Chapter No.

4
LEVELING
Course Title: (CE-109) Engineering Surveying-1
Course Instructor: Engr. Shahzad Ahmed
1. INTRODUCTION
▪ Levelling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which
elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital
operation in producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and
construction.
Levelling results are used to:
i. Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other
facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography.
ii. Lay out construction projects according to planned elevations.
iii. Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials
iv. Investigate drainage characteristics of an area.
v. Develop maps showing general ground configurations.
vi. Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
2. BASIC DEFINITIONS
▪ Basic terms in levelling are defined here, some of which are illustrated in Figure 1.
2.1 Vertical Line
A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.
2.2 Level Surface
A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the direction in
which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A body of still
water is the closest example of a level surface.
2.3 Level Line
A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.
2.4 Horizontal Plane
A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying, it is a plane
perpendicular to the local vertical line.
2. BASIC DEFINITIONS
2.4 Horizontal Plane
A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying, it is a
plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.
2.5 Horizontal Line
A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to the local
vertical.
2.6 Datum
A datum is any reference surface to which the elevations of points are referred. The
most commonly used datum is that of mean sea level (MSL).
2.7 Elevation
An elevation is a vertical distance above or below a reference datum. In surveying,
the reference datum that is universally employed is mean sea level (MSL).
2. BASIC DEFINITIONS
2.8 Bench Mark
In surveying bench mark is a point of known elevation. In general it is a point whose
all dimensions (x, y, z) are known.
2.9 Back sight (B.S)
It is the first sight taken after the setting up of the instrument. Initially it is usually
made to some form of bench mark.
2.10 Fore sight (F.S)
It is the last sight taken before moving the instrument.
2.11 Intermediate sight (I.S)
It is any other sight taken except back sight and fore sight.
2.12 Height of instrument (H.I)
It is the elevation of the line of sight through the level.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING
3.1 Differential Levelling
Differential levelling is used to determine differences in elevation
between points (that are some distance from each other) by using a
surveyors’ level and a graduated measuring rod.

3.2 Profile Levelling

It is the operation in which the object is to determine the elevation of
points at known distances apart along a given line so as to obtain
accurate outline of the surface of the ground. This is also known is as
longitudinal levelling.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING
3.3 Reciprocal Levelling
It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between
two points is accurately determined by two sets of observations, when it
is not possible to set up the level midway between two points.

3.4 Trigonometric Levelling

It is the process of levelling in which the elevations of points are
computed from the vertical angle and horizontal or slope distance
measured in the field.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING
3.5 Benchmark Levelling:
BM levelling is the type of levelling employed when a system of BMs is to be
established or when an existing system of BMs is to be extended or densified.
Perhaps a BM is required in a new location, or perhaps an existing BM has been
destroyed and a suitable replacement is required. BM levelling is typified by the
relatively high level of precision specified, both for the instrumentation and for the
technique itself. It is also known as vertical control surveys
3.5 Barometric Levelling:
This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure depends upon the
elevation of place. Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure and hence
elevation is computed. However, it is not accurate method since the atmospheric
pressure depends upon season and temperature also. It may be used in exploratory
surveys. (Pressure decreases with the increase in elevation)
3. CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING
3.6 Hypsometry:
This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with
the elevation of the place. Hence the elevation difference between two
points may be found by noting the difference in boiling point of water in
the two places. This method is also useful only for exploratory survey.
4. THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL
LEVELLING
▪ In this most commonly employed method, a surveyor’s level is used
to read measuring staff held on fixed points. The surveyors’ level
consists of a cross hair–equipped telescope and an attached spirit level,
both of which are mounted on a tripod. The surveyor can sight through
the levelled telescope to a measuring staff graduated in feet or meters
and determine a measurement reading at the point where the cross hair
intersects the measuring staff.
4. THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL
LEVELLING
▪ The basic procedure is illustrated in Figure 2.
4. THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL
LEVELLING
Procedure:
An instrument is set up between BM Rock and point X. Assume the elevation
of BM Rock is known to be 820.00 ft. After levelling the instrument, a back
sight taken on a rod held on the BM gives a reading of 8.42 ft. The B.S is
used to compute the height of instrument (HI), Direction of the sight—
whether forward, backward, or sideways—is not important. Adding the B.S
8.42 ft to the elevation of BM Rock, 820.00, gives an HI of 828.42 ft.
If the telescope is then turned to bring into view a rod held on point X a
foresight (FS) is obtained. In this example, it is 1.20 ft. Subtracting the F.S
1.20 ft, from the HI, 828.42 ft, gives the elevation of point X as 827.22 ft.
4. THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL
LEVELLING
▪ Differential levelling theory and applications can thus be expressed by two
equations, which are repeated over and over:
1. HI = 𝑅𝐿𝐵𝑀 + BS
2. 𝑅𝐿𝑋 = HI – X

Where,
HI = Height of Instrument
𝑅𝐿𝐵𝑀 = Reduced level (elevation) of Bench Mark
BS = Back Sight
𝑅𝐿𝑋 = Reduced level of any point ‘X’
X = Staff reading at point ‘X’ (Can be a Fore Sight ‘FS’ or Intermediate Sight
‘IS’)
4.1 Height of Instrument (HI) Method
▪ In reducing the levels for various points by the height of instrument
method, the height of instrument (H.I.) for the each section highlighted
by different shade is determined by adding the elevation of the point to
the back sight reading taken at that point. The H.I. remains unchanged
for all the staff readings taken within that section and therefore, the
levels of all the points lying in that section are reduced by subtracting
the corresponding staff readings, i.e., I.S. or F.S., from the H.I. of that
section.
4.1 Height of Instrument (HI) Method

Arithmetic check:
The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on the
computations. The following rules are used in the HI method of reduction of levels.
∑𝐵. 𝑆 − ∑𝐹. 𝑆 = 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿 − 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿
4.1 Height of Instrument (HI) Method
Problem: Find the elevations at all points using HI method. Also apply
arithmetic check.

Solution: (See lecture notes for solution)

4.2 Rise and Fall Method
▪ In the rise and fall method, the rises and the falls are found out for the
points lying within each section. Adding or subtracting the rise or fall
to or from the reduced level of the backward station obtains the level
for a forward station. In Table (next page), r and f indicate the rise and
the fall, respectively, assumed between the consecutive points.
4.2 Rise and Fall Method

Arithmetic check:
The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on the computations. The
following rules are used in the Rise & Fall method of reduction of levels.
∑𝐵. 𝑆 − ∑𝐹. 𝑆 = 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿 − 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑅. 𝐿
4.2 Rise and Fall Method
Problem: Find the elevations at all points using rise and fall method.
Also apply arithmetic check.

Solution: (See lecture notes for solution)

Practice Problem
Problem: The following consecutive readings were taken using an
automatic level. The terrain was such that the surveyor had to shift the
instrument after 4th and 8th sight. The first sight was taken at a BM
having reduced level of 100m. The sights were:
0.894, 1.643, 2.896, 3.016, 0.954, 0.692, 0.582, 0.251, 0.996, 2.135
Calculate RL of each point using HI method & rise and fall method and
perform necessary check.
Solution: (See lecture notes for solution)
4.3 Effect of Curvature and Refraction in
Levelling
▪ From the definitions of a level surface and a horizontal line, it is
evident that the horizontal plane departs from a level surface because
of curvature of the Earth.
4.3 Effect of Curvature and Refraction in
Levelling
▪ In Figure 3(a), the deviation DB from a horizontal line through point
A is expressed approximately by the formulae:
𝐶𝑓 = 0.66𝑀2 = 0.0239𝐹 2
𝐶𝑚 = 0.0785𝐾 2
Where,
𝐶𝑓 & 𝐶𝑚 is the departure of a level surface from a horizontal line in
feet or in meters.
M is the distance AB in miles.
F is the distance in thousands of feet.
K is the distance in kilometers.
4.3 Effect of Curvature and Refraction in
Levelling
▪ Since points A and B are on a level line, they have the same elevation.
If a graduated rod was held vertically at B and a reading was taken on
it by means of a telescope with its line of sight AD horizontal, the
Earth’s curvature would cause the reading to be read too high by
length BD. Light rays passing through the Earth’s atmosphere are bent
or refracted toward the Earth’s surface, as shown in Figure 3(b). Thus
a theoretically horizontal line of sight, like AH in Figure 3(a), is bent
to the curved form AR. Hence, the reading on a rod held at R is
diminished by length RH.
4.3 Effect of Curvature and Refraction in
Levelling
▪ Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on
atmospheric conditions, length of line, and the angle a sight line makes with
the vertical. For a horizontal sight, refraction Rf in feet or Rm in meters is
expressed approximately by the formulae:
𝑅𝑓 = 0.093𝑀2 = 0.0033𝐹 2
𝑅𝑚 = 0.011𝐾 2
▪ This is about one seventh the effect of curvature of the Earth, but in the
opposite direction. The combined effect of curvature and refraction, h in
Figure 3(a), is approximately:
ℎ𝑓 = 0.574𝑀2 = 0.0206𝐹 2
ℎ𝑚 = 0.0675𝐾 2
Where, ℎ𝑓 is in feet, and ℎ𝑚 is in meter.
4.3 Effect of Curvature and Refraction in
Levelling
Problem: Find the reduced level of all points given that:

Solution: (See lecture notes for solution)

5. TRIGNOMETRIC LEVELLING
▪ The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by
measuring :
1. The inclined or horizontal distance between them.
2. The zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the other.
(Zenith and altitude angles are measured in vertical planes. Zenith
angles are observed downward from vertical, and altitude angles are
observed up or down from horizontal.)
5. TRIGNOMETRIC LEVELLING
▪ Thus, in Figure 4, if slope distance S and zenith
angle ‘Z’ or altitude angle ‘α’ between C and D are
observed, then V, the elevation difference between
C and D, is:
V = S x Cos 𝑧
OR
V = S x Sin α
▪ Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C
and D is measured, then V is:
V = H x Cot z
OR
V = H x Tan α
▪ Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C
and D is measured, then V is
∆ elev. = hi + V − r
5. TRIGNOMETRIC LEVELLING
Problem: If the zenith angle measured is 42°, slope distance measured is
275.62ft to point D, height of instrument is 3.45ft from point A and staff
reading is 1.26ft. What is the difference of elevation between point A
and B?
Solution: (See lecture notes for solution)
6. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
▪ Sometimes in levelling across topographic
features such as rivers, lakes, and canyons,
it is difficult or impossible to keep fore and
back sights short and equal. Reciprocal
levelling may be utilized at such locations.
▪ As shown in Figure 5, a level is set up on
one side of a river at X, near A, and rod
readings are taken on points A and B. Since
XB is very long, several readings are taken
for averaging. Reading, turning the levelling
screws to throw the instrument out of level,
re-levelling, and reading again, does this.
The process is repeated two, three, four, or
more times. Then the instrument is moved
close to Y and the same procedure followed.
6. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
▪ The two differences in elevation between A and B, determined with an
instrument first at X and then at Y, will not agree normally because of
curvature, refraction, and personal and instrumental errors. However,
in the procedure just outlined, the long fore-sight from X to B is
balanced by the long back-sight from Y to A. Thus the average of the
two elevation differences cancels the effects of curvature, refraction,
and instrumental errors, so the result is accepted as the correct value if
the precision of the two differences appears satisfactory. Delays at X
and Y should be minimized because refraction varies with changing
atmospheric conditions.
6. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
▪ If the two points between which the difference of level is required to be
determined are A and B then in reciprocal levelling, the first set of staff readings
(a1 and b1) is taken by placing the staff on A and B, and instrument at X. The
second set of readings (a2 and b2) is taken again on A and B by placing the
instrument at Y. The difference of level between A and B is given by:
𝑎1 − 𝑏1 + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )
∆ℎ =
2
▪ And the combine error is given by:
𝑏1 − 𝑎1 − (𝑏2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑒=
2
Where,
𝑒 = Combined error due to collimation, earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
6. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
Problem: While conducting reciprocal survey, following readings were
obtained between A and B:
If the reduced level of B is 55.18 m above the datum, what is the
reduced level of A?

Solution: (See lecture notes for solution)

Practice Question
Problem: Reciprocal leveling gives the following readings in meters
from a set up near A: on A, 2.558; on B, 1.883, 1.886, and 1.885. At the
setup near B: on B, 1.555; on A, 2.228, 2.226, and 2.229. The elevation
of A is 158.618 m?
Solution: (See lecture notes for solution)
7. PROFILE LEVELLING
▪ The profile of the route is a side view or elevation. Before engineers
can properly design linear facilities such as highways, railroads,
transmission lines, aqueducts, canals, sewers, and water mains, they
need accurate information about the topography along the proposed
routes. Profile levelling, which yields elevations at definite points
along a reference line, provides the needed data. Profile levelling is
same as differential levelling but here the distance is also considered.
Elevations are computed at distance interval of 20, 30 or 40 m or
wherever sudden change of slope occurs. When these elevations are
plotted, a profile of that area is generated.
7. PROFILE LEVELLING
▪ Figure 6 shows the typical graphical representation or profile
levelling.
7. PROFILE LEVELLING
Problem: Find the reduced level of all survey points, given in table
below. Also find the slope between first and last sight. (This is a practice
problem)
8. CONTOURS
▪ Contours are lines drawn on a plan that connect points having the
same elevation. The vertical distance between contour lines is called
the contour interval. Depending on the accuracy required, they may be
plotted at 0.1-m to 0.5-m intervals in flat terrain and 1-m to 10-m
intervals in undulating terrain. The interval chosen depends on:
i. The type of project involved.
ii. The type of terrain, flat or undulating.
iii. The cost, for the smaller the interval the greater the amount of field
data required, resulting in greater expense.
8.1 Characteristics of Contours:
▪ Although each contour line in nature has a unique shape, all contours adhere to a
set of general characteristics. Important ones, fundamental to their proper field
location and correct plotting, are listed.
1. Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map. They cannot
dead end.
2. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
3. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. (Thus, it is
necessary that breaks (changes) in grade be located in topographic surveys.)
4. The distance between contours indicates the steepness of a slope. Wide
separation denotes gentle slopes; close spacing, steep slopes; even and parallel
spacing, uniform slope.
5. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged country. Smooth lines imply more
uniformly rolling terrain.
8.1 Characteristics of Contours:
6. Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills. A contour forming
a closed loop around lower ground is called a depression contour (Spot elevations and
hachures inside the lowest contour and pointing to the bottom of a hole or sink with no
outlet make map reading easier.)
7. Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical surface such as a wall,
cliff, or natural bridge. They cross only in the rare case of a cave or overhanging shelf.
Knife-edge conditions are never found in natural formations.
8. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
9. Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s; they point down the
ridge and form U’s when crossing a ridge crest.
10. Contour lines go in pairs up valleys and along the sides of ridge tops.
11. Cuts and fills for earth dams, levees, highways, railroads, canals, etc., produce straight
or geometrically curved contour lines with uniform, or uniformly graduated spacing.
Contours cross sloping or crowned streets in typical V- or U-shaped lines.
8.3 Locating Contours
8.3.1 Direct Method:
In the direct method, the contour to be
plotted is actually traced on the ground.
Points which happen to fall on a desired
contour are only surveyed, plotted and
finally joined to obtain the particular
contour. This method is slow and tedious
and thus used for large scale maps, small
contour interval and at high degree of
precision.
8.3.2 Indirect Method:
In this method, the spot levels of selected
guide points are taken with a level and their
reduced levels are computed. The horizontal
positions of these points are measured or
computed and the points are plotted on the
plan. The contours are then drawn by a
process called interpolation of contours
from the levels of the guide points. The
following are the indirect methods that are
commonly used for locating contours:
a. Grid method
b. Radial line method
c. Tacheometric method
END
Courtesy
➢ Special Thanks to Sir Etikaf Hussain for His Made Handouts.