ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

(BFC 21303)
CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION
TO GEOLOGY

NAT/FKAAB/UTHM

 Geology – the study of the planet earth, its

origin, history, composition, structure and
dynamics of how it changes.

 The term ‘Geology’ has been derived from the

Greek words Geo + logos where Geo means
Earth and logos means discourse (study or
science).

 Geological events during geological time are

still occurring at present in the earth.
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  The geological process is recorded in the
rocks.

 Engineering geology is a subfield of

geological study and give the geological
inputs to solve the engineering problems.

 Engineering geology will interpret the rocks

properties and geological structures in
relation with engineering works.
(Goodman,1993).

Engineering geology input:

a) In the planning stage, where the
geological data are required in
order to model the ground sub-
surfaces and etc.
b) During construction.
c) Maintenance

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 Examples of engineering works that required
geological input:

 Rock slope
 Tunnel
 Dam
 Construction material (i.e. aggregates)

The explanation of the

early stage of this
universe, where the
Big Bang Theory (Evidence): heavens and the earth
The Beginning: were closed up, but
Allah have opened
them, stated in the
Quran 21:30 (Have not
those who disbelieve
known that the heavens
and the earth were
joined together as one
united piece, then we
parted them? And We
have made from water
every living thing. Will
they not then believe?)
See this:
https://www.youtube.co
m/watch?v=xtrYF_hxxU
M&t=178s
The End:

Source: grandunificationtheory.com 6

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“According to the big bang theory, the universe blinked violently into existence 13.77
billion years ago (Figure below). The big bang is often described as an explosion, but
imagining it as an enormous fireball isn’t accurate. The big bang involved a sudden
expansion of matter, energy, and space from a single point. The kind of Hollywood
explosion that might come to mind involves expansion of matter and
energy within space, but during the big bang, space itself was created”
(Panchuk, 2019)

Trivia:
 Shape - spherical
 Polar radius - 21 km shorter than equatorial
radius
 Average radius - 6378 km (3965 miles)
 Surface Area - 510 x 106 km2 (29% is land)
 Overall Density - 5500 kg/m3
 Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level
 Ocean floor is an average 3.7 km below sea
level
 Average height above sea level is 7 km
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 1) Atmosphere – Troposphere and Stratosphere

2) Hydrosphere

3) Lithosphere

(1) Atmosphere:

 An envelope of gases surrounds the earth up to 10,000 km.

 99% of these gases located below 30 km. Composition of

gases 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide, water
vapor and minor amount of other gases. The atmosphere is
divided into two parts which is Troposphere and
Stratosphere.

 Troposphere - the closest to the Earth ~ 13 km. It contains

almost all of the water vapor, clouds and storms.

 Stratosphere - the overlying layer ~ 55 km above the surface,

contains the ozone layer.

 The atmosphere is an important geologic agent and is

responsible for the processes of weathering which are
continually at work on the Earth's surface.
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 (2) Hydrosphere:

 Hydrosphere is a water layer, which about 98% of water

in the oceans and 2% in lakes, rivers as well as ground
water, which exist in the fractures and pores of the rocks
and soils.

 71% of Earth covered by oceans to an average depth of

4 km.

 Hydrosphere is in constant motion - evaporating

through the atmosphere, precipitating as rain and
returning to Earth.

 As water moves over the Earth's surface, it erodes,

transports and deposits weathered rock material,
constantly modifying the Earth's landscape.
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(3) Lithosphere:

 Litho means rock. The solid portion of the earth

composed of the crust and upper mantle.

 The outermost layer of rocks about 70 km thick, that

rests on the soft weak material at the asthenosphere.

 The lithosphere is broken into about 12 major plates

slowly moved by the flow of weak material.

 There are three basic types of rock: Igneous,

Sedimentary and Metamorphic.

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The internal earth layers are recognized
based on two principles: :

a) physical properties and

b) composition

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INTERNAL LAYERS OF THE EARTH BASED ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Lithosphere 1. About 100 km thick. The material is solid, strong and rigid,
which contains the continental crust and the uppermost part of
(rock sphere)
the mantle.

Asthenosphere 1. A major zone within the upper mantle where the temperature
and pressure are caused the rock melts.
(weak sphere) 2. The rocks become plastic and easily deformed. The
thickness is about 550 km.
1. The rock is stronger and more rigid than the asthenosphere
because the high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of
Mesosphere high temperature.

1. The core composed mostly of iron and is therefore distinctly

different from the silicate (rocky) material above.
2. Two distinct parts - a solid inner core and liquid outer core.
Core The rotation of the Earth probably causes the liquid outer core
to circulate and generate the Earth's magnetic field.

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LAYERS OF THE EARTH BASED ON COMPOSITION

1. There are two kinds of earth crust which is classified according to types of rocks,
thickness and density.
(a) Continent Crust: 35 - 60 km thick
relatively low density
Outer granitic rock
average density: 2.8 g/cm3
Crust (b) Oceanic Crust : thickness rarely exceed 5 km
denser material
basaltic composition
average density: 2.9 g/cm3
1. The depth up to 2900 km from surface and constitute 82% of earth volume and
68% of mass.
Mantle 2. The mantle is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon
(Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. The upper mantle contained of melt
substance called as a magma.
3. Magma can be forced through the earth’s crust to form volcano and known as a
lava. Average density: 4.5 g/cm3
1. The thickness is about 2200 km, composed of iron and nickel, hot and in the
Outer core liquid state. Average density: 10.7 g/cm3
1. The thickness' is about 1300 km, composed of iron and nickel, 5000ºC and 300
Inner core GPa. This is 3 million times the air pressure on you at sea level. Average density:
17.0 g/cm3.

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 1. Basaltic rocks of the ocean plates are much denser and heavier than the granitic
rock of the continental plates.

2. The layer below the lithosphere is called the Asthenosphere (zone of asphalt-like
consistency) and moves the plates of the Earth.

3. The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and This difference in
temperature causes CONVECTION CURRENTS to form. This type of current forms when
hot things rise and cooler things sink.
4. These convection currents tumble throughout the mantle.
5. They cause the Lithosphere plates floating on the mantle to move around
6. The mantle is approximately 2900 kilometers thick, making it Earth's largest layer.

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GEOLOGIC PROCESSES THAT CHANGE THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE

Geologic forces come form the processes of
gradation, tectonism and volcanism.

(a) Gradation:-
 Degradation: Erosion results from wearing of
rocks by water, air and ice.

 Aggradation: Deposition results in accumulation

of sediment and ultimate building up of rock
strata.

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(b) Tectonism
 Tectonism - a dynamic process of the
lithosphere plate which moves over the
Asthenosphere.

 These plates interact with one another along

their boundaries.

 Produce faulting (fracture and displacement),

folding, subsidence and uplift of rock
formation (transform, divergent, convergent).

 Responsible for built the mountain ranges.

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(c) Volcanism

 Volcano - a vent in the earth's crust through

which molten rock materials such as lavas,
ashes, steam and gas are ejected
(volcano experiment: pour hot water inside plastic mug which has lid,
shaking the mug, and make your observation).

 Responsible for the formation of plutonic rock

(solidified at great depth) and volcanic rock
(solidified at earth surface).

 Majority of volcanoes are located along the

tectonic plates boundaries.
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 What is a tectonic plate?

 A tectonic plate (also called lithosphere plate) - a

massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,

 Generally composed of both continental and oceanic

lithosphere.

 Plate size can vary greatly - from a few hundred to

thousands of kilometers across. (e.g. The Pacific and
Antarctic Plates are among the largest)

 Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less

than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to about
200 km or more for ancient continental lithosphere.
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 This massive slabs of solid rock can float despite their

tremendous weight because Continental crust is
composed of granitic rocks which are made up of
relatively lightweight minerals such as quartz and
feldspar.

 By contrast, oceanic crust is composed of basaltic

rocks, which are much denser and heavier.

 Most of the boundaries between individual plates

cannot be seen because they are hidden beneath the
oceans.

 Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped

accurately from outer space by measurements from
GEOSAT satellites.

 Earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated near

these boundaries.
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EARTH’S LITHOSPHERE IS COMPOSED OF SEVEN LARGE PLATES
WITH THICKNESS RANGING FROM 75 TO 125 KM.

Pacific plate
Eurasia plate
Antarctic plate
North America plate
South America plate
Indian plate
Africa plate
20 other small plates in between

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THE THEORY OF TECTONICS PLATE

The theory of plate tectonics

states that the lithosphere is
fragmented into a dozen or more
large and small plates that are
moving relative to one another.

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 The present is the key to the past, the geologic forces and
processes - gradual as well as catastrophic - acting on
the Earth today are the same as those that have acted in
the geologic past.

 Continental Drift - introduced by a German meteorologist

named Alfred Lothar Wegener. He contended that,
around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent
Pangaea began to split apart.

 Alexander Du Toit, Professor of Geology at Johannesburg

University, proposed that Pangaea first broke into two
large continental landmasses, Laurasia in the
northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the
southern hemisphere.

 Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break

apart into the various smaller continents that exist
today.
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ACCORDING TO THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY, THE SUPERCONTINENT PANGAEA

BEGAN TO BREAK UP ABOUT 225-200 MILLION YEARS AGO, EVENTUALLY FRAGMENTING
INTO THE CONTINENTS AS WE KNOW THEM TODAY

PERMIAN TRIASSIC
225 MILLION 200 MILLION
YEARS AGO YEARS AGO

JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
135 MILLION 65 MILLION
YEARS AGO YEARS AGO

PRESENT DAY

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CONT’D

 Wegener's theory - based in part on remarkable fit of the

South American and African continents.

 For example, the matching animal fossils found on

coastlines of South America and Africa, and the
evidence of dramatic climate changes on some
continents.

 For example, the discovery of fossils of tropical plants

(in the form of coal deposits) in Antarctica led to the
conclusion that this frozen land previously must have
been situated closer to the equator, in a more
temperate climate where lush, swampy vegetation could
grow.

 Other mismatches of geology and climate included

distinctive fossil ferns (Glossopteris) discovered in now-
polar regions, and the occurrence of glacial deposits in
present-day arid Africa, such as the Vaal River valley of
South Africa. 29

THESE TWO MAPS SHOWING THE AMERICAN AND AFRICAN CONTINENTS MAY
ONCE HAVE FIT TOGETHER, THEN LATER SEPARATED. LEFT: THE FORMERLY
JOINED CONTINENTS BEFORE THEIR SEPARATION
RIGHT: THE CONTINENTS AFTER THE SEPARATION

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DEVELOPING THE PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

Four major scientific developments spurred the formulation

of the plate tectonics theory:

1. The ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor

2. Repeated reversals of the Earth magnetic field in the

geologic past

3. Developing of the seafloor-spreading and associated

recycling of oceanic crust

4. The world's earthquake and volcanic activity is

concentrated along oceanic trenches and submarine
mountain ranges
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THE RUGGEDNESS AND YOUTH OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
 Ocean floor mapping shows the ruggedness and youth of the
ocean floor.

 The sediment layer on the floor of the Atlantic was much

thinner than originally thought.

 Scientists had previously believed that the oceans have

existed for at least 4 billion years, so therefore the sediment
layer should have been very thick.

 Why then was there so little accumulation of sedimentary

rock and debris on the ocean floor?

 The answer to this question, which came after further

exploration, would prove to be vital to advancing the concept
of plate tectonics.
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REPEATED REVERSALS OF THE EARTH MAGNETIC

FIELD IN THE GEOLOGIC PAST
 This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely
surprising because it was known that basalt - the iron-rich,
volcanic rock making up the ocean floor - contains a
strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally
distort compass readings.

 Rocks generally belong to two groups according to their

magnetic properties.

 One group has so-called normal polarity, characterized by

the magnetic minerals in the rock having the same polarity
as that of the Earth's present magnetic field.

 This would result in the north end of the rock's "compass

needle" pointing toward magnetic north.
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CONT’D
 The other group, however, has reversed polarity, indicated
by a polarity alignment opposite to that of the Earth's
present magnetic field.

 In this case, the north end of the rock's compass needle

would point south.

 How could this be? This answer lies in the magnetite in

volcanic rock.

 Grains of magnetite -- behaving like little magnets -- can

align themselves with the orientation of the Earth's
magnetic field.

 When magma (molten rock containing minerals and

gases) cools to form solid volcanic rock, the alignment of
the magnetite grains is "locked in," recording the Earth's
magnetic orientation or polarity (normal or reversed) at
the time of cooling. 35

A THEORETICAL MODEL OF THE FORMATION OF MAGNETIC STRIPING. NEW OCEANIC CRUST FORMING
CONTINUOUSLY AT THE CREST OF THE MID-OCEAN RIDGE COOLS AND BECOMES INCREASINGLY OLDER AS
IT MOVES AWAY FROM THE RIDGE CREST WITH SEAFLOOR SPREADING (SEE TEXT): A. THE SPREADING
RIDGE ABOUT 5 MILLION YEARS AGO; B. ABOUT 2 TO 3 MILLION YEARS AGO; AND C. PRESENT-DAY.

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SEAFLOOR SPREADING AND RECYCLING OF OCEANIC CRUST
 Why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor,
and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks?

 At or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young, and
they become progressively older away from the ridge crest.

 The youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have present-day

(normal) polarity.

 Stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternated in magnetic

polarity normal reversed-normal, etc., suggesting that the Earth's
magnetic field has flip-flopped many times.

 When the ages of the samples were determined by

paleontologists and isotopic dating studies, they provided the
clinching evidence that proved the seafloor spreading
hypothesis. 37

CONCENTRATION OF EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANO ACTIVITY

 During the 20th century, improvements in seismic

instrumentation and greater use of earthquake-
recording instruments (seismographs) worldwide
enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to
be concentrated in certain areas, most notably
along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges.

 By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to

identify several prominent earthquake zones
parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined
40-60° from the horizontal and extended several
hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones
later became known as Wadati-Benioff zones, or
simply Benioff zones.
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AS EARLY AS THE 1920S, SCIENTISTS NOTED THAT EARTHQUAKES ARE CONCENTRATED IN VERY SPECIFIC NARROW
ZONES. IN 1954, FRENCH SEISMOLOGIST J.P. ROTHÉ PUBLISHED THIS MAP SHOWING THE CONCENTRATION OF
EARTHQUAKES ALONG THE ZONES INDICATED BY DOTS AND CROSS-HATCHED AREAS

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UNDERSTANDING PLATE MOTIONS

 There are four types of plate boundaries:

(1) Divergent boundaries

(2) Convergent boundaries:-

 Oceanic - continental convergence
 Oceanic - oceanic convergence
 Continental - continental convergence

(3) Transform boundaries

(4) Plate boundary zones 40

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(1) Divergent boundaries

The new crust is generated as the plates pull away

from each other.

(2) Convergent boundaries

The crust is destroyed as one plate dives under

another.

 Oceanic-continental convergence
 Oceanic-oceanic convergence
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 Continental - continental convergence

(3) Transform boundaries

The crust is neither produced nor destroyed

as the plates slide horizontally past each
other.

(4) Plate boundary zones

Broad belts in which boundaries are not well

defined and the effects of plate interaction
are unclear.
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AN ILLUSTRATING THE MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES;
EAST AFRICAN RIFT ZONE IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF A CONTINENTAL RIFT
ZONE

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 Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers

where plates are moving apart and new crust is
created by magma pushing up from the mantle.

 The rate of spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

averages about 2.5 centimeters per year (cm/yr), or
25 km in a million years (between South America and
Africa continents).

 In East Africa, spreading processes have already torn

Saudi Arabia away from the rest of the African
continent, forming the Red Sea.

 The actively splitting African Plate and the Arabian

Plate meet in what geologists call a triple junction, where
the Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden. 44

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THE MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE, WHICH SPLITS NEARLY
THE ENTIRE ATLANTIC OCEAN NORTH TO SOUTH, IS
PROBABLY THE BEST
-KNOWN AND MOST-STUDIED EXAMPLE
OF A DIVERGENT-PLATE BOUNDARY
Map of East Africa showing some of
the historically active volcanoes (red
triangles) and the A far Triangle
(shaded, center) -- a so-called triple
junction (or triple point), where three
plates are pulling away from one
another: the Arabian Plate, and the
two parts of the African Plate (the
Nubian and the Somalian) splitting
along the East African Rift Zone

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 The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust

must be destroyed at about the same rate as it is
being created.

 Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes place along

convergent boundaries where plates are moving
toward each other, and sometimes one plate sinks (is
subducted) under another.

 The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called a

subduction zone.

 Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a

largely continental plate, or between two largely
oceanic plates, or between two largely continental
plates. 46

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 Oceanic-continental convergence also sustains many of the

Earth's active volcanoes, such as those in the Andes and the
Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest.

 The eruptive activity is clearly associated with subduction.

Oceanic – continental
convergence

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VOLCANIC ARCS AND OCEANIC TRENCHES PARTLY ENCIRCLING THE PACIFIC BASIN FORM THE
SO-CALLED RING OF FIRE, A ZONE OF FREQUENT EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

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Oceanic – oceanic convergence

 The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), the best example, marks where the fast-moving Pacific Plate converges
against the slower moving Philippine Plate.

 Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of volcanoes.

 Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level
to form an island volcano.
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 Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs.

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CONTINENTAL - CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE

Continental – continental
convergence

 The Himalayan mountain range dramatically

demonstrates one of the most visible and spectacular
consequences of plate tectonics.

 When two continents meet head-on, neither is

subducted because the continental rocks are relatively
light. 51

TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
 Occur at the zone between two plates sliding
horizontally past one another.

 Was called a transform-fault boundary, or simply a

transform boundary.

 Most transform faults are found on the ocean

floor.

 However, a few occur on land, for example the San

Andreas fault zone in California.

 They commonly offset the active spreading

ridges, producing zig - zag plate margins, and are
generally defined by shallow earthquakes. 52

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PLATE-BOUNDARY ZONES
 Not all plate boundaries are as simple as the
main types discussed above.

 In some regions, the boundaries are not well

defined because the plate-movement
deformation occurring there extends over a
broad belt (called a plate-boundary zone).

 Because plate-boundary zones involve at

least two large plates and one or more micro
plates caught up between them they tend to
have complicated geological structures and
earthquake patterns.
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GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
 The Earth's crust is known to be at least 40 million centuries old.

 The time span of the earth is called eras and subdivided into periods.

 Rocks have been created and destroy throughout geologic time.

 Rocks which are created during that particular period for example
Cambrian are said to belong to the Cambrian system.

 The nature of rocks created or formed during various eras can actually
reveal about its strength and condition.

 For example rocks from the Precambrian era are known to be very
hard, crystalline materials but often with many fractures and
microstructures, whereas sandstone formed from Pliocene series
tends to be porous as soil and easily excavated without blasting. 55

GEOLOGIC TIME
Era Period Absolute (million years
Cenozoic Holocene 0.012
Pleistocene 2

Tertiary Pilocene 7
Milocene 26
Oligocene 38
Eocene 54
Palaeocene 65

Mesozoic Cretaceous 135

Jurassic 195
Triassic 225

Upper Paleozoic Permian 280

Carboniferous 345
Devonian 395

Lower Paleozoic Silurian 440

Ordovician 500
Cambrian 570

Proterozoic and 4600

Archaeozoic
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