Montserrat is a part of the Lesser Antilles Volcanic Island arc in the eastern Caribbean, which has formed a subduction

Case Study: Montserrat, zone where two tectonic plates converge at a destructive plate boundary (the oceanic Atlantic plate converging and
Soufrière Hills subducting beneath the less dense continental Caribbean plate) – (A2 Geography for edexcel, Digby, 2009). There are 11
active volcanoes; a cluster of andesite lava domes surrounded by pyroclastic flanks around 100,000 years old – a
Cascades volcano. The island had a population of 12,000 before the major pyroclastic flow event in ’97 occurred.

Details of the event Montserrat was always under threat of an eruption after the precursor earthquake swarms in June ’94
(rossuniversity.tripod.com). From 1992 – 1995, there were 18 periods of intensive volcanic activity. The first ‘large’
phreatic eruption (steam-driven explosions that occur when surface/groundwater is heated by magma, lava, hot rocks,
or new volcanic deposits e.g. tephra and pyroclastic-flow deposits - volcanoes.usgs.gov) of Chances Peak – the highest
volcanic peak on the island – occurred on 21st August ’95, blanketing the capital of Plymouth in dense ash clouds, but
causing no casualties. This prompted the precautionary evacuation of the south until Jan ’96. On 3 rd April the first
pyroclastic flow prompted a third evacuation, as a result of collapsing dome sections; in May, lower-density surges and
pyroclastic flows (exceeding 500⁰C) reached the sea off the east coast of the island, extending the coastline by 600m by
September (‘Montserrat – a film by David Lea’, 1998). After two years of gentle eruptions (1995-97) and several
hazardous dome collapses, most of the population either left the island or were moved to the North.

Before ’92 the volcano had been dormant
for over 300 years – in 1998, only 4,000 of
12,000 remained on Montserrat.
Impacts of the event on the
environment
By May ’97, the dome was 60 million cubic metres in volume, surges began to overwhelm the northern ridges of the
Peak; on 25th June, a secondary pyroclastic flow developed which killed 19 people at the W.H. Bramble Airport. ‘Spanish
Point’ was partially wiped out by a surge cloud travelling at 100km/h, and was wiped out by a larger flow deposit on 21 st
September (900 metres of ash flew down at 30m/s ), as was the airport and an old sugar mill (‘Montserrat – a film by
David Lea’, 1998). From early August ’97 – October 97, 74 successive magmatic (explosive) eruptions occurred, which
exploded at pressures of 30-40 atmospheres, ejecting volcanic bombs at up to 200m/s, with ash columns up to 12,000ft.
Immediate effects Long-term effects
 Rooves in Plymouth collapsed, being pelted with pumice  Before the widespread ejection of ash in August
fragments and metre-long volcanic bombs shot 300m ’95, Chances Peak cloud forest harboured a high
into the air that rained down over the island. diversity of plant life, abundant tree ferns, the
 After being unstable since Oct ’96, on 26th Dec ’97 the endemic Montserrat Oriole, insects, birds and bats.
SW wall of the Chances Peak collapsed (consisting of Surveys carried out by the MVO and SEI indicated a
hydrothermally-altered rocks – areas of weakness), severe loss of vegetation due to acid rain, gases,
initiating a debris avalanche and a devastating pyroclastic heat and silica dust. Throughout ’96, it was
flow (same scale as the one that destroyed St. Pierre’s in apparent that the area could not recover, with the
1902). Top floors of buildings were stripped clean off, and ferns withering and dying, and the Heliconius
houses were collapsed. Boulders were launched by the butterflies had disappeared from the crater and
flow into the sides of houses at high speed. flanks of the volcano.
 An area of 5 square kilometres of vegetation was  On the east of the island, the once-lush forests of
completely incinerated, producing a layer of tar over the the Tar river Valley were heavily degraded from
ground. ash.
 In July ’97, following the destruction of Plymouth in June,  The release of sulphurous gas from the crater
results in the formation of acid rain – these droplets
the ruined capital was flooded by 100 million m3
damage plant cell membranes, leading to death.
Of volcanic debris, and lahars which inundated the capital
 As a result of periods of minor eruptions and
in 10m of pyroclastic deposits (‘Montserrat – a film by
ejection of gases and ash, the lake at the top of
David Lea’, 1998).
Chances Peak (which used to house a rich
population of plankton, fish and marine
invertebrates) was found to have a pH reading of
2.0 in Jan ’96 (equivalent acidity of car batteries).
 Continued volcanic activity prevents reforestation,
which in-turn has resulted in ground/soil erosion. A
noticeable recovery will take well over 40 years.
 Coral reefs, in some cases, are buried by ash loads.
(Sustainable Ecosystems Institute – sei.org)

Impacts of the event on society
 Despite the evacuations, 19 people were killed by the
eruptions as a small group f people chose to stay behind
to watch over their crops (www.bbc.co.uk/geography).
 Many homes and buildings were destroyed by the
volcanic eruptions, pyroclastic flows and lahars, having a
catastrophic impact on people’s livelihoods
(www.bbc.co.uk/geography).
 Many people were relocated to either Britain or North
America, leaving behind their native home for good
(‘Montserrat – a film by David Lea’, 1998).
 Ash clouds that reached 40,000 feet descended
upon the island in August ’95 and June ’97. Millions
of tonnes of pyroclastic material dispersed around
the island after hazardous dome collapses in April
’96. The ash contained micro-particles of
cristobalite (crystalline silica) – a carcinogen and a
chemical substance that, if inhaled/exposed to over
long periods, can cause a serious lung condition
called Silicosis. Inhabitants of the island were at
massive risk of cristobalite seriously affecting their
long-term health (extreme cases are fatal)
(‘Montserrat – a film by David Lea’, 1998).
Impacts of the event on the  Estimates (2001)of the economic damage to the building
stock, as reported in the Government’s Sustainable
economy Development Plan:
o Agricultural - $47,089
o Residential - $82,959,063
o Business - $33,039,441
o Institutional - $ 9,168,712
Total = $125,214,524
The scale of the devastation is better appreciated when
considered in relation to the average GDP for the country
between 1997 and 1999 - $88.75M
 The dislocation of the population caused problems
for Montserrat’s fragile economy – tourism was
suspended, farms and commercial assets were
destroyed, and investment dried up in the months
after the disaster (Digby, 2009).
 The island’s economy has, for recent decades,
relied on Government services, construction,
agriculture and tourism, with some manufacturing
capacity developed in the 1990’s. The eruptions
between ’95 and ’97 turned an annual budget into
an overall twofold annual deficit, with the collapse
of the industrial, tourism and financial sectors
(ftp.shef.ac.uk/MONTSERRAT-A-CASE-STUDY).

Local National International

How did people  The government’s four-year
respond to the Sustainable Development plan was
launched in 2003, with the aim of
disaster?
restoring confidence in the island
and rebuilding the infrastructure to
support future growth (Digby, 2009).
 An exclusion zone was established in
the south of the island, with no
admittance except for monitoring
and national security measures
(bbc.co.uk).
 As a British Overseas territory, under British sovereignty, Montserrat received
millions of pounds for aid and reconstruction projects – but still not enough to
restore the former island paradise With British support, the $18.5 million
Gerald’s Airport opened in February 2005. (Digby, 2009).
 Development in the North of the island cost Britain £56 million; emergency
investment was necessary to maintain healthcare, education, utilities and
communications facilities; £6.5 million was spent on an emergency housing
scheme to house 1000 people in the north; a government HQ was built, a
mortgage scheme introduced for those wishing to set up homes or small
businesses, and an ‘assisted passage’ scheme set up to aid those wishing to
leave the island (bbc.co.uk).

 Musicians who had previously
recorded music at George martin’s
AIR studios in Montserrat staged a
concert in ’97 to raise £500k for
short-term and future
reconstruction.
 ‘Lookout’, a cliff-top estate in the
north was created to house 25% of
the population.
A seismologist of the MVO  Transport improvements, such as
monitoring the volcano’s the new harbour at Little bay, new
activity roads, and even a strategic fuel
depot filled to last for 2 months if
supplies were ever cut off (Digby,
2009).
 Britain allowed homeless residents of Montserrat a 2 year residence (free of
charge) for those who could afford the plane fare (National Geographic, July
1997). Britain gave £160M to Montserrat since 1995, and £56M more since
2008 (Digby, 2009).
 A number of Caribbean islands also offered aid to Montserrat, these actions of
which were coordinated by the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response
Agency (CDERA). St Kitt’s government announced it could house 100 children,
250 other evacuees, and provide employment for nurses (Montserrat’s only
hospital was destroyed). Antigua sent medical supplies and supplied items for
building houses, in addition to being the transit point for people en-route to
other countries (bbc.co.uk).
 The Red Cross has played a pivotal role in the aid effort, collecting &
distributing aid to families, building a home for the elderly, organising a school
in their base on the island, fund-raising events etc. (bbc.co.uk).

Are there any In 1997, the island’s tourism industry died out, but in 2005 visitors began to return – today, Montserrat’s safe area
considerations for the is on the rebound. There are common misconceptions that Montserrat will never be able to rebuild, especially
being an LEDC, however, with new housing developments, banks, supermarkets, a cultural centre and luxury villas
future? underway, nothing could be further from reality on the island. Plans for a new capital to replace Plymouth, and a
nine-hole golf course, are in the works – and construction continues to rebuild the tourism industry, as services in
the north of the island are expanded. Resident volcanologists lead hour-long tours of the MVO twice a week, and a
larger interpretive centre with photos, videos and models will open soon. Escorted tours of the abandoned streets
of Plymouth – dubbed as a modern-day Pompeii – are also available. The remnants of buildings not completely
destroyed by the ash, boat trips around the coastline to Plymouth are popular points of interest with tourists.
Although Plymouth and much of the island’s ruination is a tragic reminder of the prolonged volcanic ordeal, the
rebirth of the tourist industry, along with national and global support, life in Montserrat will go on (New York
Times, Oct 2005 – via Digby, 2009).
*The MVO was set up in 1996 to monitor the volcano’s activity at the cutting edge of disaster preparedness.
Techniques used include: a series of remote-controlled seismic stations dotted around the island to ‘broadcast’
seismic activity back to the observatory minute-by-minute; daily reports/advice passed on to the local radio station
ZJB; ongoing ground deformation studies plot the mountain’s dome growth using GPS and satellites to detect any
changes (within few cm); gas monitoring of sulphur dioxide emissions (‘Cospec’ correlation spectrometry) (MVO).
Recovery Curve – The population rose from 4000 to over 5000 from 1997 to 2001

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