43

Nox emission control in gas turbines for combined

cycle gas turbine plant
M J Moore
Consultant, Guildford, Surrey

Abstract: The increase, in recent years, in the size and efficiency of gas turbines burning natural gas in com-
bined cycle has occurred against a background of tightening environmental legislation on the emission of
nitrogen oxides. The higher turbine entry temperatures required for efficiency improvement tend to increase
NOx production. First-generation emission control systems involved water injection and catalytic reduction
and were relatively expensive to operate. Dry low-NOx combustion systems have therefore been developed
but demand more primary air for combustion. This gives added incentive to the reduction of air requirements
for cooling the combustor and turbine blading. This paper reviews the various approaches adopted by the
main gas turbine manufacturers which are achieving very low levels of NOx emission from natural gas com-
bustion. Further developments, however, are necessary for liquid fuels.

Keywords: gas turbines, combustion, combined cycles, environment, nitrogen oxides, BATNEEC

1 INTRODUCTION 2 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

It was a fortunate coincidence for the United Kingdom that
tightening European Community regulations on sulphur
emissions from power plant coincided with the increased
availability of natural gas at economic prices. Revised leg-
islation allowing the use of gas for electricity generation and
the discouragement of oilfield exploitation without gas
recovery has led in the United Kingdom to the so-called
‘dash for gas’. Natural gas contains very little sulphur and
what is present can be relatively easily removed. Corrosive
alkali metal salts are also absent, making natural gas an
ideal fuel for high-temperature gas turbines. Incorporated
in combined cycle—the so-called combined cycle gas tur-
bine (CCGT) plant—this new breed of industrial gas turbines
enables cycle thermal efficiencies approaching 60 per cent
(LCV) to be obtained, well in excess of open cycle gas tur-
bine or Rankine-based steam plant. Similarly, gas turbine
unit size has increased remarkably from 20 to 250 MW
over the past 20 years. However, higher turbine entry
temperature, a prime factor in increased efficiency, tends
to increase the rate of formation of oxides of nitrogen and
special measures have been introduced by the gas turbine
designers to counteract this effect. This paper presents a
brief history of such developments and the approaches
currently being adopted by the main engine manufacturers.
Complex interactions of nitrogen oxides with reactive
hydrocarbons and sunlight produce low-level ozone, acid
rain and smog and legislation reflects the view that any
emission of NOx is to be avoided or minimized. Emission
limits imposed by power plant licensing authorities differ
in different countries but loosely reflect the current level
of abatement technology—although it could be argued
that the legislation drives the technology where, for exam-
ple, tough prescriptive limits are imposed. While some 95
per cent of the NOx emitted is in the form of nitric oxide
(NO), emission limits are defined as the quantity of nitrogen
dioxide equivalent, as the NO is ultimately converted to
NO2 in the atmosphere. Monitoring instruments generally
measure NO using chemiluminescent techniques and the
equivalent NO2 is calculated. Emission is expressed in var-
ious units (mg/m3 , mg/MJ, ppm, ppmv) as the quantity of
NO2 in dry air at 1 atmosphere pressure (1.013 bar) and
0 ⬚C. It is also customary to refer the data to air containing
15 per cent oxygen. In this review emission limits are
expressed as ppm, at 15 per cent dry O2 .
For new plant (or plant undergoing substantial upgrading)
permissible emissions of NOx have decreased significantly
in recent years. The current guidance in the United Kingdom
(1) advises that emissions of NOx for gas turbines individu-
ally of 50 MW or more net rated thermal input should not
at any time exceed:

The MS was received on 4 April 1996 and was accepted for publication on Gaseous fuels: 60 mg/m3 (50 mg/MJ)—
27 August 1996. approximately 50 ppm
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44
Liquid fuels: 125 mg/m3 (105 mg/MJ)—
approximately 100 ppm
and emissions under steady conditions should be colourless.
(If NO2 > 15 ppm in the exhaust gases, which can occur at
low exhaust gas temperatures, a yellow plume is produced.)
Further examples of current limits [from reference (2)]
are listed in Table 1 for large plant (>100 MWth ). The
most severe limitations are in place in Southern California
and in certain areas of Germany and Japan.
Table 1 Some national NOx emission limits (ppm, 15 per
cent dry O2 Þ
General
Gas Oil Local
Germany 50 75 <50
Netherlands 37 37 — —
United States 75 75 9 8
Japan 73 73 9 8
3 NOx FORMATION IN GAS TURBINES
Combustion in gas turbines has traditionally employed a
diffusion flame where fuel is sprayed into the centre of an
air stream. Fuel mixes with the air by turbulent diffusion
and the flame front can be considered the locus of the
stoichiometric mixture where temperatures reach approxi-
mately 2000 ⬚C. The hot combustion products are cooled
by dilution with excess air to temperatures acceptable to
the combustor walls and turbine blading.
The combustion process consists of three phases, the
endothermic dissociation of the fuel molecules, followed
by a fast, exothermic formation of CO and H2 O, and finally
the slower, exothermic oxidation of CO to CO2 . Some 80
per cent of the energy is released in the second phase during
the formation of CO. The slower burn-out to CO2 can
require 75 per cent of the combustion zone length.
Nitrogen oxides are formed at high temperature by the
dissociation of the O2 molecule and the action of the O
radical on molecules of nitrogen. Zeldovich (3) showed
that, at temperatures above 1500 ⬚C, NOx was formed
from nitrogen in the atmospheric air taking part in the
combustion process, the product being denoted Thermal
NOx . This product is approximately 95 per cent NO, with
NO2 making up the balance plus a small amount of N2 O.
The main reactions are
O2 → O þ O
N2 þ O → NO þ N
N þ O2 → NO þ O
The rate of formation of NO has been determined
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M J MOORE
theoretically (4) and is described by
½NOÿ ¼ K1 expð¹K2 =TÞ½N2 ÿ½O2 ÿ0:5 t ð1Þ
The quantity of NO formed is an exponential function of
temperature and is proportional to the concentration of N2 ,
the square root of O2 concentration and the residence
time, t, at the high temperature. The reduction in tempera-
ture emerges as the main strategy for controlling thermal
NOx emissions from gas turbines.
The other NOx -producing mechanisms are so-called Fuel-
NOx and Prompt-NOx . The former results from reactions
with nitrogen present in the fuel—a significant component
in coal and, to a small extent, in liquid fuels but not present
in natural gas. Prompt-NOx (5) is formed very briefly during
the combustion process by the interaction of CH radicals on
CO N2 , the quantity of NO produced in this manner being also
relatively small.
80
4 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
4.1 Combustor arrangement
The gas turbine was developed primarily for aircraft propul-
sion where its light weight, inherent reliability and high
thrust are distinct advantages. The jet engine burns distillate
fuels, the potential pollutants being CO, SO2 , NOx , UHCs
(unburnt hydrocarbons) and even soot (as well as, of course,
CO2 ).
Diffusion flames are employed for stability and short
combustion chambers are incorporated to minimize engine
weight and shaft length. Such engines tend to produce
relatively large quantities of NOx and CO. Industrial gas tur-
bines, relieved of weight restrictions, initially incorporated
large external (silo) combustors in order to ensure efficient
burn-out (e.g. see Fig. 1). Typically emission levels of CO <
10 ppm were achieved and UHC emission was undetectable.
The initial use of diffusion burners, however, did little to
contain NOx production. While satisfactory at turbine entry
temperatures of around 1000 ⬚C, at the higher temperatures
of modern machines the large silo combustors tended to
require too much cooling air and at part-load the large areas
of cool surface adversely affected burn-out. Long residence
times also increased NOx production. For this and for other
structural reasons the trend has therefore been to adopt
smaller multiple chambers in annular arrangement. (One
manufacturer, GE (see Section 5.3), has always incorporated
this arrangement.)
4.2 Water or steam injection
The first attempts to reduce NOx introduced a heat sink in
the flame by injecting water, with the aim of reducing aver-
age combustion temperature and hence thermal NOx pro-
duction. This had the added advantage of boosting gas
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Fig. 1 Example of silo combustor on ABB GT13E. (Courtesy of ABB Power Generation)

turbine output by increasing the mass flow of gas through Table 2 Approximate levels of NOx emission achieved by
the turbine, but gains were offset by the extra fuel required water or steam injection—diffusion flame (NOx
to heat the water to the temperature of the burning mixture. expressed as ppm on 15 per cent O2 , dry basis)
With water/fuel mass flow ratios in the range 1–2, the rate
of NOx formation could be reduced by an order of magni- With
tude (Fig. 2). However, the process required large quantities Without
injection Water Steam
of clean water—to at least boiler feedwater standard—to
avoid corrosion of the turbine blading or deposition and Distillate fuels 200 40 50
Natural gas 150 30 35
blocking of cooling air holes by impurities. Particularly
with water injection, there was also an increase in levels
of pressure fluctuations associated with combustion. Such
dynamic pressures can excite acoustic resonance which 4.3 Selective catalytic reduction
may shorten combustor can life. Steam injection, while
lacking the cooling effect of water evaporation, can never- Where local regulations required lower emission levels,
theless give better mixing and lower dynamic pressure selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems were installed.
levels than water injection and can be incorporated Ammonium hydroxide solution sprayed over a mesh con-
relatively simply in a gas and steam combined cycle. taining titanium and vanadium oxide catalysts reacts with
Steam/water injection is still offered by manufacturers for the NOx to form nitrogen and water. The reaction rate maxi-
liquid fuel or dual-fuel firing and, at modern turbine entry mizes at around 350 ⬚C, necessitating the positioning of the
temperatures and pressures, can achieve typical NOx out- SCR unit between the evaporator and economizer sections
puts as shown in Table 2. of the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). Such systems
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46 M J MOORE

Fig. 2 Effect of water/steam injection on the rate of NOx production [from reference (2)]

were relatively expensive to install and maintain but, com-
bined with water injection, could reduce NOx emissions to
less than 10 ppm.
4.4 The evolution of dry low-NOx systems
The high costs of the above systems provided the incentive
to explore the use of non-stoichiometric mixtures to reduce
flame temperature in so-called dry low-NOx (DLN) systems.
If fuel and air are mixed before combustion in a so-called
pre-mix flame, the combustion temperature, and therefore
the NOx formed, is a strong function of the fuel–air ratio,
as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3. By using a lean fuel/
air mixture the rate of NOx formation can be significantly
reduced.
In comparison, only at fuel-rich conditions does a diffu-
sion flame give low NOx . Fuel-rich combustion has atten-
dant problems of cooling the combustor can without
diluting the fuel/air mixture and presents the possibility of
incomplete burn-out. Early attempts to reduce NOx
employed fuel or air staging in which, following an initial

Fig. 3 NOx production from diffusion and pre-mix flames

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 NOx EMISSION CONTROL IN GAS TURBINES FOR CCGT PLANT
Fig. 4 Operating range of pre-mix flames. (Courtesy of
Siemens AG)
combustion, further air and/or fuel is added, followed by
dilution air. Such systems could be rich/lean or lean/lean
in sequence.
For natural gas fuel the commonly adopted strategy is to
employ DLN burners incorporating lean, pre-mix flames.
The main problems associated with lean pre-mix flames
are their stability, their fuel inflexibility and the limited
turn-down range. To minimize flame temperature and hence
NOx production the fuel/air mixture is weakened to as near
the extinction point as can safely be realized. Thorough
mixing is also essential to avoid unsteady combustion and
even flashback with subsequent burner damage. To stabilize
the flame, it is common practice to use a hybrid system in
which the bulk of the fuel is burned in a pre-mix burner,
the remainder being supplied to a small pilot diffusion flame
embedded in the flow. Even so, operation is limited to a
narrow range of fuel/air mixtures between the production
of excessive NOx and excessive CO (Fig. 4). Careful devel-
opment of combustor geometry and control system is there-
fore required.
Stable turn-down is generally achieved by incorporating
multiple burners in the combustor which can be turned off
systematically, maintaining a uniform temperature profile
into the turbine. In CCGT plant the compressor air flowrate
is reduced at part load using variable inlet guide vanes,
enabling the gas temperature at entry to the HRSG to be
maintained down to typically 50 per cent load.
The current development problem for DLN burners as
turbine entry temperatures increase is to provide the neces-
sarily large quantity of air for lean pre-mix combustion
while maintaining adequate cooling of engine hot parts
without reducing efficiency by extracting too much cooling
air from the compressor. The next section summarizes
briefly the range of designs of the world’s main industrial
GT (gas turbine) manufacturers and their claimed
performance.
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47
In comparing gas turbine entry temperature (TET) it may
be noted that the manufacturers define TET in slightly
different ways. Japanese manufacturers tend to quote the
temperature at entry to the first fixed blades. US practice
is to use the temperature downstream of the first fixed blades
after mixing with readmitted cooling air. Siemens, on the
other hand, use the ISO 2314 value calculated from the com-
bustion of full-load fuel flow with the total compressor
flow. Thus, for the same engine, the above definitions
may, for example, give TETs of 1280, 1230 and 1130 ⬚C
respectively.
5 THE STATE OF THE ART
5.1 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI)
According to reference (6), MHI introduced the world’s first
operational DLN combustor in their 1450 K Class gas tur-
bine at Tohoku Electric Company’s Higashi Niigata Power
Station in 1984. Denoted DLN1, the combustor used a
hybrid burner with an air bypass arrangement for part load-
ing. NOx levels at gas turbine exit were some 75 ppm, redu-
cing to less than 10 ppm after the SCR system was installed
in the HRSG.
The DLN1 combustor incorporated a double chamber
for pilot and main burners in an annular arrangement. The
combustor liner had a conventional film cooling system.
However, for higher temperature engines, the air require-
ment for lean pre-mix burners and film cooling is excessive.
The next development, DLN2, in 1992, therefore employed
a single chamber to reduce cooled surface area (Fig. 5). It
also incorporated advanced types of liner cooling, known
as PLATEFIN and MTFIN (Fig. 6). DLN2 also has a multi-
nozzle system allowing dual-fuel operation. NOx levels of
25 ppm have been achieved on the MHI 1600 K Class ‘F’
engine using DLN2 (Fig. 7).
The incentive to reduce the quantity of cooling air has led
to the development of the DLN3 combustor incorporating
the MTFIN liner cooling system. Target NOx levels are
9 ppm for the F engine and 25 ppm for the 1750 K G engine.
Liner cooling is by air in the F engine but by steam in the G
engine. The latter acts as a superheater in the CCGT steam
bottoming cycle. DLN3 is at present undergoing laboratory
tests.
The next development, DLN4, has a target of 9 ppm for
the G engine. Areas receiving attention are the achievement
of complete pre-mixing and minimization of boundary layers
to reduce the potential flashback path and to minimize
unsteady combustion.
5.2 ABB Power Generation
Early ABB industrial gas turbines incorporated a single,
diffusion burner in a silo combustor, suitable for oil or
gas firing and using water injection where NOx limiting
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Fig. 5 MHI DLN2 combustor

legislation dictated. However, the perceived advantages of
DLN systems led to the development of a first-generation,
lean, pre-mix burner which entered commercial operation
in 1984 in a type GT13 machine. Burner design consisted
of a long mixing tube in which air and gaseous fuel were
pre-mixed, followed by a swirler and diffusion flame nozzle
to stabilize the flame. By using multiple small burners,
flame length—and hence residence time—was reduced
and part-load performance achieved by burner staging. As
many as 36 burners were mounted in the single silo combus-
tor and achieved NOx emissions of 40–60 ppm.
To meet tighter emission standards, in 1987 ABB began
research on their second-generation system and produced
the environmental (EV) burner. The burner consists of an
axially split diffusing cone, the two halves offset to form
tangential slots (see Fig. 8). Combustion air is fed through
the slots forming a powerful vortex in the cone. Gas is injected
into the vortex via small holes at the edges of the slots.

Fig. 6 MHI combustor cooling systems

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 NOx EMISSION CONTROL IN GAS TURBINES FOR CCGT PLANT 49

Fig. 7 NOx emissions from MHI DLN2 combustor

(Liquid fuel can be sprayed into the burner via a nozzle at
the cone apex.) Pre-mixing in the cone is followed by com-
bustion at exit where the vortex breaks down, allowing
recirculation and flame stabilization. As the flame is outside
the burner, the burner structure remains relatively cool. The
burner is guaranteed by ABB to give less than 25 ppm NOx
with natural gas and 42 ppm with oil firing and water injec-
tion (7). The EV burner was first used commercially in 1987
in the Midlands power plant in the United States.
As many as 54 EV burners were initially introduced into
each silo combustor. However, as with other GT manufac-
turers, ABB have moved away from silo arrangements
and have developed an annular combustor, shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 9. In the GT13E2, 72 EV burners are
arranged in rings around the annulus, enabling the opera-
tional load range to be achieved by burner group staging.
In the latest GT design, the GT24/GT26, ABB have
introduced sequential combustion. The first combustion pro-
cess is performed using multiple EV burners in an annular
arrangement, the hot gases passing to the HP turbine stage.
A further, spontaneous combustion downstream of this
stage is achieved by injecting fuel into a sequential EV
burner also designed on the vortex breakdown principle.
Vortices are produced by delta ‘wings’ on the sides of the
combustor segments and secondary air maintains a lean
mixture. ABB claim that the uniformity of temperature of
the lean mixture results in practically no NOx being pro-
duced in the second combustion. The first GT24 was
fired-up in September 1995 at Gilbert Power Station, New
Jersey.
Also noted is the claim that the EV burner system enables
surrounding metalwork to be cooled by conventional con-
vection cooling. The introduction of more sophisticated
film cooling systems is therefore avoided.

Fig. 8 ABB EV cone burner

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Fig. 9 Annular combustor of ABB GT 13E2

5.3 GE power systems
The first DLN system developed by GE was tested at Hous-
ton Lighting and Power in 1980 and met the EPA emission
goals at that time of 75 ppmv NOx . Subsequent develop-
ments have led to the present combustor designs, designated
DLN-1 and DLN-2. Both are based on the lean pre-mix
principle but differ in detailed geometry.
The DLN-1 design incorporates a complex fuel-staging
process to reach full load as shown in Fig. 10. At full load
the primary nozzles provide a lean pre-mixed gas/air mix-
ture to the flame burning at the outlet to the secondary noz-
zle. Recirculation after a venturi stabilizes the flame and
dilution air is added downstream. For low NOx production
the primary fuel/air mixture is very lean so, for stable and
efficient combustion, a pilot flame and various geometric
arrangements are employed to maintain ignition of the
main mixture. The combustor can be dual fuelled but, for
liquid fuel, a diffusion flame is employed with water injec-
tion. On natural gas GE claim full-load emissions of as low
as 9 ppm NOx (at 25 ppm CO) for ‘E’ technology engines
(TET ¼ 1100 ⬚C) and for ‘F’ engines (TET ¼ 1316 ⬚C)
between 30 and 60 ppm NOx (8).
At the higher temperatures of the ‘F’ engines and sub-
sequent technologies it was realized that a combustor
requiring less cooling air was required if engine efficiency
was not to be compromised. The new design, DLN-2
(Fig. 11), was developed without the centre body and
venturi of DLN-1, so saving the cooling air needed for these
components. DLN-2 is a single-stage, dual-fuelled design

Fig. 10 GE DLN-1 combustor operating sequence

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 NOx EMISSION CONTROL IN GAS TURBINES FOR CCGT PLANT 51

Fig. 11 GE DLN-2 combustor

incorporating five mixer nozzles. The lean mixture from

the nozzles is swirled into the combustion chamber where
vortex breakdown and recirculation stabilizes the flame.
The first DLN-2 combustor was operated commercially in
Florida P&L Martin Station in 1994 and achieved
< 25 ppm NOx and 15 ppm CO.

5.4 Siemens AG

Multiple-burner systems have been employed by Siemens

in their silo combustors and in the annular combustor
designs introduced in 1994. Typically six or eight burners
are fitted to silos for V84 and V94 engines and 24 to the
V84 annular combustor. The burners are based on the
‘hybrid’ arrangement developed in the mid-1980s and
shown schematically in Fig. 12. Diffusion flames are
used for start-up and low load, switching to lean, pre-
mix flames at higher loads, giving the NOx emission per-
formance shown in Fig. 13 for the V84.3A currently under
full-size testing in Berlin.
Improvements have been made to the pre-mix swirler
and gas injection system to improve mixing. With the lat- Fig. 12 Siemens hybrid burner
est version of the hybrid burner, HR-3, Siemens guarantee
less than 25 ppm NOx at full load with natural gas (9).
The combustors also burn liquid fuels by diffusion flame
with water injection, reducing NOx to 50 ppm. A dry pre-
mix version for liquid fuels was tested in a V94.2 engine
at Halmstad in 1993 and gave NOx < 90 ppm and CO < 10
ppm at a TET of 1060 ⬚C ISO.
Cooling air requirements are claimed to be reduced by the
Siemens practice of lining the combustion chamber with
ceramic tiles.

5.5 Aero-derivatives

Aero-engine manufacturers have traditionally produced Fig. 13 NOx emissions from Siemens V84.3A engine
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selected versions of jet engines modified for peak-power gen-
eration. The longer operating life and higher temperatures
available from natural gas combustion has reawakened inter-
est in this niche market, the large aero-derivatives even being
considered for combined cycle application. Notable exam-
ples are the GE LM6000 and the Rolls-Royce RB211 and
Trent gas turbines. Low NOx combustors for natural gas
have been designed for these engines based on the pre-mix
lean flame principle for reducing flame temperature.
The LM6000 employs an annual combustor fed by three
rings of pre-mixing nozzles and an enlarged reaction cham-
ber to increase residence time for improved burn-out. On
test, emissions were less than 15 ppm NOx , 10 ppm CO
and 2 ppm UHC at a turbine entry temperature at 1288 ⬚C.
Guarantee figures are 25 ppm NOx with natural gas and
42 ppm with liquid fuel plus water injection (10).
The Trent DLN combustor consists of a series of ‘pots’
around the machine periphery. The emission guarantee is
25 ppmv NOx , but development targets are 9 ppm NOx on
natural gas and 42 ppmv on liquid fuels using water injec-
tion (11). These figures may be compared with the aero-
engine version of the RB211 which produces some
200 ppmv NOx and 80 ppmv CO.
6 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
The principle of application of best available techniques not
entailing excessive costs (BATNEEC) adopted by EC envir-
onmental control agencies suggests that the general require-
ment for new plant may, in due course, reflect the low levels
of NOx emission (< 9 ppm), shown to be achievable using
DLN systems with natural gas fuels. Limits for liquid fuels
will also probably be revised downwards, particularly as
dual fuelling is used to obviate difficulties arising from
interruptible gas supply contracts.
For gas firing, manufacturers generally expect that further
attention to pre-mixing will enable future DLN systems to
meet the 9 ppm limits with improved stability and reduced
CO emission. However, applying the same techniques to
liquid fuels systems is inherently more difficult. Pre-mixing
is compromised by the time taken for fuel droplets to evapo-
rate and the tendency for pre-ignition and flashback to occur.
Problems of incomplete burn-out and carbon residue deposits
have also been experienced. Air blast fuel atomizers are a pos-
sible option but represent additional energy consumption.
Catalytic combustion is also being considered, but feasibility
has yet to be established. DLN liquid fuel combustion
remains, therefore, a challenge to gas turbine manufacturers.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Gas turbine manufacturers have successfully developed dry
low NOx combustion systems for natural gas firing which
meet current environmental requirements. Various combus-
tor geometries and control strategies are employed but all
are based on the principle of reducing flame temperature
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to as near turbine entry temperature as possible by burning
a pre-mixed lean mixture of gas and air. Refinement of DLN
combustor designs should enable NOx emissions of < 9 ppm
to be achieved at the current TETs of 1260 ⬚C.
However, pre-mix flames require large quantities of
combustion air, making less air available for cooling of
combustion chamber walls, turbine blading, etc. Manufac-
turers are therefore developing alternative approaches
such as improved cooling heat transfer systems, steam
cooling or sequential combustion to achieve increased
CCGT efficiency.
Achievement of low NOx with liquid fuels has proved
more difficult and currently relies upon relatively expensive
water injection to achieve emissions of < 50 ppm. Dual fuel-
ling is an important requirement for many operators and the
DLN combustor for liquid fuels is a development goal for
gas turbine designers.
REFERENCES
1 HMIP Chief Inspector’s Guidance to Inspectors, Process Gui-
dance Note IPR1/2 (Revised 1994), Combustion Processes—
Gas Turbines.
2 Schetter, B. Gas turbine combustion and emission control.
VKI Lecture Series 1993–08 on Combined Cycles for Power
Plants, 5–9 July 1993.
3 Zeldovich, Ya. B. The oxidation of nitrogen in combustion
and explosions. Acta Physicochimica USSR, 1946, 21, 577–
628.
4 MacKinnon, D. J. Nitric oxide formation at high temperature.
Air Pollution Control Ass. J., March 1974, 24(3), 237–239.
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19(2), 289–296.
6 Mandai, S. Methods of NOx reduction in MHI gas turbines. In
IMechE Seminar on Best Technology for NOx Emission
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7 Hellat, J. NOx control in CCGT plant. In IMechE Seminar on
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8 Berkley Davis, L. Dry low NOx combustion systems for GE
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BACKGROUND READING
Boyce, M. P. Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook, 1982 (Gulf).
Lefebvre, A. H. Gas Turbine Combustion, 1983 (Taylor and
Francis, London).
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