals

● Rocks are naturally-made substances made of one or more minerals.
● There are over 5000 different mineral and each mineral has a specific chemical structure, some Minerals are found in
the form of crystals
● Rocks can be:
○ Igneous - formed from molten rock
○ Sedimentary - formed from the products of erosion
○ Metamorphic - altered by heat and pressure
● The occupation of studying minerals is called a mineralogist

Earth’s layers
The rock cycle
● Earth mass is mostly made of elements such as iron(35%), oxygen(30%), silicon(15%), Magnesium(13%)
● James Hutton, the founder of modern geology theorised that earth is very old, this theory is called deep time
● Earth’s surface is constantly changing because of the rock cycle that changes rock components.
● The rock cycle is when rocks change between being metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary.
Melting and cooling

Weathering
● Weathering occurs when exposed rocks are broken down into small particles called sediments
Physical weathering
● Physical weathering happens when rocks are broken down through natural actions such as temperature, pressure
and weather(rain, flooding, wind, snow, hail).
 ● Freeze-thaw action is when water enters a crack in a rock and freezes. This causes the ice to expand and break the
rock.
Chemical weathering
● Chemical weathering occurs when rocks are slowly dissolved by acidic rainwater.
● This form of weathering is more effective on limestone and silicon
● Over millions of years rainwater forms vast underground caves and long underground rivers
● Limestone caves often contain stalactites hanging from the roof and stalagmites on the ground; when these meet,
they form columns or pillars.
● Karst landscapes from when there caves, sinkholes, limestone outcrops and dry valleys because the water went
underground.
●
Biological weathering
● Biological weathering occurs when rocks are broken down by living beings. Such as human feet creating paths by
constantly stepping on vegetation.

Erosion
● When rocks are broken due to weathering, The sediments are transported to another location. This is called erosion
and happens when wind, water and ice in a glacier pick up sediments and drop them somewhere else.
● The size of the sediments is dependent on the way it is transported. Sand can be blown by the wind, but pebbles and
even boulders can be transported in rivers and oceans. Glaciers can carry giant boulders trapped in the ice, for many
kilometres.

Deposition,compaction and cementation

● When sediments are dropped at their location, it is called deposition.
● Deposited sediments often form layers which become compacted or compressed by the weight of the
layers above, and cemented together.
 ● Sometimes animal and plant remains are mixed in with the sediments and preserved as fossils.

Heat and pressure

● Rocks that are deep underground may be exposed to extreme pressure, high temperature or both. This can change
the nature of the rock, often making it harder and denser. These processes create metamorphic rocks.

4.2 Types of rocks

Igneous rocks
● Beneath the crust is magma, a molten and semi-molten rock. When parts of the crust are too thin, fractured or
weakened, molten magma can reach the surface where a volcano is formed. When magma breaks through the crust
it is called lava
● Igneous rocks are formed when lava cools quickly following a volcanic eruption, sometimes within minutes, or when
magma cools and solidifies slowly underground
● The crystals within igneous rocks can give information on how they were formed.The size of the crystal gives a clue
to how long the igneous rock took to cool and, hence, how close to the surface the rock was formed.
● Lava on the crust solidifies to form extrusive igneous rocks, such as basalt.
 ● Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are formed when molten magma solidifies underground. Although this rock is
hidden when it is formed, it can be exposed later when the layers above have been eroded. Eg, granite.

Sedimentary rocks
● Sedimentary rocks form when weathering and erosion break down exposed rocks into smaller sediments. These
sediments are carried away by water, gravity, wind and ice until it is deposited, compacted and cemented together.

● Sedimentary rocks take thousands to millions of years to form.

● We can see that the oldest rock would be at the bottom, as these layers were laid down first, and therefore the
youngest rock layers would be on top. Geologists use this method to help give sedimentary rocks relative ages.
● By looking at the relative ages of sedimentary rocks and the fossils they contain, a geologist can estimate ages for
these rocks.
 ● The type of sedimentary rock formed depends on the particles that are deposited. Chalk is a common sedimentary
rock and is formed from the remains of sea creatures whose bodies fell to the ocean floor and the age of the chalk
can be determined from the fossils it contains.
● Chalk is made of calcium carbonate and can be identified by a simple test: when acid is placed on the surface,
bubbles form.
● Flint is formed when gaps in chalk get filled with dissolved silica from sea creatures. Flint is a type of chert and was
one of the first substances used to make tools.
● The sedimentary rock formed from sand is called sandstone.
● Sedimentary rock formed from small stones is called either conglomerate or breccia. Conglomerate is formed from
rounded stones, whereas breccia consists of angular stones.

Fossils
● The bodies of different organisms may be deposited in sediment and form part of the sedimentary rock – this is how
they become fossils.

● Fossils can be used to trace the history of life on Earth. Because sedimentary rocks form slowly, the passage of time
is traced in their layers, with the oldest rocks at the bottom.

Metamorphic rocks
● Metamorphic rocks are either igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been irreversibly changed by being subjected
to high temperature or pressure.
● Rocks that have been changed into metamorphic rock tend to be denser and harder than before.

4.3 Classifying rocks

● Most rocks are harmless. However, some can pose a hazard and need to be handled with care. Beware of handling
some metal ores, especially those containing mercury, lead or copper, and always wash your hands after handling
rocks. Asbestos, which contains crystals in the form of fibres, is dangerous and should be avoided.
Igneous rocks – formed from cooling magma, either intrusive or extrusive. They can differ in colour and texture. Some have
holes because of gas that was trapped as the lava cooled. Some are characterised by visible crystals

Sedimentary rocks – formed from layers of sediment being compacted and cemented together. They often appear grainy, and
may contain fossils. They may be easy to crumble.

Metamorphic rocks – igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to high pressure and/or temperature. They often
appear layered, and may have crystals arranged in bands.

What tests can help us classify rocks?

● Crystal size and shape(for crystalline rocks)
● Hardness

● Behaviour in light(opaque, translucent and transparent)

 ● Behaviour in acid
● Behaviour when struck with a force(cleavage, the tendency of a mineral or rock to break in a particular way because
of its structure)
● behaviour in a magnetic field
● The streak test(a test used to help identify a mineral by scratching a rock on a hard ceramic tile)

Classifying and identifying rocks

4.4 The mining process

● Mining is the process by which minerals and other useful materials are extracted from the ground.
● The mining process has several stages: exploration, planning and design, construction, mining, processing, and
closure and rehabilitation
1. Exploration is important because they find out the quality of the mineral and the size of the deposit. This is to
determine whether it would be cost effective for the mineral to be mined, as a mining project is extremely expensive
once it has started.
Before any mining project begins, mining companies enlist the expertise of geologists to scout areas and search for
mineral deposits.

2. Planning and design, when exploration finds satisfactory results, then the project moves into the planning stage.
Collaboration occurs among project managers, mining engineers, finance consultants and other experts to design
safe, sound, economically viable and socially responsible plans.

3. Construction, after research is carried out, planning is completed and permits are approved, the project moves to the
construction stage. This may involve building roads, mining facilities and housing.

4. Mining is the process by which the minerals are recovered, using various tools and machines.

One method of mining is underground mining which has advantages of being more environmentally friendly and
minerals can be extracted from much deeper depths then surface mining. But this method is more skilled and
dangerous.

Surface mining such as strip mining and open cut mining is for when minerals are closer to the surface. It's more safe
but has a significant impact on the environment. Coal and iron ore are usually mined in this way in Australia.

5. Processing is when ore(the rock containing the required mineral) is processed. There are several ways to process
the ore so that only the intended metal is extracted.

Grinding is when the ore is usually first crushed so that the pieces are smaller and easier to process.
 Smelting is The process of extracting the metal from its ore by when oxygen in the rock of the ore is heated so this
chemical reaction occurs: metal oxide + carbon metal + carbon dioxide

Purifying is when electricity can be used to purify an impure sample of metal, in a process called electrolysis(a
method of extracting a metal from its ore or purifying it using electricity). The sample is connected to a positive
terminal, and a pure piece of the metal is connected to the negative terminal. The terminals are placed in a solution
containing the metal and, when the circuit is connected, the metal in the impure sample slowly moves through the
solution from positive to negative. Any impurities are deposited near the positive terminal. When this is done with
copper ore, the impurities may contain valuable metals such as gold.

6. Closure and rehabilitation

The final step in mining is closure and rehabilitation. When the resources in a mining site have been exhausted, the
site closes down, all facilities are packed up and often removed, and a rehabilitation plan is developed. The
rehabilitation plan is to return the land to the state it was in before the mine was built.