MINEROLOGY

EARTH CRUST
 Average depth of the earth crust thickness is 8-10 km.
There are two different rocks which have different chemical and biological
content.
 Sial; average density: 2.7 gr/cm2
(granite, sandstone and limestone)
 Sima; 2.8 – 3 gr/cm3
(basalt type rocks)
The sial layer in the ocean floor is almost absent.
Sima reaches 8 – 10 km thickness
MATERIALS WHICH GENERATES THE CRUST

▪ Eight of the 108 elements found on the

Earth’s surface are very common.
▪ The 8 most common elements in the
crust form 98.59% by weight of the
ground shell.
▪ The remaining 98 elements constitute
1.4% by weight of the earth’s crust.
MINERALS

▪ It can be divided into 2 groups:

1. Rock forming mineral: which are
found in abundance of earth crust.
2. Ore forming minerals: which are
economic valuable minerals.
▪ Over 4000 mineral exist in earth crust
▪ All are composed of oxygen silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, potassium,
sodium and magnesium.
MINERALS

More than 2000 minerals on Earth generates

rocks, rocks constitute the crust.
 It is found naturally
 Has chemical composition (element or
compound form).
 It can be expresses by a specific crystal
system.
 It is mostly solid, liquid (mercury and water)
Generally inorganic, at least organic
compounds.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS

▪ Minerals and mines are part of the legacy that remains to us from the
geological past. These are the basic building blocks of the solid part of the
earth and are very important for construction geology;
▪ The minerals and rocks are the main sources for the production of
automobiles, computers and many other things we use,
▪ Minerals and rocks play an important role in many earth process such as
landslides, coastal erosion and volcanic activity.
▪ Studies on minerals and rocks provide important information on earth history,
▪ Knowing process properties of the minerals and rocks provides to how the
mechanisms in the earth and to understand how we can manage our earth
resources.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

▪ The following are the important physical properties:

i. Color
ii. Streak
iii. Luster
iv. Structure
v. Hardness
vi. Specific Gravity
vii. Cleavage
viii. Fracture
ix. Tenacity
x. FOrm
i. COLOR

▪ Color is not constant in most of the minerals and commonly the color is
due to attain or impurities in the minerals some mineral show peculiar
phenomena connected with color.
▪ Play of colors: It is the development of a series of prismatic colors shown
by some minerals.
▪ Change of colors: It is similar to play of colors that rate of change of colors
on rotation is rather slow.
▪ Iridescene: Some minerals show rainbow colors either in their interior on
the surface
 ii. STREAK

▪ Streak is the color produced by a fine

powder of the mineral when scratched
on a streak plate. Often it is different
than the color of the mineral in non-
powdered form.
▪ Hematite: red
▪ Limonite: brown
▪ Magnetite: dark grey
▪ Chromite: brown
▪ Magnetite: dark gray
iii. LUSTER
▪ Luster refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected light.
Two general types of luster are designated as follows:
▪ Metallic – looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or dark
colored streak.
▪ Non-metallic – Non metallic lusters are referred to as:
Vitreous – looks glassy (clear quartz, tourmaline)
Resinous – looks resinous (sphalerite, sulfur)
Pearly – iridescent pearl like ( apophylite)
Greasy – appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil (nepheline)
Silky – looks fibrous (some gypsum, serpentine, malachite)
Adomantine – brilliant luster like diamond.
iv. STRUCTURE

Kidney, chordal, chordal radial, concussion, lump and concentric.

▪ Kidney: Chalcedon, hematite
▪ Chordal: Asbestos, gypsum, calcite
▪ Radial: Antimuan,
▪ Chordal radial: Pyrite, barite
▪ Concussion: Calcite, agate, pyrite
▪ Lump: Flinstone
▪ Concentric: Agat, Calcedon
v. HARDNESS

▪ It is the resistance of
mineral offers to
abrasion or
scratching and is
measured relative
to a standard scale
of ten minerals
known as Moh’s
scale of hardness.
vi. SPECIFIC GRAVITY

▪ It may be defined as the density of the mineral compared to the density of

water and as such represents a ratio ie. Specific gravity of a mineral is the
ratio of its weight of an equal volume of water.
▪ Specific gravity of a mineral depends upon the weight and spacing of its
atoms.
vii. CLEAVAGE
▪ A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness along which a mineral is likely
to split smoothly.
▪ Cleavage thus refers to the splitting of a crystal between two parallel atomic
planes.
▪ Despite the fact that every mineral belongs to a specified crystal system, not
every mineral exhibits cleavage.
▪ Cleavage planes, if they exist, are always parallel to a potential crystal face.
However, such planes are not necessarily parallel to the faces which the crystal
actually displays. Fluorite, for example, has octahedral cleavage yet forms cubic
crystals.
▪ Nonetheless, the property of cleavage, if it is present, can offer important
information about the symmetry and inner structure of a crystal.
viii. FRUCTURE

If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along random

directions called fracture. Several different kinds of fracture patterns are
observed.
▪ Conchoidal fracture – breaks along smooth curved surfaces.
▪ Fibrous and splintery – similar to the way wood breaks.
▪ Hackly – jagged fractures with sharp edges.
▪ Uneven or Irregular – rough irregular surfaces
ix. TENACITY

▪ The property of tenacity describes the behavior of a mineral under

deformation. It describes the physical reaction of a mineral to externally
applied stresses such as crushing, cutting bending, and striking forces.
Adjectives: brittle, flexible, elastic, malleable, ductile, and sectile.
MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
▪ The monoclinic system includes all those
forms that can be referred to three
crystallographic axes which are
essentially unequal in length and further
that can be of these is always inclined.
Axial Diagram
▪ All the three axes are unequal, they are
designated by the letters a, b and c. The
c axis is always vertical. The inclined axis
is a-axis. It is inclined towards the
observer and is also referred as clino axis
MONOCLINIC SYSTEM

▪ There are three symmetry classes placed in monoclinic system. The

symmetry of the normal class is a given below.
FORMS OF MONOCLINIC SYSTEMS

The common forms of this system are:

1) Pinacoid – It is an open form of two
faces, each face being parallel to the
axes and cutting the third at a unit
length.
2) Domes – A dome is also form of two
faces, each face meeting the vertical
axis and one of the other two axes. It is
parallel to the third axis. Two types of
domes are recognized:
i. Orthodome
ii. Clinodome
FORMS (contd.)

3) Prisms – There are three types of

prisms is there:
i) Unit prism
ii) Orthoprism
iii) Clinoprism
4) Pyramid – These are closed forms and
in these each face meets all the three
axes.
i) Unit Pyramid
ii) Orthopyramid
iii) Clinopyramid
FORM

▪ The internal atomic arrangement of a mineral is manifested outwardly by

development if geometric shapes or crystal characters. The forms may be
following three types:
i. Crystallized – When the mineral occurs in the form of well defined
crystals.
ii. Amorphous – When it shows absolutely no signs or evidence of
crystallization.
iii. Crystalline – When well-defined crystals are absent but a marked
tendency towards crystallization.
MISCELLANEOUS SPECIAL PROPERTIES:

▪ Magnetism: Some minerals are highly magnetic, e.g. magnetic, whereas

few others may be feebly magnetic like spinals and tourmaline.
▪ Electricity: Some minerals an electric charge may be developed by
heating in some others same effect results by applying pressure.
▪ Fluorescence: The term express property of some minerals to emit light
when exposed to radiation.
▪ Phosphorescence: It is similar to fluorescence in essential character but
in this case light is emitted not during the act of exposure to radiation
but after the substance is transferred rapidly to dark place.
FELDSPAR GROUP

▪ It is most abundant of all minerals

▪ It is used for making more than 50% by
weight crust of earth
▪ It is non-metallic and silicate minerals
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
▪ Potash feldspar (KAISi3 O8)
▪ Soda-lime feldspar (NaAlSi3O8 or
(CaAl2Si2O8)
FELDSPAR GROUP (contd)

▪ VARITIES OF POTASH:
FELDSPAR: Orthoclase, Sanidine, Microline
SODA LIME FELSPAR: Albite, Oligoclase,
Andecine, Amarthitie, Labrodorie
▪ Feldspar minerals have many uses in
industry. They are used to manufacture
a wide variety of glass and ceramic
products. They are also widely used as
fillers in paints, plastics and rubber.
These include moonstone, sunstone,
labradorite, amazonite and spectrolite.
 QUARTZ GROUP

▪ It is an important rock forming COLORED VARIETIES:

mineral next to feldspar Pure quartz is always colorless and transparent
Presence of impurities the mineral showing they
▪ It is a non-metallic refractory color
mineral Amethyst: purple or violet
▪ It is a silicate group Smoky quartz: shade of grey
Milky quartz: light brown, pure white, opaque
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF Rose quartz: rose
QAURTZ:
CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Hexagonal
FRACTURE: Conchoidal
HARDNESS: 7
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.65-2.66(Low)
QUARTZ GROUP (contd)

▪ Quartz is the most common oxide

mineral. It has many uses, glass,
optics, sand for construction and
building, part of cement and plaster,
is used as a building stone, pottery,
flux in metallurgical applications, has
abrasive uses and is the key
ingredient in computer chips (silicon
is extracted from quartz).
 PYROXENES GROUP

▪ It is important group of rock forming

minerals
▪ They are commonly occur in dark
colors, igneous and metamorphic rocks
▪ They are rich in calcium, magnesium,
iron, silicates
▪ It show single chain structure of silicate
▪ It is classified into orthopyroxene. It is
based on internal atomic structure.
AMIPHOBLE GROUP

▪ These are closely related to pyroxene

group
▪ It shows double chain silicate structure
▪ Rich in calcium, magnesium, iron oxide
▪ CLASSIFICATION:
1. Orthorhombic
2. Monoclinic
a. Hornblende
b. Tremolite
c. Actinole
 HORNBLENDE: (COMPOUND – COMPLEX SILICATE)

▪ Hornblende is a field and classroom

name used for a group of dark-colored
amphibole minerals.
▪ It is crushed and used for highway
construction and as railroad ballast. It is
cut for use as dimension stone.
▪ The highest quality pieces are cut,
polished, and sold under the name
“black granite” for use as building
facing, floor tiles, countertops, and
other architectural uses.
 MICA GROUP

▪ Form sheet like structure

▪ Can be split into very thin sheets along one
direction
▪ Aluminum and magnesium are rich
▪ Occupy 4% of earth crust
▪ Because of their perfect cleavage, flexibility and
elasticity, infusibility, low thermal and electrical
conductivity, and high dielectric strength,
muscovite and phlogopite have found widespread
application.
▪ Ground mica is used as a dusting medium to
prevent, for example, asphalt tiles from sticking to
each other and also a filler, absorbent, and
lubricant.
FORMATION OF MINERALS

▪ In order for a mineral crystal to grow, the elements needed to make it must be
present in the appropriate proportions, the physical and chemical conditions
must be favorable, and there must be sufficient time for the atoms to become
arranged.
▪ Physical and chemical conditions include factors such as temperature,
pressure, presence of water, pH, and amount of oxygen available.
▪ Time is one of the most important factors because it takes time for atoms to
become ordered.
▪ If time is limited, the mineral grains will remain very small. The presence of
water enhances the mobility of ions and can lead to the formation of larger
crystals over shorter time periods.
FORMATION OF MINERALS (contd.)

▪ Most of the minerals that make up the rocks around us formed through the cooling of
molten rock, known as magma.
▪ As magma rises up through the crust, either by volcanic eruption or by more gradual
processes, it cools and minerals crytallize.
▪ If the cooling process is rapid (minutes, hours, days, or years), the components of the
minerals will not have time to become ordered and only small crystals can form before the
rock becomes solid.
▪ The resulting rock will be fine-grained (i.e., crytals less than 1mm).
▪ If the cooling is slow (from decade to million of years), the degree of ordering will be higher
and relatively large crystals will form.
▪ Volcanic glass is not composed of minerals because the magma has cooled too rapidly for
crystals to grow, although overtime (million years0 the volcanic glass may crystallize into
various silicate minerals.
FORMATION OF MINERALS (contd.)

Minerals can also form in several other ways:

▪ Precipitation from aqueous solution (i.e., from hot water flowing underground, from evaporation
of a lake or inland sea, or in some cases, directly from seawater)
▪ Precipitation from gaseous emanations (e.g., in volcanic regions)
▪ Metamorphism – formation of new minerals directly from the elements within existing minerals
under conditions of elevated temperature and pressure
▪ Weathering – during which minerals unstable at Earth’s surface may be altered to other minerals
▪ Organic formation – formation of minerals within shells (primarily calcite) and teeth and bones
(primarily apatite) by organisms (these organically formed minerals are still called minerals
because they can also form inorganically)
▪ Opal is a mineraloid, because although it has all of the other properties of a mineral, it does not
have a specific structure. Pearl is not mineral because it can only be produced by organic processes.