45

Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms

By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Lecture No. 16 (December 06, 2023)
We have observed instances of topological statements which, although true for all metric (and
metrizable) spaces, fail for some other topological spaces. Frequently, the cause of failure can be
traced to there being ‘not enough open sets’ (in senses to be made precise). For instance, in any metric
space, compact subsets are always closed; but not in every topological space, for the proof ultimately
depends on the observation given 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦, it is possible to find disjoint open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 with 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 which is true in a metric space, for example, if we put 𝐺 = 𝐵𝜀 (𝑥) and 𝐻 = 𝐵𝜀 (𝑦), where
1
𝜀 = 2 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) but fails in, for example, a trivial space (𝑋, 𝛵0 ). What we do now is to see how
demanding certain minimum levels-of-supply of open sets gradually eliminates the more pathological
topologies, leaving us with those which behave like metric spaces to a greater or lesser extent.

5.1 Definition
A topological space (𝑋, 𝛵) is said to be a 𝛵0 -space if for each pair of distinct points 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 there
exists an open set 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 but 𝑏 ∉ 𝐺.

5.2 Examples
(1). An indiscrete space with at least two points is not a 𝛵0 -space. Since if 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝛵 =
{𝜑, 𝑋}, then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 (𝑎 ≠ 𝑏) and the only open set containing the point 𝑎 also contains 𝑏.

(2). The real line 𝑅 with the usual topology is a 𝛵0 -space.

(3). Every discrete space with at least two points is a 𝛵0 -space.

5.3 Definition
A topological space (𝑋, 𝛵) is said to be 𝛵1 -space if, for each pair of distinct points 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 there
exist open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 which contains one point but not the other. Thus, a topological space (𝑋, 𝛵)
is a 𝛵1 -space if, for any two distinct points 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 there exist open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, and
𝑏 ∈ 𝐻. It is clear from the definition that every 𝛵1 -space is a 𝛵0 -space. The converse of this statement
is not true. For example, Sierpinski space 𝑋 = {0,1} with 𝛵 = {𝜑, {1}, 𝑋} is a 𝛵0 -space but not a 𝛵1 -
space.

5.4. Remark
Put a topology 𝛵 on the set 𝑋 = {0,1} so that (𝑋, 𝛵) will be a 𝛵0 -space but not a 𝛵1 -space. Then this
topological space (𝑋, 𝛵) is called the Sierpinski space.
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Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
5.5 Examples
(1). Every discrete space with at least two points is a 𝛵1 -space.
(2). The real line 𝑅 with the usual topology is a 𝛵1 -space. Indeed: If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 and
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑟, then (𝑎 − 2 , 𝑎 + 2) and (𝑏 − 2 , 𝑏 + 2) are the required open sets one contains 𝑎

and the other contains 𝑏.

(3) Any infinite set 𝑋 with co-finite topology is 𝛵1 -space.

5.6 Theorem
The following statements are equivalent:
(1). 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space.
(2). Every singleton subset of 𝑋 is close.
Proof. (1)⇒(2): If 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, then {𝑥} is singleton subset of 𝑋. Let 𝑝 ∈ {𝑥}𝑐 , then
𝑝 ∉ {𝑥} and thus 𝑝 ≠ 𝑥 (that is 𝑥 and 𝑝 are two distinct points of a 𝛵1 -space 𝑋). Therefore, we can
find two open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺. This implies 𝑥 ∉ 𝐺 and hence 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 𝑐 (𝑝 ≠
𝑥) or {𝑥} ⊂ 𝐺 𝑐 and therefore 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 ⊂ {𝑥}𝑐 . This implies 𝑝 (an arbitrary point of {𝑥}𝑐 ) is an interior
point of {𝑥}𝑐 that is every point of {𝑥}𝑐 is its interior point. Hence, {𝑥}𝑐 is open and equivalently {𝑥}
is close.

(2)⇒ (1): Let every singleton subset of 𝑋 is close and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦. Then (by
hypothesis {𝑥} and {𝑦} are close sets) {𝑥}𝑐 and {𝑦}𝑐 are open sets such that 𝑥 ∈ {𝑦}𝑐 and 𝑦 ∈ {𝑥}𝑐 .
Hence, 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space.

5.7 Theorem
Show that the property of being 𝛵1 -space is hereditary. In other words, every subspace of 𝛵1 -space
is 𝛵1 -space.
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝛵) is a 𝛵1 -space and (𝑌, 𝛵𝑌 ) be a subspace of (𝑋, 𝛵) and 𝑝 ∈ 𝑌 ⊂ 𝑋. This implies {𝑝}
is closed in 𝑋 (by Theorem 5.6) and hence {𝑝}𝑐 is 𝛵-open set. Therefore, 𝑌 ∩ {𝑝}𝑐 (= {𝑝}𝑐 ) is 𝑌-
open set. It follows that {𝑝} is closed in 𝑌 and hence (by Theorem 5.6) (𝑌, 𝛵𝑌 ) is also 𝛵1 -space.
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Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
5.8 Theorem
A topological space 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space if and only if every finite subset of 𝑋 is close.
Proof. If 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space, then every singleton subset of 𝑋 is close (by Theorem 5.6). Now since every
finite subset of 𝑋 can be written as a union of finite number of singletons and every singleton subset
of 𝑋 is close. Hence, every finite subset of 𝑋, being union of finite number of close sets is close.
Conversely, suppose that every finite subset of 𝑋 is close. Then, since singleton sets are finite, so
singleton subsets of 𝑋 are close (by Theorem 5.6) and hence 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space.

5.9. Remark
A topological space 𝑋 is said to be discrete if and only if every subset of 𝑋 is open as well as close.

5.10 Theorem
Every finite 𝛵1 -space is discrete space.
Proof. If 𝑋 is finite 𝛵1 -space, then every subset of 𝑋 is finite and hence every subset of 𝑋 is close (by
Theorem 5.8). Since, 𝑋 is finite so the complement of every subset of 𝑋 is also finite and hence is
close that is every subset of 𝑋 is open. It follows that every subset of 𝑋 is open as well as closed.
Thus, 𝑋 is discrete space.

5.11 Theorem
Let 𝑋 is a 𝛵1 -space and 𝐹 ⊂ 𝑋. If 𝑥 is a limit point of 𝐹, then every open set containing 𝑥 contains
infinite number of distinct points of 𝐹.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space and 𝐹 ⊂ 𝑋. Let 𝑥 is a limit point of 𝐹 and 𝑂 be an open set such that 𝑥 ∈
𝑂. On contrary let 𝑂 contains only a finite number of points of 𝐹 different from 𝑥, that is, 𝑂\{𝑥} ∩
𝐹 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 }. Since, {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 } is a finite subset of a 𝛵1 -space and thus {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 }
is close (by Theorem 5.7). It follows that, {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 }𝑐 is open and containing 𝑥 and therefore,
𝑂 ∩ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 }𝑐 is open and containing 𝑥. Further,
𝑂\{𝑥} ∩ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }𝑐\{𝑥} ∩ 𝐹 = (𝑂\{𝑥} ∩ 𝐹) ∩ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }𝑐\{𝑥}
= {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 } ∩ {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }𝑐\{𝑥}
= 𝜑.
This shows that 𝑥 is not a limit point of 𝐹, a contradiction. Hence, 𝑂 contains infinite number of
distinct points of 𝐹.
 48
Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Lecture No. 17 (December 06, 2023)
5.12 Corollary
If 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space and 𝐹 is finite subset of 𝑋, then 𝐹 has no limit point.
Proof. Let 𝐹 is finite subset of 𝑋. If 𝑥 is a limit point of 𝐹, then every open set containing 𝑥 contains
infinite number of distinct points of 𝐹 (by Theorem 5.11), which is impossible because 𝐹 is finite.
Hence, 𝐹 has no limit point.

5.13 Question
Let 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space and 𝛣𝑝 a local base at 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋. If 𝑞 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 ≠ 𝑞, then some member of 𝛣𝑝
does not contain 𝑞.
Proof. Since, 𝑝 and 𝑞 are distinct elements of a 𝛵1 -space 𝑋. Therefore, there exists an open set 𝑂
such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝑂 but 𝑞 ∉ 𝑂. Now, since 𝛣𝑝 is a local base at 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋, therefore, for each open set 𝑂
congaing 𝑝 there exists 𝑂𝑝 ∈ 𝛣𝑝 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝑂𝑝 ⊂ 𝑂 and hence 𝑞 ∉ 𝑂𝑝 as 𝑞 ∉ 𝑂.

5.14. Remark
The property which preserved under homeomorphism is called a topological property.

5.15 Theorem
Show that property of being 𝛵1 -space is topological.
Proof. Let 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be homeomorphism, where 𝑋 is 𝛵1 -space and 𝑌 a topological space. If 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌,
then there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑓 being homeomorphism is onto). Then, {𝑥} is close in
𝑋 and 𝑓 −1 : 𝑌 → 𝑋 is continuous, therefore, (𝑓 −1 )−1 ({𝑥}) is close in 𝑌, that is, 𝑓({𝑥}) = {𝑦} is close
in 𝑌 and hence, 𝑌 is 𝛵1 -space (by Theorem 5.6). This shows that property of being 𝛵1 -space is
topological.

5.16 Definition
A topological space (𝑋, 𝛵) is said to be Hausdorff (or 𝛵2 -space) if given any pair of distinct points
𝑎, 𝑏 in 𝑋 there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈 and 𝑉 such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑉. In other words, a topological
space (𝑋, 𝛵) is said to be Hausdorff if and only if given any pair of distinct points 𝑎, 𝑏 in 𝑋 there
exist disjoint neighborhoods of a and 𝑏.
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Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
5.17 Theorem
Ever metric space is Hausdorff space.
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, then 𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝛿 where 𝛿 > 0.
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
Consider open spheres 𝑆(𝑎, 2) and 𝑆(𝑏, 2), then clearly 𝑆(𝑎, 2) and 𝑆(𝑏, 2) are open sets congaing

𝑎 and 𝑏 respectively and are disjoint. Hence, X is Hausdorff space.

5.18 Theorem
If X is an infinite set with the finite-closed topology, then X is a 𝛵1 -space but not a 𝛵2 -space.
Proof. Let X is an infinite set with the co-finite topology. Then, the open sets in X are 𝜑 and all those
subsets of X whose complements are finite. Therefore, X is a 𝛵1 -space. Indeed: for 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 (and 𝑥 ≠
𝑦) there exist open sets 𝑋\{𝑥} and 𝑋\{𝑦} (by Theorem 5.6) such that 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋\{𝑥} and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋\{𝑦} .

Next, we claim that X is not a 𝛵2 -space. If X is 𝛵2 -space, then for any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 (and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦) there
exist disjoint open sets 𝑂 and 𝑂′ such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑂 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑂′ . Since,
X = φc = (O ∩ O′ )c = Oc ∪ (O′ )c
and by hypothesis the complement of open sets in X are finite. Therefore, 𝑂𝑐 ∪ (𝑂′ )𝑐 is finite but
X = Oc ∪ (O′ )c and it follows that, X is finite set, a contradiction, and thus X is not a 𝛵2 -space.

5.19 Theorem
Every subspace of a 𝛵2 -space is 𝛵2 -space.
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝛵) be 𝛵2 -space and (𝑌, 𝛵 ′ ) be subspace of a (𝑋, 𝛵). If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 (𝑥 ≠ 𝑦), then 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈
𝑋. By hypothesis (𝑋, 𝛵) is 𝛵2 -space and therefore, there exist disjoint 𝛵-open sets 𝑂 and 𝑂′ such that
𝑥 ∈ 𝑂 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑂′ . As
𝑂, 𝑂′ ∈ 𝛵
so
𝑥 ∈ 𝑌 ∩ 𝑂 ∈ 𝛵 ′ and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 ∩ 𝑂′ ∈ 𝛵 ′
and
(𝑌 ∩ 𝑂) ∩ (𝑌 ∩ 𝑂′ ) = 𝑌 ∩ (𝑂 ∩ 𝑂′ ) = 𝑌 ∩ 𝜑 = 𝜑
′
Hence (𝑌, 𝛵 ) is 𝛵2 -space.

Figure 5.1
 50
Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Lecture No. 18 (December 13, 2023)
5.20 Theorem
Every convergent sequence in a 𝛵2 -space has a unique limit.
Proof. Let X is a 𝛵2 -space and < 𝑥𝑛 > is a convergent sequence in X which converges to two distinct
points x, y ∈ X. Then, there exist disjoint open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻. Now as
𝑥𝑛 → 𝑥 and 𝑥𝑛 → 𝑦, so there exist 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 ∈ 𝑁 such that 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛1 and 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝐻 for all
𝑛 ≥ 𝑛2 . Let 𝑛0 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{ 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 }, then 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 ∩ 𝐻 for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 . A contradiction, hence, 𝑥 = 𝑦.

5.21 Theorem
Let 𝐶 be a compact subset of a 𝛵2 -space 𝑋 and 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐶. Then there exist disjoint open
sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐶 ⊂ 𝐻.
Proof. The proof follows from Theorem 4.21 (in Compactness Chapter).

5.22 Theorem
Compact sub-set of a 𝑇2 -space is close.
Proof. The proof follows from Theorem 4.22 (in Compactness Chapter).

5.23 Theorem
A topological space 𝑋 is 𝑇2 -space if and only if for any pair of distinct points 𝑎, 𝑏 of 𝑋 there exist
closed sets 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐶1 , 𝑏 ∉ 𝐶1,𝑎 ∉ 𝐶2 ,𝑏 ∈ 𝐶2 and 𝑋 = 𝐶1 ∪ 𝐶2 .
Proof. If 𝑋 is 𝑇2 -space and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, then there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈 and 𝑉
such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑉and 𝑈 ∩ 𝑉 = 𝜑. Therefore, (𝑈 ∩ 𝑉)𝑐 = 𝜑 𝑐 that is 𝑈 𝑐 ∪ 𝑉 𝑐 = 𝑋. Put 𝑉 𝑐 =
𝐶1 and 𝑈 𝑐 = 𝐶2 , then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐶1 , 𝑏 ∉ 𝐶1 , 𝑎 ∉ 𝐶2 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐶2 as required.
Conversely, suppose for any pair of distinct points 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 there exist close sets 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 such that
𝑎 ∈ 𝐶1 , 𝑏 ∉ 𝐶1 , 𝑎 ∉ 𝐶2 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐶2 and 𝑋 = 𝐶1 ∪ 𝐶2 . Then, 𝐶1𝑐 and 𝐶2𝑐 are open, 𝑎 ∉ 𝐶1𝑐 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐶1𝑐 , 𝑎 ∈
𝐶2𝑐 , 𝑏 ∉ 𝐶2𝑐 and 𝑋 𝑐 = 𝐶1𝑐 ∩ 𝐶2𝑐 that is 𝜑 = 𝐶1𝑐 ∩ 𝐶2𝑐 . Hence, 𝑋 is 𝑇2 -space.

5.24 Theorem
Property of being 𝑇2 -space is topological.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is 𝑇2 -space, 𝑌 a topological space and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be homeomorphism. If 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ∈ 𝑌
such that 𝑦1 ≠ 𝑦2 , then there exist 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑦1, 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 𝑦2 and 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 (𝑓
being a homeomorphism is one-one and onto). By hypothesis, 𝑋 is 𝑇2 -space, so there exist disjoint
open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such that 𝑥1 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐻. This implies, 𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ∈ 𝑓(𝐺) and 𝑦2 =
𝑓(𝑥2 ) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻), where 𝑓(𝐺) and 𝑓(𝐻) are disjoint open sets in 𝑌 (𝑓 being homeomorphism is open
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Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
and G and H are disjoint open sets in X). This show that, 𝑌 is 𝑇2 -space. Hence, property of being 𝑇2 -
space is topological.

5.25 Definition
A topological space 𝑋 is said to be regular space if for any closed set 𝐹 and for any 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 with 𝑝 ∉
𝐹, there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈 and 𝑉 such that 𝐹 ⊂ 𝑈 and 𝑝 ∈ 𝑉.

5.26 Example
Let 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝑇 = {𝜑, {𝑎}, {𝑏, 𝑐}, 𝑋} be a topology on 𝑋. Here, the closed subsets of 𝑋 are
𝑋, {𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑎} and 𝜑. Then, (𝑋, 𝛵) is regular space. Indeed: If we take 𝐹 = {𝑏, 𝑐}, then clearly 𝑎 ∈ 𝑋,
𝑎 ∉ 𝐹 and {𝑎} and {𝑏, 𝑐} are disjoint open sets such that 𝐹 ⊂ {𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝑎 ∈ {𝑎}. Since, {𝑏} is
singleton subset of 𝑋 and is not closed and therefore (𝑋, 𝛵) is not a 𝑇1 -space (by Theorem 5.6).

5.27. Remark
The above example shows that regular space need not be 𝑇1 -space.

5.28 Definition
A regular 𝑇1 -space is called 𝑇3 -space.

5.29 Theorem
Every 𝑇3 -space is 𝑇2 -space.
Proof. Let 𝑋 be 𝑇3 -space and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏. Then, {𝑏} is closed (by Theorem 5.6) and
𝑎 ∉ {𝑏}. Since, 𝑋 is regular, therefore, there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈 and 𝑉 such that {𝑏} ⊂ 𝑈 and
𝑎 ∈ 𝑉. It follows that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝑈 and hence 𝑋 is 𝑇2 -space.

5.30 Theorem
A topological space 𝑋 is 𝑇3 -space if and only if 𝑋 is 𝑇1 -space and for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and any open set 𝐺
with 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 there exists an open set 𝑈 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑈̄ ⊂ 𝐺.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is 𝑇3 -space, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝐺 be open set such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝑥 ∉ 𝐺 𝑐 (closed set). By
hypothesis, 𝑋 is 𝑇3 -space so there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈 and 𝑉 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝐺 𝑐 ⊂ 𝑉.
____
That is 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑉 𝑐 ⊂ 𝐺. Since, 𝑈 ∩ 𝑉 = 𝜑, therefore 𝑈 ⊂ 𝑉 𝑐 and this implies 𝑈̄ ⊂ 𝑉 𝑐 that is
____
𝑈̄ ⊂ 𝑉 𝑐 (since 𝑉 𝑐 is closed set so 𝑉 𝑐 = 𝑉 𝑐 ). Thus, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑈̄ ⊂ 𝐺.
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Conversely, suppose that 𝑋 is 𝑇1 -space and for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and any open set 𝐺 with 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 there exits
an open set 𝑈 such that such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑈̄ ⊂ 𝐺. Let 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝐹 be closed set in 𝑋 such that
𝑝 ∉ 𝐹. This implies, 𝑝 is not the limit point of 𝐹 (since, a set is closed if and only if it contains each of its
limit point) that is there exists an open set 𝐺 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐺\𝑝 ∩ 𝐹 = 𝜑. Then, 𝐺 ∩ 𝐹 = 𝜑
(since, 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹) and thus 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐺 𝑐 . As 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐺 is open, therefore by hypotheses there exists an
open set 𝑈 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑈̄ ⊂ 𝐺 that is 𝐺 𝑐 ⊂ (𝑈̄)𝑐 and hence 𝐹 ⊂ (𝑈̄)𝑐 . Thus, 𝑋 is 𝑇3 -Space.

5.31 Theorem
Sub-space of a 𝑇3 -space is 𝑇3 -space.
Proof. Let 𝑌 is sub-space of a 𝑇3 -space 𝑋. Then, 𝑋 is 𝑇1 -space and 𝑌 being sub-space of a 𝑇1 -space
is 𝑇1 -space. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑌 and 𝑈 is an open set in 𝑌 such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈. This implies, there exists an open
set 𝑈 ∗ in 𝑋 such that 𝑈 = 𝑌 ∩ 𝑈 ∗, therefore, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈 (i.e., 𝑎 ∈ 𝑋) implies 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈 ∗ . Therefore, there
exists an open set 𝑉 ∗ (𝑋-open set) such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑉 ∗ and ̅̅̅
𝑉 ∗ ⊂ 𝑈 ∗ . This implies, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 ∗ and 𝑌 ∩
____ ___ ____ ________
𝑉 ∗ ⊂ 𝑌 ∩ 𝑈 ∗ = 𝑈. Since, 𝑉 ∗ is closed in 𝑋, therefore 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 ∗ is closed in 𝑌. But, 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 ∗ is the
________ ____
smallest closed set containing 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 ∗ and therefore 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 ∗ ⊂ 𝑌 ∩ 𝑉 ∗ ⊂ 𝑈. Hence, 𝑌 is a 𝑇3 -space.

5.32 Theorem
Property of being 𝑇3 -space is topological.

Proof. Let 𝑋 is 𝑇3 -space, 𝑌 a topological space and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be homeomorphism. By hypotheses 𝑋

is 𝑇3 -space so it is 𝑇1 -space and 𝑌 being a continuous image of 𝑇1 -space is 𝑇1 -space. Let 𝑝 ∈ 𝑌 such
that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹 (close in 𝑌). Then there exists, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 (𝐹) is closed in 𝑋 and
𝑥 ∉ 𝑓 −1 (𝐹). Therefore, there exist disjoint open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 in 𝑋 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑓 −1 (𝐹) ⊂
𝐻 that is 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑓(𝐺) and 𝐹 ⊂ 𝑓(𝐻), where 𝑓(𝐺) and 𝑓(𝐻) are disjoint open sets in 𝑌. Hence,
𝑌 is 𝑇3 -space.

Lecture No. 19 (December 14, 2023)

5.33 Definition
A topological space 𝑋 is said to be completely regular if and only if for any close sub-set 𝐹 of 𝑋
and 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹 there exists a continuous function 𝑓: 𝑋 → [0,1] such that 𝑓(𝑝) = 0 and
𝑓(𝐹) = 1.

5.34 Definition
A completely regular 𝑇1 -space is called Tychonoff space, also known as 𝑇31 -space.
2
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5.35 Theorem
Completely regular space is regular space.
Proof. Let 𝑋 be completely regular space and let 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹 (where 𝐹 is a closed subset
of 𝑋). Then there exists a continuous function 𝑓: 𝑋 → [0,1] such that 𝑓(𝑝) = 0 and 𝑓(𝐹) = {1}.
Since [0,1] is a subset of 𝑅 (𝑅 is Hausdorff space) so [0,1] is also Hausdorff space. Since, 𝑓(𝑝) =
0 ∈ [0,1] and 𝑓(𝐹) = {1} ⊂ [0,1] and 𝑓(𝑝) ≠ 𝑓(𝐹), this implies there exist disjoint open sets 𝑂
and 𝑂′ such that 𝑓(𝑝) ∈ 𝑂 and 𝑓(𝐹) ⊂ 𝑂′ that is 𝑝 ∈ 𝑓 −1 (𝑂) and 𝐹 ⊂ 𝑓 −1 (𝑂′ ). Now since, 𝑂 and
𝑂′ are disjoint open sets in [0,1] and 𝑓: 𝑋 → [0,1] is continuous, hence 𝑓 −1 (𝑂) and 𝑓 −1 (𝑂′ ) are
disjoint open sets in 𝑋. Hence, 𝑋 is regular space.

5.36 Theorem
A sub-space of a completely regular space is completely regular.
Proof. Let 𝐴 be a sub-space of a completely regular space 𝑋, 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝐹 is a close subset of 𝐴 such
that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹. Then there exists a close sub-set 𝐹 ∗ of 𝑋 such that 𝐹 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐹 ∗ and 𝑝 ∉ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐹 ∗ (𝑝 ∉ 𝐹)
that is 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹 ∗ . Therefore, we have 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹 ∗ (close sub-set of 𝑋), hence there exists a
continuous function 𝑓: 𝑋 → [0,1] such that 𝑓(𝑝) = 0 and 𝑓(𝐹 ∗ ) = {1}. Define a function 𝛷: 𝐴 →
[0,1] such that 𝛷(𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑝) for all 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴, then 𝛷: 𝐴 → [0,1] being the restriction of a continuous
function to 𝐴 is continuous. Moreover, 𝛷(𝑝) = 0 and 𝛷(𝐹) = {1}. Hence, 𝐴 is completely regular.

5.37. Remark
Since, 𝛷(𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑝) for all 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴, therefore,

𝛷(𝐹) = 𝑓(𝐹) = 𝑓(𝐴 ∩ 𝐹 ∗ ) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴) ∩ 𝑓(𝐹 ∗ ) ⊂ 𝑓(𝐴) ∩ {1}

5.38 Theorem
Property of being completely regular is topological.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is completely regular space, 𝑌 a topological space and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be homeomorphism.
Let 𝐹 be a close subset of 𝑌 and 𝑝 ∈ 𝑌 such that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐹. Therefore, there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 =
𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 (𝐹) is closed in 𝑋 (𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 being homeomorphism is closed) and 𝑥 ∉ 𝑓 −1 (𝐹). This implies
there exists a continuous function 𝑔: 𝑋 → [0,1] such that 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑔(𝑓 −1 (𝐹)) = {1}. Now
consider, 𝑔𝜊𝑓 −1 : 𝑌 → [0,1] (a continuous function being the composition of two continuous
functions), then 𝑔𝜊𝑓 −1 (𝑝) = 𝑔(𝑓 −1 (𝑝)) = 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑔𝜊𝑓 −1 (𝐹) = 𝑔(𝑓 −1 (𝐹)) = {1}.
Hence, 𝑌 is completely regular space.
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By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Lecture No. 20 (December 20, 2023)
5.39 Definition
A topological space 𝑋 is said to be normal space if and only if for each pair of disjoint close sub-sets
𝐶1 and 𝐶2 of 𝑋 there exist disjoint open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such that 𝐶1 ⊂ 𝐺 and 𝐶2 ⊂ 𝐻. A normal space
which is also𝛵1 -space is known as 𝛵4 -space.

5.40 Theorem
A topological space 𝑋 is normal space if and only if for any open super set 𝐻 of a close set 𝐹, there
exists an open set 𝐺 such that 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐺̄ ⊂ 𝐻.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is normal space and 𝐻 is an open super set of a close set 𝐹 that is 𝐻 𝑐 and 𝐹 are disjoint
close sub-sets of 𝑋. Therefore, there exists disjoint open sets 𝐺 and 𝐺 ′ such that 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐺 and 𝐻 𝑐 ⊂ 𝐺 ′
_____
′ 𝑐 ′ ′ 𝑐
that is (𝐺 ) ⊂ 𝐻. Since, 𝐺 ∩ 𝐺 = 𝜑 therefore 𝐺 ⊂ (𝐺 ) and hence 𝐺̄ ⊂ (𝐺 ′ )𝑐 = (𝐺 ′ )𝑐 (since
(𝐺 ′ )𝑐 is closed). This implies, 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐺̄ ⊂ (𝐺 ′ )𝑐 ⊂ 𝐻 that is 𝐹 ⊂ 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐺̄ ⊂ 𝐻 as required.
Conversely, let for any open super set 𝐻 of a closed set 𝐹, there exists an open set 𝐺 such that 𝐹 ⊂
𝐺 ⊂ 𝐺̄ ⊂ 𝐻. Let 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are disjoint close sub-sets of 𝑋, therefore, 𝐶1 ⊂ 𝐶2𝑐 . Here, 𝐶2𝑐 is an open
super set of a close set 𝐶1 , therefore, by hypothesis there exists an open set 𝐺 such that 𝐶1 ⊂ 𝐺 ⊂
𝐺̄ ⊂ 𝐶2𝑐 . This implies, 𝐶1 ⊂ 𝐺 and 𝐺̄ ⊂ 𝐶2𝑐 that is 𝐶2 ⊂ (𝐺̄ )𝑐 (open) also 𝐺 and (𝐺̄ )𝑐 are disjoint
open sets. Hence, 𝑋 is normal space.

5.41 Theorem
Close sub space of a normal space is normal.
Proof. Let 𝐴 be a close sub-space of a normal space 𝑋, and 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 are disjoint closed sub-sets of 𝐴.
Then 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 are disjoint closed sub-sets of 𝑋 (since 𝐴 is a close sub-space of 𝑋). This implies there
exist disjoint open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 in 𝑋 such that 𝐶1 ⊂ 𝐺 and 𝐶2 ⊂ 𝐻. As 𝐶1 = 𝐶1 ∩ 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐺 ∩ 𝐴 and
𝐶2 = 𝐶2 ∩ 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐴, where 𝐴 ∩ 𝐺 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐻 are open in 𝐴, and ((𝐴 ∩ 𝐺) ∩ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐻) = 𝐴 ∩
(𝐺 ∩ 𝐻) = 𝐴 ∩ 𝜑 = 𝜑). Hence, 𝐴 is normal space.

5.42 Theorem
Compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is a compact Hausdorff space and 𝐴, 𝐵 are disjoint close sub-sets of 𝑋. Therefore, 𝐴,
𝐵 are compact (because closed subset of a compact set is compact). If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈
𝑋 and 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 (A and B are disjoint). This implies there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈(𝑎,𝑏) and 𝑉(𝑎,𝑏) in 𝑋
such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈(𝑎,𝑏) and 𝑏 ∈ 𝑉(𝑎,𝑏) . For fixed 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, the collection {𝑉(𝑎,𝑏) : 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} is an open cover
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of 𝐵, but 𝐵 is compact, so {𝑉(𝑎,𝑏) : 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} has a finite sub-cover {𝑉(𝑎,𝑏𝑖 ) : 𝑏𝑖 ∈ 𝐵} where 𝑖 =
1,2,3, . . . , 𝑛 for 𝐵 that is 𝐵 ⊂∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝑉(𝑎,𝑏𝑖 ). Let 𝑈(𝑎,𝑏1) , 𝑈(𝑎,𝑏2) ,…, 𝑈(𝑎,𝑏𝑛) be the corresponding open
sets in 𝑋 containing 𝑎. Put 𝑈𝑎 =∩𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈(𝑎,𝑏𝑖 ) and 𝑉𝑎 =∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝑉(𝑎,𝑏𝑖 ) , then clearly 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈𝑎 ,𝐵 ⊂ 𝑉𝑎 and
𝑈𝑎 ∩ 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑈𝑎 ∩ (∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝑉(𝑎,𝑏𝑖 ) ) =∪𝑛𝑖=1 (𝑈𝑎 ∩ 𝑉(𝑎,𝑏𝑖 ) ) =∪𝑛𝑖=1 (𝜑) = 𝜑. Repeating the same for
every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, we will get {𝑈𝑎 : 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} an open cover of 𝐴, therefore this cover of 𝐴 has a finite sub-
cover that is there exist 𝑈𝑎1 , 𝑈𝑎2 , …, 𝑈𝑎𝑛 such that 𝐴 ⊂∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑎𝑖 . For each 𝑈𝑎𝑖 , there correspond
𝑉𝑎𝑖 such that 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑉𝑎𝑖 for all 𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . . , 𝑛. Now let 𝑈 =∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑎𝑖 and 𝑉 =∩𝑛𝑖=1 𝑉𝑎𝑖 , thus 𝑈and 𝑉
are disjoint open sets such that 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑈 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑉. Hence 𝑋 is normal.

5.37 Theorem
A metric space is normal.
Proof. Let 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are disjoint close subsets of a metric space 𝑋. If either 𝐹1 = 𝜑 or 𝐹2 = 𝜑, then
𝜑 and 𝑋 are disjoint open sets such that one contains one set and the other contains the other set,
and hence 𝑋 is normal space. So, we suppose that both 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are non-empty. Let 𝑝 ∈ 𝐹1 , then
𝑝 ∉ 𝐹2 (𝐹1 ∩ 𝐹2 = 𝜑). Let 𝑑(𝑝, 𝐹2 ) = 𝑟𝑝 and 𝑞 ∈ 𝐹2 , then 𝑞 ∉ 𝐹1 . Let 𝑑(𝑞, 𝐹1 ) = 𝑟𝑞 , consider now
𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑞 𝑟𝑝 𝑟𝑞
the open balls 𝐵(𝑝, 3 ) and 𝐵(𝑞, 3 ) take 𝑈 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑝, 3 ) and 𝑉 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑞, 3 ), then 𝑈 and 𝑉
𝑝∈𝐹1 𝑞∈𝐹2

being union of open sets, are open and 𝐹1 ⊂ 𝑈 and 𝐹2 ⊂ 𝑉. Moreover, 𝑈 ∩ 𝑉 = 𝜑. Indeed: If 𝑈 ∩
𝑉 ≠ 𝜑, then 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∩ 𝑉 and this implies 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 that is there exist 𝑝0 ∈ 𝐹1 such that 𝑥 ∈
𝑟𝑝0 𝑟𝑞0
𝐵(𝑝0 , ) and 𝑞0 ∈ 𝐹2 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵(𝑞0 , ). Let 𝑑(𝑝0 , 𝑞0 ) = 𝜀, then 𝑑(𝑝0 , 𝐹2 ) = 𝑟𝑝0 ≤ 𝜀 and
3 3
𝑟𝑝0 𝑟𝑞0 𝑟𝑝0 𝜀
𝑑(𝑞0 , 𝐹2 ) = 𝑟𝑞0 ≤ 𝜀 but 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵(𝑝0 , ) and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵(𝑞0 , ) that is 𝑑(𝑝0 , 𝑥) < ≤ 3 and
3 3 3
𝑟𝑝0 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 2𝜀
𝑑(𝑞0 , 𝑥) < ≤ 3. Now if 𝜀 = 𝑑(𝑝0 , 𝑞0 ) ≤ 𝑑(𝑝0 , 𝑥) + 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑞0 ) < 3 + 3 = , where, 𝜀 > 0 and
3 3
2
hence 1 < 3, this is impossible. Hence, 𝑈 ∩ 𝑉 = 𝜑 such that 𝐹1 ⊂ 𝑈 and 𝐹2 ⊂ 𝑉, therefore, 𝑋 is
normal.

Fig. 7.2
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Lectures Fall 2022 Separation Axioms
By Hidayat Ullah Khan

5.38 Theorem
Property of being normal space is topological.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is normal space, 𝑌 a topological space and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be homeomorphism. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵
are disjoint close sub-sets of 𝑌, then 𝑓 −1 (𝐴) and 𝑓 −1 (𝐵) are disjoint close sub-sets of 𝑋 (𝑓 being
homeomorphism is closed). Therefore, there exist disjoint close sub-sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 of 𝑋 such that
𝑓 −1 (𝐴) ⊂ 𝐺 and 𝑓 −1 (𝐵) ⊂ 𝐻 that is 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑓(𝐺) and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑓(𝐻), where 𝑓(𝐺) and 𝑓(𝐻) are disjoint
open sub-sets of 𝑌 (𝑓 being homeomorphism is open), this shows that 𝑌 is Normal.
𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑅 such that𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏). So 𝐶(𝑋, 𝑅) separate points.