Engineering Geology

(BFC21303)

CHAPTER 2:

MINERALS

NAT/FKAAB/UTHM

INTRODUCTION
• The earliest time, man has found important uses of
minerals.

• E.g. clay for bricks and pottery; quartz and jade for
weapons, garnet, amethyst and other coloured stones
for ornaments and also gold, silver and copper for
ornaments and utensils.

• The rocks and soils that are made from minerals.

• Thus, knowledge of mineralogy is important.

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In civil engineering, the study of minerals is important because:

• The minerals, rocks, and soils are the materials with which
the civil engineer must deal.

• In the designing of any civil structure, engineers must be

able to distinguish and evaluate natural materials present
at site.

• Minerals are responsible for the physical and mechanical

properties of rock and soil.

• In industry, minerals are directly incorporated into chemicals,

abrasives, and fertilizers and are processed into thousands of
other useful products.

The Nature and Origin of Minerals

• Minerals are formed in various ways and different conditions.

• Some minerals require a million of year to form and some just a few hours.

• The mineral formations takes places either in the molten rock or magma, near
the Earth surface or deep in the Earth crust as a result of transforming.

What is a mineral?

• They occur naturally as inorganic solids.

• They have a specific internal structure; that is, their atoms are precisely
arranged into a crystalline solid.

• They have a chemical composition that varies within definite limits and can
be expressed by chemical formula.

• They have definite set of physical properties (hardness, cleavage, crystal form
etc) that result from their crystalline structure and composition.

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 Physical Properties of Minerals
• The minerals can be identified by their physical properties.

• The physical properties can be observed by simple tests:

(a) Color
(b) Streak
(c) Cleavage and fracture
(d) Luster
(e) Hardness
(f) Density and specific gravity
(g) Reaction with acid

Color
• The color of the mineral = seen by eye.

• Color results from a mineral’s chemical composition,

impurities that may present in the sample, flaws or damage
in the internal structure, the light in the room or strong
reflective surfaces.

• Unfortunately, even though color is the easiest physical

property to determine, it is not the most useful in helping to
characterize a particular mineral.

• The problem is some minerals display a rainbow of colors

(shown by the mineral fluorite (CaF2) ).

• Therefore, colour is a general rather than specific

indicator. Quartz, for example, ranges through the spectrum
from clear, colourless crystals to purple, red, white, grey and 6
jet black.

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 The many colors of fluorite

Streak
• Streak - color of finely powdered mineral particles produced by
scraping the specimen along a roughened surface (streak plate).

• The mark left behind can be a characteristic feature of the

mineral.

• The streak is not necessarily the same as the color of the

mineral, for example hematite (metallic grey) produces a reddish
brown streak.

• The limitation of a streak plate is that it can only be used on

minerals with a hardness less than seven.

• The combination of luster, color, and streak may be enough to

permit identification of the mineral.

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 Cleavage and fracture
• There are two ways in which a mineral can break –
along cleavage and fracture.

• Cleavage planes – some atomic bonds are weaker

than others. Mineral tend to break along planes of
weak bonding. Eg mica has cleavage (weak
bonding) in one direction.

• Fracture – atomic bonds are equally strong in all

directions, thus when mineral break, most produce
irregular surface.

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Examples of Cleavage Fracture

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 Luster
• Luster – The quality of light is reflected from the surface of a mineral.

• Luster is described in terms of the degree of brightness.

The terms to describe luster are :

• Metallic luster – the minerals that have the appearance of metals e.g. galena and
magnetite (Iron Ore).

• Sub-metallic – some metallic minerals when exposed to the atmosphere develop

coating, not shiny as freshly broken surfaces.

• Non-metallic luster
1. Vitreous Luster – a mineral having a glassy shine. E.g. Quartz and Calcite.
2. Admantine lustre – The mineral having a diamond like shine. E.g. Diamond and Zircon
3. Pearly Lustre – a mineral having a pearly shine. E.g. Muscovite.
4. Silky lustre – a mineral with a silky shine. E.g. Asbestos.
5. Resinious lustre – a mineral with a greasy shine like resin. E.g. Talc.

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Transparency
• Transparency is ability to transmit light.

• The transparency may be either opaque, translucent, or transparent.

Type of Transparency:

• Opaque – When no light is transmitted the mineral. E.g. Orthoclase, Magnetite And
Hornblende.

• Transparent - When allows both light and image are visible through the mineral. E.g.
colourless Quartz and calcite.

• Translucent – When allows light, but not an image, is transmitted through the mineral. E.g.
milky white varieties Quartz and Calcite.

• Semi Transparent – Mineral which allows light pass partially and objects are seen hazy
through the mineral. E.g. Slightly milky white varieties Quartz and Calcite.

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Cont’d

Transparent - Quartz

Semi Transparent- Sulfur

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Hardness
• Hardness is a measure of a mineral's resistance to
abrasion.

• In case of mineral identification, hardness is a relative scale

that refers to the difficulty of scratching the mineral.

• The hardness is described using an arbitrary scale of ten

standard minerals.

• The scale is called the MOH's scale of hardness.

• The hardness of any object is controlled by the strength of

bonds between atoms and is measured by the ease or
difficulty with which it can be scratched.

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Reaction with acid

• When dilute hydrochloric acid (typically
10%) is dripped onto some minerals a
reaction takes place.

• On calcite (CaCO3), bubbles of carbon

dioxide are produced; in some iron
sulphide ores, hydrogen sulphide is
produced.

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 Density and specific gravity

• Density is weight per unit volume, kg/m³ or

g/cm³.
• Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of its weight to
the weight of an equal volume of pure water at
4ºC.
• SG of galena is 7.8 and its density is 7.8 g/cm³.
• Gold density is 19.3 g/cm³.
• SG of diamond is 3.5.
• SG of graphite between 2.09 and 2.33.
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Silicate Mineral
• What are silicate minerals?

• A group of minerals contains SiO44- as the dominant

polyanion.

• In these minerals the Si4+ cation is always surrounded by 4

oxygens in the form of a tetrahedron.

• Because Si and O are the most abundant elements in the

Earth, this is the largest group of minerals and is divided into
subgroups based on the degree of polymerization of the SiO4
tetrahedra.

• Approximately 30% of all minerals are silicates and some

geologists estimate that the crust has been about 95%
silicate minerals, of which some 60% is feldspar and 12%
quartz. 20

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 Structure and Classification of the Silicates

• In all silicate structures investigated, the silicon atoms

are in fourfold coordination with oxygen.

• The bonds between silicon and oxygen are so strong

that the four oxygen are always found at the corners
of a tetrahedron of nearly constant dimensions and
regular shape.

• Hence the existence of a silicon tetrahedron will make

a mineral as a silicate mineral and its absence will
make it as a non-silicate mineral.

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The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is the basic building block of the silicate

minerals. This is the most important building block in geology because it
is the basic unit for 95% of the minerals in the crust

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 Silicate classification is based on the following
types of linkages:

1. Single chains – pyroxene

2. Double chains – amphiboles

3. Two dimensional sheets minerals - micas,

chlorites, and clay minerals.

4. Three dimensional frameworks - feldspar and

quartz
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Silicon-oxygen
tetrahedral
groups can
formed in single
chains, double
chains and
sheets by sharing
of oxygen ions
among silica ions

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 Rock Forming Minerals
• Common minerals found in the rocks.

• Minerals vary greatly in their chemical composition and

physical properties.

• Before we begin the study of rocks it is necessary to

know the chief rock forming minerals.

• Although there are more than 2000 known minerals,

only a few are abundant in the most common rock
forming minerals and can be identified by its physical
properties by simple tests.

• Minerals are classified according to chemical

composition and structure. 25

• Oxygen and Silicon make up approximately 75% of

weight of rocks.

• Silicon and Oxygen occur on combination with other

abundant element to form silicate minerals.

• This group is called the silicate group because all its

members contain a specific structural combination of
silicon and oxygen, even though most silicate
minerals also contain other elements.

• Thus silicate minerals is the chief rock forming

minerals.

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 Examples of rock forming
minerals

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Quartz
• Most common of silica group minerals.

• Crystallization from the magma took place below 867°C and stable
practically over the whole range of geological conditions.

• Present in silica-rich igneous rocks both volcanic and plutonic and

can be recognized by glassy grains of irregular shape without
cleavage.

• Stable both physically and chemically, therefore difficult mineral to

alter or breakdown once formed.

• Important constituent in most metamorphic rocks, usually colourless

or white, but can occur in practically any shade, glassy luster.

• Can be utilized in construction industry.

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 Quartz Mineral

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Feldspar group
• Most important group, abundant and constitute the most
of rock forming minerals.

• Make up to 60% of the earth's crust Found almost on all

of the igneous rocks, in some sedimentary and many
metamorphic rocks.

• Two major types of feldspar: Potassium feldspar (K-

feldspar) and Plagioclase feldspar.

• Good cleavage in two directions, porcelain luster and

hardness of 6.
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Cont’d
• The plagioclase feldspars:
– Albite, (Sodium aluminum silicate)
– Oligoclase, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
– Andesine, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
– Labradorite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
– Bytownite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
– Anorthite, (Calcium aluminum silicate)

• The K-feldspars or alkali felspars:

– Microcline, (Potassium aluminum silicate)
– Sanidine, (Potassium sodium aluminum silicate)
– Orthoclase, (Potassium aluminum silicate)

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Feldspar Mineral

Albite Oligoclase

Andesine Anorthite 32

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 Mica
• Micas are a group of monoclinic minerals and are
characterized by perfect cleavage.

• Typically paper thin, shiny, elastic cleavage plates.

• Only two common occurring mica known as biotite (dark

brown to black), usually less commercial value and
muscovite (colourless or slightly tinted).

• Abundant in granite and in many metamorphic rocks and

is also a significant component of many sandstones.

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Pyroxene
• High temperature minerals found in many
igneous and metamorphic rocks.

• Usually dark coloured (dark green to

black) and contains silicates of iron and
magnesium.

• Occurs in basic and ultrabasic rocks.

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 Olivine
• Occurs chiefly in basic and ultrabasic rocks with (MgFe)2
SiO4 present.

• Crystallizes at a high temperature, over 1000oC, one of

the first minerals to form from basic magmas, and
common in basalt.

• The only mineral clearly visible in the hand specimen.

• Probably the major constituent of the material beneath

the Earth's crust.

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Amphiboles
• This mineral has much in common with pyroxenes and
consist of complex silicates which are magnesium,
calcium and iron.

• Hornblende the most abundant amphibole is a common

constituent of igneous and metamorphic rock.

• Colour ranges from green to black.

• Common in metamorphic rock known as amphibolite.

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 Calcite
• Composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and principal mineral of
limestone.

• Can be precipitated directly from seawater and removed from it by

organisms to make shells.

• Dissolved in groundwater and reprecipitated as new crystals in

caves and fractures in rock.

• Soft (3.0) and easy to scratch, effervesces (bubbles) in dilute

hydrochloric acid, perfect cleavage in three directions but not at right
angle.

• Major component of limestone and major mineral metamorphic rock,

marble.

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Dolomite
• Composed of magnesium and carbonate (CO2).

• Widespread in sedimentary rocks, forming when

calcite reacts with solutions of magnesium
carbonate in seawater or groundwater.

• It will effervesces in dilute hydrochloric acid only

if it is in powdered form.

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 Clay minerals
• Constitute major part of the soil and thus
encountered more frequently than other
minerals.

• Form when air and water interact with the

various silicate minerals breaking them to
form clay and other products.

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Halite and Gypsum

• Two most common minerals formed by the
evaporation of seawater or saline lake water.

• Halite (common salt, NaCI) easily identified by

its taste, very soft and scratched easily with
finger nail.

• Gypsum composed of calcium sulphate and

water (CaSO42H2O).

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 Chlorite (MgFe)5Al(Si3AI)O10(OH)8

• A green flaky minerals formed by hydrous

silicates of magnesium and aluminum.

• Found in igneous rocks and in

metamorphic rocks such as chlorite-schist
and in some clays.

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Serpentine Mg6Si4O10(OH)8
• An alteration of olivine, pyroxene or
hornblende.

• Change from olivine to serpentine may be

brought about by action of water and
silica.

• Found in basic and ultrabasic rocks.

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 Talc Mg3Si4O1O(OH)3
• Soft flaky mineral, white or greenish white, easily
scratched by finger nails.

• Occurs as a secondary product in basic and ultrabasic

rocks and in talc-schist.

Kaolin (China Clay) AI4 Si4O10(OH)8

Derived from breakdown of feldspar by action of water
and carbon dioxide.
White or grey, soft with texture of flour and clayey smell
when damp.
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Non Silicate Minerals

• Refer Table 2.0 for common, economically important non-silicate mineral.

Oxides and Hydroxides:

• These are minerals that are form by combination of various cations with
oxygen.

• Some examples of this type of minerals are hematite, ilmenite, magnetite,

Bauxite, Limonite and Cassiterite.

Carbonates and Sulfates:

• Consist of framework similar to the silica tetrahedra.

• An important mineral in this group is gypsum, the main ingredient in

building materials.

• The most important carbonate minerals are calcite which combines calcium
with the carbonate ion, and dolomite which contains calcium and
magnesium in its structure. 44

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Halides:

• Often occurring as chemical deposited

sediments formed by evaporation and as
vein minerals in igneous rocks.

• Example of halide mineral is halite or rock

salt deposit from the evaporation of
enclosed bodies of salt water.

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Table 2.0: Examples of important non-silicate minerals

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Minerals which make up the three broad categories of rocks

quartz, biotite, muscovite, amphiboles

Igneous rocks (e.g. hornblende), pyroxenes (e.g.
augite), orthoclase, olivine
parent igneous rocks - quartz and
feldspar the earth's surface minerals -
clay minerals, hydrous aluminum
Sedimentary rocks
silicates, carbonates, calcite and
dolomite, those deposited from saline
waters - rock salt and gypsum
quartz, feldspar, amphiboles,
Metamorphic rocks pyroxenes, micas, garnet chlorites, the
carbonates metamorphosed limestone

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