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应试笔记分享

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背诵:★★★ 理解:★★ 知道:★

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Part A. Governance

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Agency theory 代理人理论★★★

Any agency relationship involves two parties: a principal and an agent. The agentis accountable to the
principal. The relationship arises from the separation of management and ownership in public
companies (and in other situations insociety).
代理关系涉及到委托人和代理。代理人对委托人负责,委托人有权向代理人问责。这种关系的产生源
于管理权和所有权的分离-对上市公司而言(私企的话,可能所有权=管理权)。

An agency relationship is one of trust between an agent and a principal which obliges the agent to meet
the objectives placed upon it by the principal. As one appointed by a principal to manage, oversee or
further the principal‘s specific interests, the primary purpose of agency is to discharge its fiduciary
duty to the principal.
代理关系是委托人和代理人之间的一种信任托付关系,强制代理人实现委托人设定的目标。委托人任
命代理人管理、监督和拓展委托人的利益,代理人的主要目的是履行委托人赋予的基于信任的义务。

Fiduciary duty 基于信任的义务★★

基于信任的义务是一种 duty of care and trust,是个人或企业对另一方的责任。可以是法律的或道德的


义务。

The agency problem 代理问题★★

股份公司的代理问题是因为委托人(所有人)不能自己管理经营,必须依赖代理人(管理层)来工作。
The agency problem - solution 代理问题的解决方案★
 Remove
 Exercise control
 Introduce mechanism to control the activities of the agent.

Agency costs 代理成本★

委托人要承担 agency cost, which are the costs of the monitoring that is required because of the
separation of ownership and management.因为所有权管理权分离而导致的监督成本,称为代理成本。

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Resolving the agency problem - alignment of interests

解决代理问题-利益一致★★
利益一致意味着代理人的目标与股东目标整体一致 Alignment of interests is accordance between the
objectives of agents acting within an organisation and objectives of agents within an organisation and
the objectives of the organisation as a whole,也称为 goal congruence。

比较好的方式是给管理层以 1)跟利润挂钩的薪酬机制;2)提供其他跟利润或股价有关的激励。具体:
a) Profit – related / economic value-added pay
b) Rewarding managers with shares
c) Executive share option plans (ESOPs)

Transaction costs theory 交易成本理论★★

大企业尽量将大量交易整合到内部 in-house,以此来降低跟供应商打交道的不确定性(提高 bargain


power),尤其是价格和质量方面。
(有点类似规模效应,大宗订单更容易获得好价格好质量) 。

Corporate governance – definition 公司治理定义★★★

Corporate governance is a set of relationships between a company’s directors, its shareholders and
other stakeholders. It also provides the structure through which the objectives of the company are set,
and the means of achieving those objectives and monitoring performance and determined.

Corporate governance 公司治理★★


1) 一个好的公司治理可以让组织以有效率,有道德的方式追求他的战略 strategy, 。
2) 一个好的公司治理可以吸引新的投资 attract new investment,
3) 公司治理加固了资本市场 underpins capital market confidence,它保护了股东投资的价值。

补充内容:★
1) 风险 risk:在一个好的公司治理下,管理层能够意识到、评估和降低风险。这包括运作一个充
分且合适的内控系统
2) 精神 spirit:好的公司治理不仅仅是外部行为准则,也是内部的意愿,将精神融入法律条文。
3) 问责制 accountability:问责制是好的公司治理框架体系的主题,问责制不仅是对股东,也适用
于其他利益相关者;不仅仅针对管理层,也针对审计师。

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Core principle

1. Transparency 透明化★★★
Transparency means open and clear disclosure of relevant information to shareholders and other
stakeholders, also not concealing when it may affect decisions. It means open discussion and a default
position of information provision rather than concealment.
透明表示没有遮掩的,完全披露相关信息给股东和其他利益相关者,不隐瞒会影响决定的这些信息。
这意味着公开讨论和信息披露的默认态度不是隐瞒。

Disclosure includes information in the financial statements, not just the numbers and notes to the accounts but
also narrative statements such as the directors’ report. It also includes all voluntary disclosure that is
disclosure above the minimum required by law or regulation.

The main reason why transparency is so important relates to the agency problem that the potential
conflict between owners and managers. Without effective disclosure the position could be unfairly
weighted towards managers, since they have far more knowledge of the company’s activities and
financial situation than owner/investors. (Information asymmetry)
为什么透明这么重要,主要是解决了代理问题,即所有者和管理者潜在的利益冲突。若没有有效披露,
则管理层和所有人/投资者信息不对称,管理层极不公平地拥有更多关于公司活动和财务状况的信息。
Publication of relevant and reliable informationreassures investors and underpinsstock market confidence
in how companies are being governed and thussignificantly influences market prices.
披露相关和可靠的信息可以让投资者安心,也加固证券市场对于公司治理的信心,也会因此极大地影
响公司股价。

2. Accountability 问责制★★★
Accountability is a key relationship between two or more parties. It implies that one party is
accountable to, or answerable to, another. This means that the accountableentity can reasonably be
called upon to explain his, her or its actions and policies.
问责制是双方或多方的核心关系。它暗示一方对另一方的后果承担责任,一方有权对另一方问责。举
例:管理层被股东要求解释他的行为和他颁布的政策。

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3. Reputation 声誉★★★
Reputation is determined by how others view a person, organisation or profession. Reputation includes
a reputation for competence, supplying good quality goods and services in a timely fashion, and also
being managed in an orderly way.

It is important that companies are seen by stakeholders as competent, ethical, fair to others and
reputable. Company boards must enjoy the full confidence of several important stakeholders in order
to enjoy full access to resource and product markets. A poor reputation can quickly affect a company's
ability to, for example, attract high quality employees, sell its products or attract capital.

补充内容:★
维布伦商品(Veblen good):用来指代那些产品定价高反倒增强自身吸引力的商品。

4. Integrity 正直★★
 Integrity means straightforward dealing and completeness.财务报告要求诚实地将公司事务的全貌
表现出来。影响财务报告正直性,还取决于谁来准备和呈现它们。
 Integrity can be taken as meaning someone of high moral character.正直还涉及到人的道德品质,
坚守道德原则,不管面对怎样的压力(不该说的不说,不该做的不做)。
 公司治理的核心目的就是刺激市场参与者(投资人)的信心,这个极大程度取决于公众认为公司
是否有能力或足够正直 significantly depends on a public perception of competence and integrity.

5. Fairness 公平★★
无论是管理者的考量还是公司系统的构建,都充分考虑到每个人的合法利益,尊重他们的权利和观点
taking into account everyone who has a legitimate interest in the company, and respecting their
rights and views.
在许多司法中,公司治理指导方针加强了对特定团体的立法保护。例如,保护少数股东的权益。

6. Innovation 创新★
公司治理中的创新观点是认可公司和股东的诉求是会不断变化的。

7. Scepticism 职业的怀疑态度★
UK 公司治理准则鼓励非执行董事推行一种怀疑态度的氛围,这样他们才能敢于挑战管理层的决定,扮
演好监督的角色。Non-executive directors (NEDs) to adopt an air of scepticism so that they can
effectively challenge management decisions in their role of scrutiny.

8. Independence 独立★
独立性是避免被既得利益者施加不当的影响 unduly influenced by vested interests,应该不受约束 being
free from any constraints,防止被限制采取正确的做法。
这是一种坚守不受不当影响,不遭受管理层捕获 managerial capture,始终做出正确的,一尘不染的决
定 uncontaminated decision。
独立性是个人拥有的质素,是职业水平和专业行为的必要元素。

9. Probity / honesty 诚实★


诚实是最需要自证 self-evident 的道德标准。不仅关系到是否说了真话,也包括是否误导股东和其他利

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益相关者。

10. Judgement 判断★★


Judgement means that the board making decisions that enhance the prosperity of the organisation.判断
表示管理层的决定促进了公司的繁荣昌盛。也表示了管理层成员必须由足够的商业知识,并且其运行
环境可以指明方向。 决策者个人对风险的态度,对回报的时间和范围预期,都会对最后的决策产生很
大的影响。

11. Responsibility 责任★★


区别于 Accountability 问责制:问责制是承担后果;责任是纠偏!
负责任的管理层,在必要时(出现状况时) ,会采取必要步骤 corrective action 来纠正错误或补救(年底
经受股东的问责。有先后顺序!)

Stakeholder 利益相关者★★★(主要是定义和诉求)

Stakeholders are any entity (person, group or possibly non-human entity) that can affect or be affected
by the achievements of an organisation's objectives. It is a bi-directional relationship. Each stakeholder
group has different expectations about what it wants and different claims upon the organisation.

Stakeholder claims mean the demands that stakeholder interests make upon organisations, based on the
view that the impact of companies is so great that they have responsibilities to different sections of
society, not just to shareholders. Management has to decide on the legitimacy and relative strength of
different stakeholder claims.

Importance of recognition of stakeholder claims 确定利益相关者诉求


的重要性★★★

Knowledge of who stakeholder are and what claims they make is a vital part of an organisation's risk
assessment, since the claims made by stakeholder can affect the achievement of objectives.

Since it may determine the organisation's decision if it has to decide between competing stakeholder
claims. 我们需要 assessment of the influence of stakeholders in terms of their power and interest 评价
利益相关者的权利和利益方面的影响力。一个组织还需知道利益相关者的哪些地方会有冲突和紧张。

Misinterpretation of stakeholder claims ★

组织可能也会曲解诉求,take the wrong or unnecessary actions, or fail to take the right actions, to deal
with stakeholder concerns.采取了错误或不必要的行动来处理利益相关者的问题。这也可能歪曲了组织

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行动的优先权顺序。
曲解 increased chance of conflict between the organisation and some stakeholders 也可能激化组织和某
些利益相关者的冲突,因为利益相关者有非常充分的理由认为他们的关注没有被合适处理。

Stakeholder theory – Instrumental view 狭义理论★★

它表达了这样一个观点:股东主要是经济的责任 mainly economic responsibilities(再加上法律上的责


任,不得不履行,否则会被勒令停业) 。这个观点的立足点在于公司总是最大化它的利润,或者实现其
他目标,诸如赢得市场份额或符合立法或股票证券交易所规定 because it contributes to companies
maximizing their profits, or fulfilling other objectives such as gaining market share or meeting legal or
stock exchange requirements。
因此,公司不具备任何道德立足点 A business does not have any moral standard point of its own moral
duties。公司关注员工的利益,仅仅因为这些人惹不起,比如有些客户有环保需求或者优秀员工寻求很
欢愉的工作环境。

Stakeholder theory – Narrative view 广义理论★★

This suggests the existence of ethical and philanthropic responsibilities as well as economic and legal
responsibilities and organisations focusing on being altruistic.如果没做到这些,会导致社会不和谐
breakdown of social cohesion,每个人道德败坏,世风日下,和可能的经济衰退。

Classifications of stakeholders 分类★

1) 按照与公司联系程度分类 classified by the proximity★


Stakeholder group Members
Internal stakeholders 内部 Employees, management
Connected stakeholders 联结 Shareholders, customers, suppliers, lenders, trade unions工会,
competitors
External stakeholders 外部 The government, local government, the public, pressure groups民间游
说组织, opinion意见团体

2) Legitimate and Illegitimate stakeholders 按照诉求合理合法与否来分类★


Stakeholder group Members
Legitimate stakeholders Those who have valid claims upon the organisation
Illegitimate stakeholders Those whose claims upon the organisation are not valid
Ultimately how the legitimacy of each stakeholder's claim is viewed may well depend on the ethical and
politicalperspective of the person judging it.因为不同的道德和政治立场,会得出不同结论。

3) Direct and indirect stakeholders 按照是否可以直接向公司提出诉求来分类★

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Stakeholder group Members
Direct stakeholders Those who know they can affect or are affected by the organisation's activities –
employees, major customers and suppliers
Indirect stakeholders Those who are unaware of the claimsthey have on the organisation or who
cannot express their claim directly– wildlife, individual customers or
suppliers of a large organisation, future generations

4) Known and Unknown stakeholders 公司是否知道他们的存在来分类★


Stakeholder group Members
Known stakeholders Those whose existence is knownto theorganisation
Unknown stakeholders Those whoseexistence is unknown to the organisation (undiscovered species
没有发现的物种, communities in proximity to overseas suppliers海外供应商
周边社区)

5) Recognised and unrecognised stakeholders 企业做决策时是否考虑到他的利益来区分★


Stakeholder group Members
Recognised stakeholders Those whose interests and views managers consider when deciding upon
strategy
Unrecognised Those whose claims aren't taken into account in the organisation's decision
stakeholders making – likely to be very much the same as illegitimate stakeholders

6) Narrow and wide stakeholders 受企业决策影响的严重程度来分类★★


Stakeholder group Members
Narrow stakeholders Those that are the most affected by the organisation's policies and will
usually include shareholders, management, employees, suppliers and
customers that are dependent on the organisation's output.
Wide stakeholders Those less affected and may typically include government, less-dependent
customers, the wider community (as opposed to local communities)例如:相对
于本地社区的更外围的社区

7) Primary and secondary stakeholders 按 Stakeholder 对企业的影响程度来分类★★★


Stakeholder group Members
Primary stakeholders Those without whose participation the organisation will have difficulty
continuing as a going concern, such as shareholders, customers, suppliers and
government (tax and legislation)
Secondary stakeholders Those whose loss of participation won't affect the company's continued
existence such as broad communities (and perhaps management)
The narrow-wide classification is based on how much the organisation affects the stakeholder. The
primary-secondary classification is based on how much the stakeholders affect the organisation. 窄宽分类
是看企业对利益相关者的重要性;主要次要试看利益相关者对企业的重要性。

8) Voluntary and Involuntary stakeholders 是否可以自由去留来分类不行=不自愿★★★


Stakeholder group Members

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Voluntary stakeholders Those that engage with an organisation of their own choice and free will.
They are ultimately (in the long term) able to detach and discontinue their
stakeholding if they choose.例如:员工
Involuntary stakeholders They have their stakeholding imposed and are unable to detach or withdraw of
their own volition.

9) Active and passive stakeholders 按照是否积极主动参与来分类★★★


Stakeholder group Members
Active stakeholders Those who seek to participate in the organisation's activities. Active
stakeholders include managers, employees and , but may also include other
groups not part of the organisation's structure such as regulators or pressure
groups 例如:民间游说组织
Passive stakeholders Those who do not seek to participate in policy-making such as most
shareholders, local communities, institutional shareholders and government例
如:大多数小股东、机构投资者、政府

Assessing the relative importance of stakeholder interests - Power and


interest ★★★

Mendelow matrix classifies stakeholders on a matrix whose axes are power held and likelihood of
showing an interest in the organisation's activities. These factors will help define the type of relationship
the organisation should seek with its stakeholders and how it should view their concerns.

Segment D Key players 举例:大客户 公司的战略必须被这一象限内的利益相关者所接受。


major customer.
Segment C 举例:大机构投资者 Large 这类利益相关者要小心谨慎伺候。因为他们有很高的
institutionalshareholders power,伴随他们意愿的上升,可能转换为 Key players。
Keep satisfied
Segment B 举例:社区代表和游说组织 积极性很高,但权力不足。他们的能力不足以影响公司
Community 战略,但他们的意见会影响到其他更具权利的利益相关
representativesand pressure 者,诸如影响游说组织 lobby group. 这群人也惹不起,
group 所以要尽量保持对他们的信息透明,要搭理他们,否则
他们会化小变大。Keep informed

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Segment A 影响最小 Minimal effort

真题分析:Pressure group - Influence of Watching Business,简称 WB:The framework is dynamic in that


stakeholders move around the map as their power and interest rise and fall with events.这类利益相关者
的影响力是动态的,伴随其权利和对事件关注度而变化。WB 是中-高度权威,且具有可变兴趣的组织。
伴随兴趣增加,则整体影响力增加,必须考虑 WB 的看法。

Roles of stakeholder 利益相关者的角色★

1) Directors 高管★
2) Company secretary 董秘★
3) External auditor 外部审计师★
4) Employees 员工★★★
Employees will focus on how the company is performing, and how the company's performance will
impact on their pay, working conditions and career path.

Employees also have information requirements. Surveys suggest that the most interesting information
for employees is information concerned with the immediate work environment and which is future
orientated.
员工在公司 implementation of strategy 执行战略时扮演了重要角色。他们需要 comply with the
corporate governance systems in place and adopt appropriate culture 遵守公司治理系统和符合企业文
化。

5) Trade unions 工会★★

6) Suppliers★★
a) 主要供应商是 key 利益相关者,particularly in businesses where material costs and quality are
significant.尤其是那些对物料成本和质量问题非常敏感的企业。
b) 和供应商的合作非常重要,譬如尽量低的库存量来降低资金占用量,这时对供应商的可靠度依赖
非常高。
c) 需要及时付款给客户,糟糕的付款记录会恶化供应商关系,这会导致供应商 limit or withdraw
credit 改变赊销额度,或征收较高利息,或降低服务质量。更糟糕的是,停止供货给你,而 switch
to supplying competitors 卖给竞争对手。

7) Customers ★★
a) With increasingly competitive markets, consumers are able to exercise increasing levels of power
over companies.
b) consumer behavior has also enhanced the importance of consumers and costs of retaining existing
customers are significantly less than those of obtaining new customers。
c) they will satisfy their immediate material needs, but also how they will satisfy their deeper moral
needs.

8) Regulator 监管者★
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Methods of regulation 监管方式:
(▲考试要求:P1 只要看看即可)
监管者应该让竞争多元化 competition authorities are responsible for ensuring diversity,尽管有些领域
存在自然垄断 natural monopoly。鼓励竞争手段:
i. Price control 价格管制,要求逐渐降价(实质降价,考虑通胀因素)
ii. Profit control 利润管制,生产配额限制

9) Government 政府★
政府会对销售、利润、分红收税。他们通过公司销售来获得收入税和销售税。税的架构会影响投资者
的选择,是宁愿公司分红还是资本增长。政府可以通过法律来营造整个监管和控制的氛围。包括积极
型的财政政策或紧缩型的财政政策,或者政府介入。政府也可以直接投资资金,或者通过税务优惠政
策来鼓励私人投资项目。

10) Stock exchanges 证券交易所★


(公司治理主要针对上市公司 Listed/Public company),证券交易所为企业提供渠道公开募集资金 raise
money,投资者可以非常方便地转换他们的股权。他还能提供关于公司价值的信息(来源于对股票的供
应和需求) 。

11) Institutional investors 机构投资者★★★


机构投资者有大笔资金(举例:公募基金是大批基民的钱汇集在一起;私募基金有投资金额门槛,通
常起购额比较高) 。他们很少收到的监管的保护,因为认为他们有足够专业知识来保护自己。
机构投资者目前是许多证券市场的最大投资者(但实质的投资人是大众基民),他们同时也可能投资风
投或直接借钱给公司。UK 的趋势是,机构投资者往往对他们投资的公司有比较大的权力。UK 比较大
的 机 构 投 资 者 有 养 老 金 pension funds, 保 险 公 司 insurance companies, 风 险 基 金 venture capital
organisations (投资者往往对拓展中的公司更感兴趣)

机构投资者的缺点★★:
a) Excessive market influence 对市场影响太大,过多干预市场。对于完全竞争的资本市场来说,
不应存在一个投资者是可以有足够规模来影响市场价格的。
b) Playing safe 大多数机构投资者需要规避投机的股票,而更多应投资蓝筹股。
c) Lack of power of investors 真正的投资者权利缺乏。机构投资者实质上是股票代持,但真正的
投资者(广大基民)不可能真正行使权力,不能再 GM 上发表言论。

行使机构投资者权利的方式★★:
a) One-to-one meetings 一对一会议。跟公司管理层一对一谈话的机会。
b) Voting 投票权(机构投资者尽量不投反对票,不干预公司管理层决议)
c) Focus list 机构投资者自己持有的关注名单,哪些公司有重大变数,需要格外关注
d) Contributing to corporate governance rating systems 公司治理评级的贡献

机构投资者干预 Intervention 的几种情况(实质是公司治理出现问题的时候)★★★


a) Fundamental concerns about the strategy being pursued in terms of products, markets and
investments 动摇根本的,涉及战略的担忧,如产品,市场和投资决定
b) Poor operationalperformance, particularly if one or more key segments has persistently

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underperformed 运营表现糟糕,尤其是一个或更多关键环节始终表现差
c) Management being dominated by a smallgroupofexecutivedirectors, with the non-executive
directors failing to hold management to account 公司管理权捏在少数执行董事手中,非执行董事
无法行使管理职责
d) Major failures in internalcontrols, particularly in sensitive areas such as health and safety, pollution
or quality 内控重大失误,尤其是敏感区域,如健康、安全、污染和质量
e) Failure to comply with laws and regulations or governance codes 不尊从法律法规或公司治理准则
f) Excessive levels of director'sremuneration 董事薪水过高
g) Poor attitudes towards corporatesocialresponsibility 公司社会责任感太差

Principles or rules 原则 OR 规定★★★

典型例题:1112 Q2;1006;1212 Q2
1) Principle-based approach 定义-背诵★★★
2) A principles-based approach works by usually a stock market making compliance with a detailed
code a condition of listing. Shareholders are then encouraged to insist on a high level of compliance
in the belief that higher compliance is more robust than lower compliance.
3) When, for whatever reason, a company is unable to comply in detail with every provision of a code,
the listing rules state that the company must explain, usually in its annual report, exactly where it
fails to comply and the reason why it is unable to comply. The shareholders, and not the law, then
judge for themselves the seriousness of the breach. (又称为 comply or explain; 另外一点:如果跟法
律重叠的部分,必须遵从,否则犯法)
Examples: UK-combined code 2006 (CC06)

Rule-based approach 定义-背诵★★★


1) In a rule-based approach to corporate governance, provisions are made in law and a breach of any
applicable provision is therefore a legal offence.
2) This means that compliance become legally accountable for compliance and are liable for
prosecution in law for failing to comply with the detail of a corporate governance code or other
provision.
3) Examples: USA-Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002 Sox

Principles or rules 特点★★


Principles Rules
Focus on aims/objectives Emphasis on achievements 着重于实现的项目:
关注目标:原则更容易整合到公司战略计划中,如 more emphasis on definite achievements 而不是潜
少数股东的目标是被公平对待;如何实现的机理未 在的因素。如环境管理具体措施,设立一个个小
提及 the mechanisms by which these objectives 目标,是否完成。
Comply or explain 遵从或解释 Compulsory compliance 强制遵从
Flexibility 灵活性: Visibility of compliance 是否遵从是可见的:
’soft’ area such as organizational culture & be easy to see, the rules are unambiguous 取决于
maintaining good relationship with 规则是否明确的,清晰的。规定模棱两可,则会

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shareholders/stakeholders 变成原则,而非规定。
Breadth of application 应用的宽泛度:different Limitations of rules 规则的局限性:
legal jurisdictions 不同司法管辖区域都可以用 可能出现的状况不在规定范围内 not covered
sufficiently,则 rules 会束手无策。

Principles 优缺点★★ (Rules 为反向)


Advantage Criticisms
Avoids legislation 当立法不合时宜,则不受此约 Broadness of principles 原则太过宽泛 so broad, of
束 very little use
Less costly 节约成本:节约时间和费用 Consistency between companies 公司间理解和执行
的不一致 consistency of approach
Appropriate for company 如:如果低风险公司的 Confusion over rules 原则还是规定,有困惑。不知道
强制性 mandatory 批露的报告要求=高风险公 哪个是强制的 between legally required compliance
司,显然不合适 excessive impose and listing rules which are subject to comply or
explain.
Flexibility 允许过度安排 transitional Investor misunderstanding 投资者误解:
arrangements 和 unusual circumstances.突发情 投资者无法正确解读公司披露的信息,或者有误解。
况,暂时技术上不符,但可以解释 Emphasis on 另一种情况是管理层太狡猾,用了些措辞来误导投
explanations: minor of temporary nature,给出方 资者。
案,股东商议允许,则可接受。
Emphasis on investor decisions 股东判断 Shareholder rights
补充:关于遵从和解释-考试常见问题 Enforcement o n a comply or explain basis means that business can
explain why they have departed from the specific provisions if they feel it is appropriate.The departures from
best practice 是否是 minor or temporary nature.
报告是否包含 details of how and when non-compliance will be remedied.

Influence of ownership 所有权的影响

典型例题:1206 Q4
1. Insider systems (family companies - 股权集中,通常为家族企业)定义★★★
1) Insider or relationship-based systems are where most companies listed on the local stock exchange
are owned and controlled by a small number of major shareholders.这类公司大多数在当地证券交
易所上市,大股东人数少,他们拥有并控制企业。股东包括创建公司的家族成员,银行,其他公
司或政府。Concentration of share ownership
2) 家族企业是股权集中构架的最好示例。代理问题在家族企业中不凸显,因为他们即是拥有着也是
管理者。Agency is not really an issue with families because of their direct involvement in management.
3) 个人行为不仅受到公司道德准则影响,也受家族道德观念影响。因为家族企业希望持续投资经营
下去。
4) 然后这种长久经营的意愿也取决于家族成员是否愿意接班,经营下去。longevity depends on the
willingness of family members to continue to be actively involved 另一方面,家族企业也需要家族成员
团结一致 family unity,如果做不到,公司治理会变得异常艰难。

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2. Advantage of insider systems ★★
1) 很容易建立所有者和管理者的纽带。尤其是控制家族通常参与到公司管理中;
2) 代理问题减少,监管成本降低,agency problem and costs reduced 因为所有人即管理人;
3) 即使所有人不是管理人,他也很容易影响公司管理层的决定,因为他的所有者地位,他可以单独
找管理层谈话;
4) 从长远观点来看 long-term view,人少比较团结,对于何时盈利也比较灵活,获取长期资本也比较
容易。

3. Disadvantage of insider systems ★★


1) 少数股东受歧视 discrimination against minority.举例:无法获取公司信息
2) 控股家族不愿意受银行或其他大股东的监管 controlling families tend not to be monitored
effectively by banks or other large shareholders.
3) 不乐意开发正式的公司治理架构
4) 不愿意聘请外部人员来担任有影响力的职位,譬如独立 NED
5) 非常模糊的财务交易或滥用上市公司资金 opaque financial transactions and misuse of funds
6) 控股多,规模大,可以影响股价,破坏了市场的完全竞争性
7) 继承者问题 succession issues,接班人或许不能胜任 less competent –家族企业独有问题!

4. Outsider systems (股权分散)定义★★★


Outsider systems are ones where shareholding ismore widely dispersed, and there is
themanager-ownership separation. 外部系统是股权分布更加广泛,管理权和所有权分离。

5. Advantage ofoutsider systems ★★


1) 所有权管理权的分离,提供动力 impetus 去开发一个健全的法律和管理制度 robust legal and
governance regimes 来保护股东权益;
2) Hostile takeovers 敌意收购比较频繁,这种威胁会警惕公司好好经营(视作惩罚机制 disciplining
mechanism)

6. Disadvantage of outsider systems ★★


1) 公司更容易有代理问题,和较多的代理成本;
2) 股东人数多,更多追求短期利益,股票买进卖出,追逐短期个人利益。而不是说服管理层修正战
略来促进公司的长期盈利。

总结:
Insider Outsider
Agency problem 代理问题 比较低 比较高
Robust governance 稳健治理 比较差 比较好
Minority 保护少数股东权益 比较差 比较好
Long-term 为了公司长远发展 比较好 比较差
Hostile takeovers 恶意收购 几率低 几率高

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Board of director 董事会★

1. BOD 的角色

2. BOD 的人员构成需要考虑的因素
 规模 Size
 内外结合 Inside/outside mix
 多样化 Diversity

3. BOD Structure

4. Advantage of diversity 多元化的好处 ★★★


多 元化 的政 策可 以帮 助董 事会 实现 人口 统计 学的 代表 性 demographically representative of the
community。这样,任何一个人口结构不会被过多代表或过少代表。董事会成员多元化,则会给公司
带来诸多优势。

1) more representative and increase its social legitimacy , enjoy stronger social contract。
2) meet local government requirements。
3) wider pool of talent
4) wider range of views and opinions to be expressed.

Nominations committee 提名委员会★

5 个常规的角色/作用
所有这些都是关于推荐或任命董事会成员的。
1) 建立合适的平衡 balance 的 ED 和 NED。在某些国家,这些是有法律规定的。在 UK,公司治理守
则知名至少董事会一半成员为 NEDs。
2) 确保董事会成员包含必要的技能、知识和经验 skills, knowledge and experience,来有效领导公司 to
effectively lead the company。任何不足 identified gaps,最好由新任命的成员来补足。

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3) 要考虑技能的持续性 continuity of required skills,董事是否可以留任 retention of directors,以及接替
的方案 succession planning。
4) 任命委员会有责任构架一个最佳的董事会规模 board size,既满足技能要求 skill needs,又要节约成
本 cost constraints,也能实现公司战略 strategies of the company。
5) 确保董事会成员的多样性,充分代表了社会的方方面面。

Director induction programme 新董事适应程序(IP)★★

适应计划的总体目地是为了让新董事尽快有效的开始新工作。主要有 4 方面内容:
1) 转换 convey 到新工作环境中,包括公司的规范 norm,价值 values 和文化 culture。如果新员工是
从其他不同类型的企业文化中转来,则这一点更为重要。
2) 跟新董事沟通实际流程和职责,包括跟新员工有关的公司政策 company policy。举例:公司架构
里的定位 orientation,报告流程 reporting line(up and down),工作组织的方式 the way in which work is
organized in the department and practical matters.
3) 理解公司的经营性质,运作方式,战略,核心利益相关者和外部关系 nature of the company, its
operations, strategy, key stakeholders and external relationships。对一个新董事来说,越能尽早理
解战略是非常必要的。合理的理解公司运作’works'可以让她很快适应新角色。
4) 建立和发展新董事跟同事的关系 develop the new director’s relationships with colleagues,特别是
那些他日常需要打交道的同事。第一印象很重要,初期的误会需要更多时间和精力来修复。

Continuing professional development 持续专业发展计划(CPD)★★

CPD 针对不同岗位的人,内容和重要性各有不同。举例,它对保持专业会计或公司董事的职业性,胜
任能力等,非常重要,这也是 CPD 的目的。CPD 的优点如下:
1) CPD 可以维持和更新专业人员的知识和技能 maintain and update the currency of her skills and
knowledge。
2) CPD 可以拓展技能 broaden skills,或横向触类旁通,或纵向深入。譬如学习更多管理和控制的方
法,如内控,是深入发展会计专业技能的途径。另,作为一个财务总监,必须对商业运行有个整
体的很好的理解,也必须拓展会计专业外的管理知识。
3) 某些专业性非常强的职位,需要不断培训来使其适应社会需求 support of society。维持技能和知识,
才能更好服务于社会。这也需要保存好 CPD 记录,来提高社会对专业机构的职业性的信心。

Performance of board 关于董事的职责和表现评估★

1) 评价董事会的表现是非常重要的控制手段,目地是提高董事的有效性,最大化它的能力,解决它
的薄弱环节。它是公司内反馈流程中不可缺少的一部分,或许可以促使董事改变它的方式或行为
目地。
2) UK 公司治理守则建议最好一年一次评估董事个人和委员会的表现。
3) 理想的评估应该由外部第三方来执行,以此保持评估的客观性。

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Criteria for individual performance measurement
1) 独立性 Independence-有自己的想法,避免利益冲突
2) 有准备的 Preparedness-知道关键人员,组织和业务
3) 对工作的热忱 Committee work-理解工作步骤,会表达看法,有热忱 enthusiasm
4) 对企业进步的贡献 Development of the organisation-有创新性的建议,战略性的计划,是否给外部
利益相关者提供支持

Leaving 董事会成员离开的几种方式★

1. Retirement by rotation 以轮换的方式退休


定义:
1) 在董事的合同里写明,限定一个期限 be limited to a specific period(一般为三年),董事需要退出
董事会。即 3 年后,他必须从董事会里下课,但可以再次参选。
2) 董事必须自动以重新参选的方式才能服务又一个合同期。如果不参选,则视为弃权。
这种方式的重要性在于:
1) 轮换退休的方式降低了对于不称职的董事合同终止的成本。董事任期届满后,只要不重新参选,
就需要离开董事会,任期届满时间取决于合同如何约定的。
2) 这种方式鼓励股东尽责,因为他们的表现会被广大股东评估,任期届满表现又不好就会下课。促
使董事需与股东的目标一致,投入精力来实现股东的目标。
3) 从长远来看,在替换董事会成员的同时,也要维持中期的稳定性。比如一次换 1-2 个董事。不至于
一下子大换血,新老交替不过来,工作脱节。

2. Resignation with or without notice 有通知书或没有通知书的辞职


董事有自由在任何时间决定不继续担任该职务,但通常来说,需要提前一定期限告知公司,给公司足
够时间平稳过渡 orderly transition,找到接替者 incoming one.

3. Not offering himself/herself for re-election 不给重新选举的权利


通常任期是 3 年,如果董事想留任,必须重新参选,得到董事支持后方可留任。但如果董事在 3 年任
期届满的最后,不重新参选,则视为退休。

4. Death in service 任期内死亡


显然,董事死亡后无法通知公司或继续服务。

5. Failure of the company 公司破产


公司破产后,所有董事的合同则视为终止。但这并不代表董事们可以不处理公司相关的法律事务,该
做的,还是要做。

6. Being removed (e.g. by being dismissed for disciplinary offences)被辞退,例如违纪违法


相对而言,比较容易证明员工的违纪违法,而很难证明员工的难以胜任。因为违法违纪的对应条款通
常很清楚的在合同或者公司条款里陈述。

7. Prolonged absence 长期缺席


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如果董事因为长期缺席而无法履行他们的职责,不管是何理由,都可以被罢免职务。关于这个缺席期
限的长短,不同管辖范围 jurisdiction 的界定不同,参见各国规定。

8. Being disqualified from being a company director by a court 通过法院,使丧失资格


公司可以通过法院,来罢免董事资格,原因可以是多种,譬如董事个人破产或个人有其他法律问题。

9. Agreed departure 约定离职


公司跟董事谈好一个补偿方案,董事认可后,拿补偿,离职。

Chairman and CEO 董事会主席 VS 首席执政官★★

(典型例题:0712 Q3, 1106 Q1, 0906 Q3)


两者都是最终领导公司的人,诸多线路的牵线人,非常重要。
主席:领导董事会
CEO:领导公司的管理层 at and below board level
Chairman 的角色★★
1) 主席是私人公司或上市公司董事会的领导 leader of the board of directors,其他组织也常常以类似
的管理结构来运作。主席有责任确保董事会运行的有效性 ensuring the board's effectiveness as a
unit,为广大董事服务。如有必要,需要确立董事会议程,并定期召开董事会议。其他诸如对新董
事的任命&IP,其他董事的 CPD,董事表现评估等,都是主席的职责。
2) 主席代表了投资者和股东的利益 represents the company to investors,和其他外部利益相关者。他
是公司对外的脸面 public face,尤其当企业需要承担责任时,主席要站出来担责。主席必须跟股东
进行交流,可以通过年报的形式(在某些司法管辖范围,主席需要每年以 chairman statement 的形
式跟股东沟通) ,也可在每年的股东大会或临时股东大会上,口头回答股东提问。
3) 对内,主席确保董事在股东大会前,能收到相关的信息,这样他们可以评估议题,便于会上的所
有讨论和决定。
4) 最后,主席也协调 NED 的贡献 co-ordinate the contributions of NEDs,帮助 ED 和 NED 建立良好的
关系.

CEO 的角色★★★
1) 领导公司,在各方面保护股东利益 lead the company and to protect shareholder interests above all
others
2) 发展和贯彻公司政策和战略,使其最大化股东的价值 develop and implement policies and strategies
capable of delivering superior shareholder value
3) 管理公司的金融和实物资源,监督结果,确保公司运作有效,有适当的风险控制程序 manage the
financial and physical resources of the company, monitor results, and ensure that effective operational
and risk controls are in place
4) 监督公司的管理团队,协调董事和其他员工的关系 oversee the management team, co-ordinate the
interface between the board and the other employees in the company

Division of responsibilities 主席和 CEO 分离的好处★★


1) 角色的分离可以让 CEO 腾出精力,集中在公司的管理上 chief executive to fully concentrate,而不

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用去跟股东汇报,或做些其他跟公司管理关系不大的事务上。
2) 公司需要一个代表广大股东利益的人 represent shareholder’s interests,作为公司跟股东交流的桥
梁,因为这种需求,所以有了 chairman。
3) 这两个角色都是权利非常大,如果集权于一个人 unfettered powers being concentrated in a single
individual,会滋生腐败,让公司透明度不足,无法问责 excessive secrecy or lack of transparency and
accountability,侵害投资者利益。
4) 将角色分开降低利益冲突的风险 conflict of interest,一个人负责公司的表现,一个人负责就他人
表现对股东做报告。
5) 另外,主席也给了 NED 一个沟通的渠道,NED 是在董事会上提供外部代表外部观点的重要角色。

Accountability and Separation of roles 实现分离和问责制的方式★


1) 主席代表股东,来监督 CEO 的管理表现,作为评估 CEO 薪酬的参考指标之一。主席有责任为了
股东利益,追究 CEO 的表现。
2) 股东需要一个代表(主席)来向他们说明投资表现如何。日常接触通常由投资者关系部门来履行,
最终向主席负责 hold to account。
3) 一个单独的主席确保了 NEDs 的汇报系统,是区别于执行结构的另一条线。这会给 NEDs 发挥的余
地,激励他们工作自由度,让他们按需开展工作。
4) 主席必须依法负责,非常有经验,独立的,不偏不倚的,因为他们不会陷入到日常的管理事务中。

Non-executive directors 非执行董事★★

董事委员会:(以下这些委员会都是平等的,所以称为一元架构)★★
1) 审计师委员会 Audit committee:是饱受争议的最重要的委员会,负责联络外部审计师,监督内审
和审查每年的账户和内控。要求全部是 NED。
2) 提名委员会 Nomination committee:负责推荐和任命新的董事会董事
3) 薪酬委员会 Remuneration committee:负责提议执行董事的薪酬政策和每个董事的其他福利
4) 风险委员会 Risk committee:负责监督公司如何应对风险和管理战略

NED 定义★★★
1) Non-executive directors have no executive (managerial) responsibilities.
2) Non-executive directors should provide a balancing influence, and play a key role in reducing
conflicts of interest between management (including executive directors) and shareholders. They
should provide reassurance to shareholders, particularly institutional shareholders that
management is acting in the interests of the organisation.

NED 有 4 个角色★★★
1) Strategy role 战略角色:NEDs may challenge any aspect of strategy they see fit and offer advice or
input to help to develop successful strategy.

2) Scrutinising role 监督角色:NED's independence is perhaps the most important. NEDs are required
to hold executive colleagues to account for decisions taken and company performance. In this
respect, they are required to represent the shareholder's interests against any vested interests or
short-term executive pressures.

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3) Risk role 风控角色: It involves NEDs ensuring the company has an adequate system of internal
controls and systems of risk management in place.

4) People role 人员管理角色:NEDs oversee a range of responsibilities with regard to the management
of the executive members of the board. This typically involves issues concerning appointments and
remuneration, but might also involve contractual or disciplinary issues, and succession planning.

NED 人数要求★
1) 董事会需要有足够素质和人数的非执行董事,来制衡董事会,赋予合理权重。
2) New York Stock Exchange 规则需要上市公司有大多数的非执行董事,即>1/2 数量。
3) 其他公司准则,注入 Singapore code,建议至少 1/3 董事为独立的非执行董事。

Cross-directorships 交叉管理★
即一个人为 A 公司 ED,B 公司 NED;另一人为 B 公司 ED,A 公司 NED。彼此独立性受阻,公允性
不足。

Advantage of non-executive membership 设立 NED 的好处★★★


1) Separation from the content being discussed is more likely to bring independent scrutiny.独立监督
2) Non-executive directors often bring specific expertise that will be more relevant to a risk problem than
more operationally-minded executive directors will have. NED 可以带来某些领域的专业意见,有助于
考虑风险上的问题,这往往是着眼于具体经营事务的 ED 所不曾考虑的。
3) If all NED from different backgrounds, are likely to bring a range of perspectives and suggested
strategies which may enrich the options open to the committee when considering specific risks. NED 来
源于不同背景,可以带来更广角度的战略建议,丰富了委员会考虑风险和做决定的选择。

Disadvantage of non-executive membership 设立 NED 的坏处或者说 ED 的优势★★


1) 执行董事直接跟产品,系统和流程打交道,涉及这些讨论时,ED 非常熟悉,也能拿到具体信息和
数据 direct input and relevant information
2) NED 对产品,系统和流程 specialist knowledge of products, systems and procedures 的知识不足,
关于它们的讨论,他们就会知识欠缺智慧不足了
3) 如果 NED 没有公司同类工业范围或产品经验,如果又没有 ED 提供的相关信息,无法了解公司情
况,给不出好意见

风险管理委员会
对风险管理中发现的问题,需要汇报给执行董事,让执行董事去执行改进程序 report their finds to the
executive board

Unitary & Multi-tier 一元和二元/多元董事会架构★★

Distinguish between Unitary and two-tier boards★★★(定义)


1) 在一元构架里,所有董事,无论是执行董事,还是非执行都是,都是平等关系。他们对公司战略
影响是一样的,他们对法律法规的责任也是一样的。无论从法律上,还是构成上,他们对于战略

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监管和运营管理,都是没有区别的。In a unitary board, all directors, including all executive and
non-executive directors, are members. All directors are of equal ‘rank’ in terms of their ability to
influence strategy and they also all share the collective responsibility in terms of legal and regulatory
liability. There is no distinction in constitution or law between strategic oversight and operational
management.
2) 在一个二元构架里,责任划分不同,有监理会 supervisory board(即 chairman)和执行董事会
operational board(即 CEO)。监理会 supervisory board 决定战略,执行董事会负责贯彻执行此战
略。两者的责任很清晰的区分,监理会还要负责很多公司合法合规的事务,诸如 financial reporting.
低元董事(执行董事会董事)不享有与监理会同样的责任或权利。In a two-tier board, responsibilities
are split between a supervisory or oversight board (chaired by the company chairman), and an operational
board (usually chaired by the chief executive). The supervisory board decides on strategic issues and the
operational board becomes responsible for executing the strategy determined by the supervisory board.

家族企业执行一元构架会面临的困境★★
1) 一元构架中,家族成员会丧失对公司紧密的控制 loss the tight control
2) 一元构架中,所有战略决定必须被整个董事会采纳,包括非执行董事 all strategic decisions need to
be taken by a full board including the NEDs.
3) NED 的引入,制衡了某些强大的执行董事小群体,他们不再可以拍板做决定。
4) 公司做决定不再迅速,要花时间取得所有人同意 lose the capacity for fast decision-making in the
family supervisory board。大型董事会会经常在固定时间碰头讨论。NED 和其他执行董事可能会
要求外部董事会决定的解释,也可能反对成员的决定。
5) 公司文化的转变会让家族企业管理变得困难,也比较难适应新的一元结构。这种需要跟更多的人
讨论,并达到一致同意,是比较难接受的转变。家族企业习惯了自己人做决定,很难处理。

Multi-tier board 多元构架★★


1) 监事会 Supervisory board
监事会由员工代表,利益相关者管理代表,包括银行代表构成。监事会没有执行权,他主要为了公司
的方向性,战略性负责,捍卫利益相关者的利益 safeguard shareholder’s interests。
它必须有关于公司事务和财务状况的正式报告。它批准公司的账户,任命委员会和进行调查。
2) 管理董事会 Management board
执行董事会,全部由经理人构成,负责公司的每日运作 day to day running。监事会的人来任命执行董事
会的人。两个董事会的成员应该完全分离,2 套班子。

Directors' remuneration 董事薪酬★★

董事薪酬的目的:★★
1) 清晰充分的薪酬,可以吸引 attract 优秀人才
2) 薪酬方案的建立需要保证激励 motivate 作用
薪酬政策:★★
1) UK 的 Greenbury committee 确立了一个比较好的归总,关于如何制定薪酬制度
2) 董事的薪酬应该由董事会的独立成员(NED)来制定 independent
3) 任何形式的奖金都必须跟可评价的表现挂钩 related to performance
4) 股东薪酬足够透明 transparency,包括养老金政策等 pension rights,都得在每年的账户里列明

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5) 涉及薪酬政策的问题包括下述:(在 remunerations committee report 里说明)
a) Pay scales 每一个董事对应的工资等级;
b) Proportion of the different types of reward 工资包中,各种薪酬成分的比例构成;
c) Period 各种跟绩效相关薪酬成分的支付时间
薪酬方案的成分:★★
1) 基本工资 Basic salary
a) 基本工资 Basic salary will be in accordance with the terms of the directors' contract of
employment, and is not related to the performance of the company or the directors. 基
本工资是根据董事的雇佣合同定的,跟公司或董事的表现无关。
b) Instead it is determined by the experience, performance and responsibilities of the
director, and also what other companies might be prepared to pay (the market rate).它
是由董事的经验,之前的表现和承担的责任来决定,也跟市场上其他公司的支付水平相关。
2) 绩效相关奖金 Performance related bonuses
a) 董事表现好,就会有现金奖金(这个要入账的)。但为了保证奖金不至于给的太多 excessive
payouts,一些公司会设一个上限 limits,譬如是工资的多少比例 fixed percentage of salary or pay.
b) 另一种方式是给忠诚奖金 loyalty bonuses 来嘉奖那些为公司服务一定年限的董事或员工。忠
诚奖金与表现无关,是为了表彰他们过去对公司的忠诚,但与未来的忠诚无关。不表示拿了
这个奖金就不能离开公司了。
c) 最近 UK guidance 要求执行董事的绩效奖金应该与股东利益一致 align their interests with
those of shareholders,即促进公司的长期成功 long-term success。薪酬激励应该与风险政策相
匹配 compatible with risk policies。
d) 政府 guidance 建议短期绩效奖金应该递延发放,给公司一个申诉期,将部分奖金与公司的期
后表现挂钩,如果表现不好,这部分浮动奖金要扣除。
3) 股票 Shares
董事可以被奖励公司股票,这些股票在持股多少年后可以在市场上流通售出,作为对好表现的嘉
奖。
4) 期权 Share options
 Share options give directors the right to purchase shares at a specified exercise price over a
specified time period in the future. 期权是给董事在未来某个时间,以固定价格购入股票的权利。
如果董事表现好,公司盈利,股票价格涨,那么股东以低于市场价的约定价格买入股票后,
再售出,就能盈利。
 Share options can be used to align management and shareholder interests, particularly options
held for a long time when value is dependent on long-term performance. 期权可以用来使管理层
和股东利益一致,因为期权持有时间较长,而它的价值随这段时间公司表现而波动.UK 公司
治理准则要求,赠与的股票或其他形式的薪酬应该不低于三年才能行权。
5) 各种形式的福利 Benefits in kind
不同职位会有不同福利,典型的包括公司的车 company cars,健康保险 health insurance,使用公
司健康或休闲娱乐设备,免费试用公司产品等。
6) 养老金 Pensions
负责人的雇主都会给员工缴纳养老金,但董事的薪酬结构里,其养老金比例会比普通员工高,如
补充养老金。
7) 其他 Balancing of different elements
a) Fixed and variable elements
b) Immediate and deferred elements

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c) Long-term and short-term elements
d) Cash and non-cash elements

4 roles of Remunerations committee 薪酬委员会的 4 个角色★★


1) 代表董事会和股东,确立薪酬政策 determine remunerations policy。政策主要针对适用于董事的
薪酬包,各种报酬的比例,以及绩效相关奖金的支付期限。
2) 确保每个董事被公平对待 fairly but responsible rewarded,针对个人贡献和责任大小,有相称的薪
酬包。这不仅与市场整体环境有关,也跟董事的留任需求,公司长期战略,职位的市场支付水平
等相关。
3) 薪酬委员会向股东汇报关于董事的薪酬支出,作为年报中公司治理单元的一部分(常常被成为薪
酬委员会报告) 。该报告需要被外部审计师核查 auditor reviewed,包含了每一个董事薪酬的明细,
并附上说明关于适用于 ED 和 NED 的政策。
4) 根据成文法规定或自愿披露原则,委员会还需要使政策符合法律法规或准则要求。所以通常而言,
薪酬委员会由董事会的 NED 组成,并定期碰头会面讨论 report to the shareholders。

NED 不适用于绩效相关薪酬的原因★★
1) NEDs are usually not allowed to receive share options or other performance-related
elements as part of their reward packages is because it could threaten their independence
and hence their usefulness to the company's shareholders.
2) NEDs need to be motivated in different ways to their executive colleagues.为了扮演好 NED 的角色,
更好行驶监督的角色 scrutiny role,要减少 NED 与 ED 的相似性。如果 ED 和 NED 都以一样的方
式激励,他们就没法监督战略,风险,合规度,股东利益等,因为缺乏一个有效监督的激励。 (ED
和 NED 利益一致,已经无法有效监督了。Similarity means the scrutiny role is weaken)
3) 如果 ED 和 NED 薪酬结构相似,他们会以同样方式对待工作,更倾向于短期利益而非长期目标。
关注于短期股价波动,或做一些让公司股价短期上涨的决定,牺牲了长期战略考量 focus away from
long-term strategic issues and make them more concerned with maximizing market value in the short
term.
4) 因为 NED 构成了薪酬委员会,如果再让他们来决定自己的薪酬,显然不合适。他们可能滥用权力
abuse of the responsibility 或辜负股东信任来给自己过多的奖励,以一种不合适的方式激励自己。
所以,最好是给 NED 一个与其他公司相比,合理的薪酬 fair rate,这样也不至于薪水过高。通常
来说,NED 的薪酬与 ED 相比,只占小部分 small fraction.

AGMs and EGMs 年度股东大会 VS 临时股东大会★★

AGM EGM
全称 Annual general meetings Extraordinary general meetings
定义 是所有有限责任公司正常财年 normal financial 临时召开的,用于股东间讨论战略或其他重
calendar 里需要完成的一件事,一般是为了对 要事项。
年末结果做一个陈述,发布年报。
共同 是公司董事和股东之间的正式会议。董事会(主席和 CEO)做陈述,也是股东向董事会提问
目的 的机会。Presentation by the board, chance for shareholders to question the board.
其他 董事会向股东汇报今年的成果 present 临时决议适用于那些需要董事讨论和批准的决议,但

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目的 the year’s result ,讨论来 年的 展望 往往是不能等到 AGM 召开,比较着急的 cannot wait
discuss the outlook for the coming till next AGM。整年太长,商业环境瞬息万变,事务
year,汇报正式的审计过的账户信息, 的契机和面临的威胁也是常常变化的,所以才会临时
确认最终分红,以及得到股东批准确 召开 EGM。
认董事的报酬。 管理层希望股东授权 mandate for 特别的战略调整,比
股东同意否,看是否通过了决议 如说合并或收购 merger or acquisition.其他重大事项
resolutions,按照赞同投票/出席的股东 可能威胁到股东利益的也会召开 EGM,诸如因告密
投票数。一般来说,是董事会拟定决 者 whistleblower 泄露的信息让股东对于董事会信心
议内容,股东们对这些决议投票。 大打折扣。

Proxy votes 代理投票★★

A proxy is a person appointed by a shareholder to vote on behalf of that shareholder at


company meetings.

代理人投票的好处:
1) 出席 attendance
a) Institutional shareholders often hold shares in hundreds of companies. It is impractical to expect their
representatives to attend every annual general meeting.
b) It gives smaller shareholders who cannot attend meetings in person the chance to have some influence
over the company's strategies and policies.
2) 代表股东观点 Representative of shareholders' views

Mandatory disclosure & Voluntary disclosure


强制披露 VS 资源披露★★

公司年报同时包含了强制披露和主动披露内容。
强制披露:
1) Mandatory disclosures are those statements that are compulsory under relevant company laws or stock
market listing rules.强制披露是那些根据相关的公司法或上市公司条例规定,强制披露的内容。
2) 在大多数司法权 jurisdictions,强制披露的项目包括主要的财务报表 main financial statements,如收
支平衡表,财务状况表和现金流量表。
3) 上市公司管理条例中,如 UK 要求公司治理披露董事持股和薪酬,以及董事合同的细节 disclosures
such as directors' shareholdings and emoluments, and details of directors' contracts.

主动披露:
1) Voluntary disclosures are not required by any mandate but are provided, usually in narrative rather than
quantitative form.主动披露往往不是强制执行的,而是自发或者约定俗成的,通常是陈述性的文字,
而非量化的报告。
2) 通常认为有些信息涉及股东利益或其他利益相关者,但又不能以数字来传达,因此需要写其他的

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信息。
3) 常见的有主席的报告,CEO 的报告,社会和环境报告,知识产权报告,风险评估报告等 chairman's
statement, social and environmental disclosure, risk reporting。

主动披露是如何提高问责制 Accountability to equity investors


1) 主动披露是一个让消除管理层和投资者间信息不对称性的有效方式 redressing the information
asymmetry。除了强制披露的内容,主动披露呈现了公司更完整的全貌 fuller picture。
2) 更多信息可以帮助投资者判断,公司是否符合他们的风险,战略,道德和预期。
3) 让年报更前瞻性 forward looking,帮助解读那些重要的数字是否做支撑。
4) 提高信息透明度和投资者(尤其是股东们)对代理的问责性。

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Part B. Internal control and risk

Internal control system 内控系统★★

典型例题:1212 Q3

定义:内控是受公司董事会影响 effected 的一个环节 process,管理层和其他个人实行内控来给公司以


下目标的实现提供合理保证 reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives in the
following categories:
a) 运行的有效性和有效率 effectiveness and efficiency of operations
b) 报告的可靠性(内部和外部包括都涵括)reliability of reporting
c) 遵守法律法规 compliance with laws and regulations

Purposes of control systems 内控的目的★★★


1) Facilitate its effective and efficient operation by enabling it to respond appropriately to significant
business, operational, financial, compliance and other risks to achieving the company's objectives.
2) This includes the safeguarding of assets from inappropriate use of from loss and fraud and ensuring that
liabilities are identified and managed.
3) Help ensure the quality of internal and external reporting. This requires the maintenance of proper
records and processes that generate a flow of timely, relevant and reliable information from within and
without the organization.
4) Help ensure compliance with applicable laws and regulations, and also with internal policies with
respect to the conduct of businesses.

Characteristics of internal control systems 好内控的特点★★★


1) Be embedded in the operations of the company and form part of its culture
2) Be capable of responding quickly to evolving risks within the business
3) Include procedures for reporting immediately to management significant control failings and
weaknesses together with control action being taken .Whistleblower provision

Seven typical causes of internal control failure 内控失败 7 个典型的原因★★★


1) Poor judgment in decision-making 决策不对。信息不充分或做决定的人能力经验不足 Internal
control failures can sometimes arise from individual decisions being made based on inadequate
information provision or by inexperienced staff.
2) Human error 人为失误:内控环境设计的再好,也不能防止人一定不出错 Human error can cause
failures although a well-designed internal control environment can help control this to a certain extent.
3) Control processes being deliberately circumvented by employees and others.员 工 合谋( 又称
collusion between employee),故意绕开控制系统。尤其当某个员工有特定的理由,不如他觉得工资
给少了,篡谋得利的部分本就是他应得的。It is very difficult to completely prevent deliberate
circumvention, especially if an employee has a particular reason to do so.
4) Management overriding controls 管 理 层 凌 驾 于 管 理 之 上 , 觉 得 内 控 不 该 限 制 他 个 人 行 为
presumably in the belief that the controls put in place are inconvenient or inappropriate and should not

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apply to them.
5) The occurrence of unforeseeable circumstances 预期之外的事情发生:内控是为了处理一定范围内
的,当超出范围,内控失灵。Control systems are designed to cope with a given range of variables and
when an event happens out with that range, the system may be unable to cope.
6) Cost outweighing benefits 成本大于收益(内控的过犹不及) :内控过度,其花的代价超出其带来
的收益,不符合理性经济人的选择。Sometimes setting up an elaborate system of controls will be too
costly when compared with the financial losses those controls may prevent.
7) Previous or existing controls can become obsolete 过去的内控过时了,因为没有及时更新,不符合变
化的环境了 because they are not updated to meet changed conditions. Changes to key risks, for example,
need to modified if they are to continue to remain effective in controlling the risk.

Principles or rules 优缺点(这要结合 Part A 中的 Principles or rules 来写)★★


1) 对于 Rules-based 贯彻内控的公司而言,需要公司能够一贯坚持得执行这些控制 controls are applied
consistently。这样,外部利益相关者才有信心,知道公司有建立有这样的一些规定 certain prescribed
controls。然而,这并不意味着所有公司都执行一样的公司,或者执行都这么有效。
2) 对于 Principles-based 执行内控的公司而言,他们可以根据自身的规模和风险偏好,以及他们所在
的行业特征,采用最合适的 most appropriate,最经济的 cost-effective 控制方式。

Mix of controls 各种控制的混合★


理想情况是建立一个金字塔式的内控 pyramid of controls in place:
1) 最上层是公司治理控制 corporate controls(如 ethical codes 道德准则);
2) 其次是 management controls 管理控制(如 budgets 预算) ;
3) 然后是 process controls 流程控制(如 authorisation limits 授权限制)
4) 底层是 transaction controls 交易控制(completeness controls 完整性控制,是否都入账了)
细节控制 detailed control 对企业没有太多的改变,除非有其他深入企业的控制
控制不该仅局限于财务账户领域,也包括非财务控制 financial and non-financial control

Strategic internal controls 战略内控★


1) 内控可以是战略层面 strategy level 的,也能是操作层面的。战略层面的控制着眼于确保公司“做正
确的事”;
2) 而操作层面 operational level 则是保证企业“以正确的方式做事”。战略层面的控制可以长期对公司
产生影响,会影响到企业所处在的战略位置 strategic positioning of the organisation。

Risk 风险★★

定义★★
1) Risk is a condition in which there exists a quantifiable dispersion in the possible results of any activity.
风险是可能结果的量化分布。
2) Hazard is the impact if the risk materialises.危险是风险发生时候产生的冲击。
3) Uncertainty means that you do not know the possible outcomes and the chances of each outcome
occurring.不确定性意味着你不知道每个结果会怎样,以及不同结果发生的几率。

Types of risk 风险的类型★

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1) Fundamental risks 基本面风险,即个人能力无法改变的风险 beyond the control of any one individual.
例如,大气污染对整个社会的健康问题造成影响,但个人能力无法控制。
2) Particular risks 具体风险,即个人可以采取措施,控制风险 an individual may have some measure of
control.例如,吸烟对人造成危害,戒烟可以降低危害。
3) 投机性风险 Speculative risks:好坏结果都有可能发生的风险 either good or harm may result。例如,
投资做生意,可能赚钱可能亏钱。
4) 纯粹的风险 Pure risks:唯一的结果对人有伤害 only possible outcome is harmful.例如,大火少了计
算机,数据都不见了。

Risk appetite and attitudes 风险偏好和态度★★


1) 风险偏好 Risk appetite:描述了企业准备承受 prepare to bear 的风险性质和强度。换句话说,愿意接
受的损失。一般分为风险规避型 risk aversion 和风险追求型 risk seeking.
a) 这两种偏好对应了不同的回报预期 different levels of returns,风险规避型=低风险低回报;风险
追求型=高风险高回报。
b) 风险规避型对于可接受的风险很谨慎,尽量规避风险,风险共担或减损到一定水平。为此,
他们宁愿接受比较低的回报水平。
c) 而追逐风险的人则接受和寻找风险,为了获得与之匹配的高回报。
2) 风险态度 Risk attitude:描述了董事比较满意的风险水平 views
3) 风险承受度 Risk capacity:描述了企业可以承受的风险性质和强度 is able to

COSO’s framework★
1) Internal Environment 控制环境
2) Objective Setting 目标制定
3) Event Identification 事件识别
4) Risk Assessment 风险评估
5) Risk Response 风险应对
6) Control Activities 控制活动
7) Information & communication 信息与沟通
8) Monitoring 监督检查

Internal control environment 控制环境★★

定义:The internal or control environment is influenced by management's attitude towards control (tone
at the top), the organisational structure and the values and abilities of employees.★

1) 董事和管理层的哲学和经营风格 Philosophy and operating style


2) 企业文化 Culture, 内控是否被视为组织框架里的不可或缺的一部分 integral part of the organisational
framework,或者强加于系统的其他部分 imposed on the rest of the system。
3) 公司的组织结构 organisational structure,授权和责任委派的方式 methods of assigning authority
and responsibility(包括权责分离和监督控制)
4) 董事和员工的正直度 integrity,道德价值观 ethical values 和胜任能力 competence

Risk culture 冒险文化★★

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文化是一种基本假设模式 pattern of basic assumptions,它是由一个团队发明,发现和发展出来的。是
在学习中得出的处理问题的方式 cope with its problems,可以适应外部,整合内部。这些方式做得好
worked well enough,被认为有效的,因此,用来教育新人 taught to new members,以这种正确的方
式,察觉,思考和感受问题。

Changing the culture 改变文化的方法★


1) 控制环境的重要性
2) 对风险的意识,以及沟通交流
3) 培训和融入 Training and invlovement
4) 表现评价和量化评估
5) 改变风险态度

Embedding risk awareness 嵌入的风险意识★★★


1) Risk awareness is a capability of an organisation to be able to recognise risks when they arise, from
whatever source they may come.
2) A culture of risk awareness suggests that this capability (or competence) is present throughout the
organisation and is woven into the normal routines, ways of thinking and is embedded in all parts of the
company and in all employees.

Methods to embed 嵌入的方式★★★


以下方式可以让管理层将风险意识嵌入到组织里去:
1) Aligning individual goals with those of the organisation and building these in as part of the culture.。
2) Including risk responsibilities with job description.
3) Establishing reward systems that recognise that risks have to be taken (thus avoiding a ‘blame culture’).
Establishing metrics and performance indicators that monitor and feedback information on risks to
management.
4) Communicating risk awareness and risk management messages to staff and publishing success
stories.

Objective settings 目标制定

根据企业确定的任务或预期,管理者确定企业的战略目标,选择战略方案,确定相关的子目标并在企
业内层层分解和落实,各子目标都应遵循企业的战略方案并与战略方案相联系。
1) 跟战略相符合 Strategy
2) 跟风险偏好相符合 Risk attitude –高风险高回报,低风险低回报

Event identification 事件识别

管理者意识到了不确定性的存在,包括某一事项是否会发生、何时发生或者如果发生其结果如何。作
为事项识别的一部分,管理者应考虑会影响事项发生的各种企业内外部的因素。外部因素包括经济、
商业、自然环境、政治、社会和技术因素等,内部因素反映出管理者所做的选择,包括企业的基础设

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施、人员、生产过程和技术等事项。

Strategicrisks 战略风险定义★★★
These arise from the overall strategic positioning of the company in its environment. Some strategic
positions give rise to greater risk exposures than others. Because strategic issues typically affect the
whole of an organisation and not just one or more of its parts, strategic risks can potentially concern
very high stakes – they can have very high hazards and high returns. Because of this, they are managed
at board level in an organisation and form a key part of strategic management.

Examples of strategic risks include those affecting products, markets, reputation,supply chain issues
and other factors that can affect strategic positioning.

Operational risks 经营风险定义★★★


Operational risks refer to potential losses arising from the normal business operations. Accordingly,
they affect the day-to-day running of operations andbusiness systems in contrast to strategic risks that
arise from the organisation‘sstrategic positioning. Operational risks are managed at risk management
level (notnecessarily board level) and can be managed and mitigated by internal controlsystems.

Examples include those risks that, whilst important and serious, affect one part ofthe organisation and
not the whole, such as machinery breakdown, loss of sometypes of data, injuries at work.

Related risks 关联风险定义★★★


Related risks are risks that vary because of the presence of another risk or where two risks have a
common cause. This means when one risk increases, it has an effect on another risk and it is said that
the two are related.
关联风险是指 2 个风险由共同的原因造成,或者因为其中一个风险导致了另一个风险。正因为此,一
个风险的增加会对另一个风险产生影响,我们说这 2 个风险相关。

Correlated risks 相关风险定义★★★


Risk correlation is a particular example of related risk. Risks are positively correlated if the two risks
are positively related in that one will fall with the reduction of the other, and increase with the rise of
the other. They would be negatively correlated if one rose as the other fall.
风险相关性是关联风险的一个特殊例子。2 个风险如果一个跌,另一个也跌,表示它们正相关。如果一
个涨,另一个跌,表示它们负相关。

Categories of risk 风险的种类


1) Entrepreneurial risk 创业风险★
Entrepreneurial risk is the necessary risk associated with any new business venture or opportunity.创业风
险是一个关于商业冒险或机遇的必要风险。它常见于创造新的商业行为过程中,所以以此命名。
a) 在“Ansoff”模型里,创业风险被解释为市场或客户对于新生意的接受度的未知性,或产品的不确定
性,例如产品的设计,制作等等。创业风险也包括了创业者本身是否足够胜任,技能是否达到创
业条件等的不确定性。
b) 创业风险是不可避免的,因为只有经历了这些风险,才会有商业机遇。也许结果不如预期,但这
不是固步自封,不去追逐的理由。

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c) 任何新产品,新市场的开发,和新经济行为都是潜在的创业风险,但这也是潜在收入来源和公司
价值增长的来源。

2) Business risks 商业风险★★★


a) 商业风险是指会威胁到公司生存能力的风险 threaten the survival of the business as a whole,可能
来自于许多原因。从本质上来说,是因为公司运营的商业模式 business model 和公司追求的战略
strategies it pursues 引起的。
b) 一些商业活动,根据它们的性质,会因某些风险而威胁了公司整体。一些商业风险会影响公司“持
续经营”的状态,威胁企业的生存。当公司的战略层面有外部威胁时 external threats to the business
at a strategic level,或公司战略的失败 failure of the business's strategy,都会对公司的可持续经营
产生不确定性。

3) Financial risks 财务风险★★★


a) These are the risks which arise from the way a business is financially structured, its management of
working capital and its management of short and long-term debt financing.

b) Cash flow can be strongly influenced by how much debt to equity a business has, its need to service
that debt and the rate at which it is borrowed.

c) Likewise, the ability of a business to operate on a day-to-day basis depends upon how it manages its
working capital and its ability to control payables, receivables, cash and inventories.

d) Any change which makes its cash flow situation worse, such as poor collection of receivables,
excessive borrowing, increased borrowing rates, etc, could represent an increased financial risk for
the business.

4) Liquidity risk 流动性风险★


a) 指公司能力不足,无法满足短期融资要求 inability to meet its short-term financing needs,可以通
过 current ratio 来观测。
b) 尤其的,它是关于公司的营运资本是否满足短期现金流要求。
c) 管理流动性风险的必要方法 essential elements 是,控制好应收,应付,现金和库存。

5) Cash flow risk 现金流风险★


特指企业日常工作现金流的波动性 volatility of a firm's day-to-day operating cash flows.一个非常大的风
险是现金流处于预期外的低位,可能因为客户回款晚了,导致现金不足。

6) Gearing risk 杠杆风险★


a) 指公司的融资困境,举债特别多 excessive commitments connected with debt。
b) 杠杆和风险之间的联系不是直接的。啄食理论建议说融资顺序是优先用债融资,然后用股融资。
一定的举债给资金提供者一个信号,管理层对公司未来的成功很有信心,所以才敢举债。

7) Credit risk 信贷风险★


指公司的债务人没有及时偿付欠债,而对公司造成的信贷风险 company from the failure of its debtors
to meet their obligations on time。最常见的信贷风险类型是客户没有及时支付货款。

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8) Currency risk/ Exchange rate risk 汇率风险★★
a) 指因为汇率波动,而导致的公司亏损或盈利。Loss or gain due to future changes in exchange rates.
b) 当一个企业与海外供应商或客户做生意,以外币结算,就会承担汇率风险。外汇波动会对债务价
值的认定造成风险-即交易的应付,应收的本币价值,在录入交易的时刻,仍是不确定的。海外投
资或海外借贷,也同样会承担汇率风险。

9) Interest risk 利率风险★★


a) 同汇率风险一样,未来利率也不容易预测。所以当公司有比较大数额的浮动利率借款时 Variable
(floating) rate debt,利率变化会对债务的成本造成极大不确定性 Uncertainty about the cost of
servicing this debt。
b) 相反的,如果公司运用了大笔固定利率借款,则当利率下降时,公司的利息支出实际上是损失的。

10) Product risk 产品风险★★


a) Product risks will include the risks of financial loss due to producing a poor quality product.产品风险指
产品质量不好而导致的经济上的损失。这也包括补偿客户的不满意,销售量下降(比如市场召回
不合格产品) ,或丧失声誉,和提高产品控制流程的成本等。
b) 产品风险还包括与开发新产品相关的风险,即开发产品失败了。然而,即使产品本身取得了很大
的成功,仍然存在产品风险。 (举例,诺基亚 N97 成功,生命周期超过其他同类产品,但这款产品
的成功导致了公司放慢创新步伐,所以最终公司竞争力不足,败给苹果。)

11) Market risk 市场风险★★(注意哦:一般是指资本市场)


a) Market risk is a risk of gain or loss due to movement in the market value of an asset - a stock, a
bond, a loan, foreign exchange or a commodity - or a derivative contract linked to these assets.
Market risk is often discussed in the context of the stock markets.指资产的市场价值变动导致的风
险,这包括股票,债券,贷款,外币或商品,金融衍生品等。市场风险常常跟证券市场有关。
b) Market risk is a risk arising from any of the markets in which a company operates, including
resource markets (inputs), product markets (outputs) or capital markets (finance).市场风险来自于
公司运营所在的市场(输入) ,包括资源市场(输出),产品市场或资本市场(融资) 。

12) Legal risks 法律风险★★


a) 违法,违规或者违反公司守则会对公司有严重后果。风险包括财务罚金或其他惩罚形式 financial or
other penalties,包括关门歇业,或者花钱或资源来打官司辩护 fighting litigation,和声誉受损的
损失 loss of reputation。
b) 关键内容包括健康和安全 health and safety,环境等的立法 environmental legislation,贸易相关,
产品说明,消费者保护,数据保护或雇佣 employment 相关。
c) Legal risks may therefore be strongly correlated with other risks 法律风险因此是一个跟其他风险
有很强联系的风险。有些行业本身就受立法潜在影响,则很容易有这些方面的法律风险,如健康,
安全和环境法规。

13) Political risk 政治风险★★


a) 政治风险因为政治行为可能影响到公司的地位和价值。它可能与国家风险 country risk 有关,比如
跟某些国家或区域交易,或者在某些国家持有资产。
b) 政治风险有好坏两面性。政治变化可能对公司有利,比如说,政党选举 election of a government 后

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自由党上台, 他们觉得国家资本做效率太差,鼓励私有资本来做,这就给了公司更多机会 outsourcing
to the private sector activities previously carried on in the state sector。
c) 政治风险跟声誉风险的联系很紧密 linked to serious reputation risks。声誉风险依赖于其他风险的
严重程度。但对政治风险而言,其作用方向略有不同。如果一个公司声誉严重受损,激起民愤,
会导致政客们采取行动,来抵制企业(出台些对公司严格控制,非常不利的政策)。

14) Technological risk 技术风险★★


a) 指潜在的损失或损害,因为技术的失败 potential losses and damage incurred by the failure of any
technology。人们谈到技术,往往想起电脑,但其实不仅于此,还包括工程,设计等。技术风险的
影响取决于那些跟特定技术有关的活动 The impacts of technological risk depend upon those
activities which depend upon the particular technology in question.
b) 比如电脑存储失败,丢失数据,最近工作内容遗失(文件损坏),更严重的例子,医疗技术失败导
致病人遭受痛苦。在一些科技系统,技术失败会导致非常深远的影响,比如所有财务数据丢失。
c) 技术风险是战略风险,把握好的话就是机遇 Strategic risks and opportunities。

15) Health and safety risks 健康和安全风险★★


These are risks to individuals, employees or others, arising from any failure in our operations giving rise to
compromised human welfare.个人,员工或其他人,在妥协的员工福利状态下,未能正常操作的风险。
健康和安全风险包括员工因为工伤而无法工作 loss of employees' time,或者因为违约而支付赔偿或诉
讼费 pay compensation or legal costs。
这种风险来自于:
a) Lack of health and safety policy 缺少健康和安全政策-通过增加相关立法,这个已经越来越少了
b) Lack of emergency procedures 缺乏应急措施-通过增加相关立法,这个已经越来越少了
c) Failure to deal with hazards 没有很好处理危害物品-通常因为没有贯彻政策,该做的不做,比如检
查电器设备,有毒有害物质要标签,并培训使用方法
d) Poor employee welfare 员工福利不足-不仅仅威胁到健康(工况环境差,过多的计算机监视) ,也是
质量上的风险(员工过度疲劳,容易犯错)
e) Generally poor health and safety culture 公司的文化,对健康和安全不够重视

16) Environmental risk 环境风险★★


a) An environmental risk is an loss or liability arising from the effects on an organisation from the
natural environment or the actions of that organisation upon the natural environment.环境风险是
一个损失或负债来自于企业受到环境的影响或环境对企业的影响。
b) 环境风险来自于自然现象 natural phenomena 对企业的影响,如气候变化 climate change,恶劣天
气 adverse weather, 资源耗尽 resource depletion 或其他对水资源或能源供应商的威胁 threats to water
or energy supplies。相似的,企业对环境的负债,则表现为恶意排放 emissions,污染 pollution,浪
费 waste 或其他对产品的责任 product liability。

17) Reputation risk 声誉风险★★★


a) Reputation risk is loss of reputation caused as a result of the adverse consequences of another risk.
Of all the major risks, reputation risk is the risk that is most strongly correlated to other risks,
since its level partly depends on the likelihood that other risks materialise.声誉风险是基于其他风
险所产生的不良结果,导致的声誉受损。在所有的重大风险中,声誉风险是跟其他风险最紧密联
系在一起的风险,因为它的程度依赖于其他风险的发生。

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b) Other main determinant of the level of reputation risk is how shareholders and other stakeholders
react to the other risks crystallizing. The loss of reputation may have serious consequences,
depending on the strength of stakeholders' reaction and the influence they have on what happens to
the organisation.声誉风险的主要决定因素是当其他风险发生时,股东和其他相关者的反应。声誉
受损后果很严重,这取决于利益相关者的反馈,以及这些反馈对公司产生的影响。
c) 声誉受损通常可以被外部利益相关者感知,后果的严重性取决于公司跟他们的关系。以下这些会
导致严重的声誉风险:
Poor customer service 糟糕的客户服务
Failure to innovate 不成功的产品创新
Poor ethics 道德败坏
Poor corporate governance 糟糕的公司治理

18) Fraud risk 舞弊风险★


员工,包括管理层,从事舞弊行为 fraudulent activities,对公司造成损失的风险。

19) Probity risk 诚实风险★


a) 某个或某些人有不道德的行为 unethical behaviour 的风险。
b) 由于行贿或腐败 bribery or corruption 的受害人,或者被迫参与其中 being pressurized into it,都是
典型的诚实风险案例。

20) Knowledge management risk 知识管理风险★


指有效管理和控制知识资源 knowledge resources。威胁包括未授权使用或滥用知识产权 unauthorized
use or abuse of intellectual property,系统或区域失灵 area or system power failures,竞争对手的技术
competitor's technology 或损失核心员工 loss of key staff。

21) Property risk 财产风险★


财产风险指财产损坏, 毁灭或被占用。
财产面临的灾难 perils 包括火灾,风暴,洪水或故意破坏 vandalism.

22) Trading risk 贸易风险★


国内和国际贸易都会面临贸易风险,一般来说距离越远,时间越长 increased distances and times
involved,风险就会越高。类型包括下述:
a) Physical risk 物理风险:物品在运输途中丢失或被盗 lost or stolen in transit,或随同货物的单据不
见了 going astray.
b) 贸易风险也可能是客户拒绝接受产品 customer refusing to accept the goods on delivery,认为产品
质量不合格,或产品不对,或运输途中取消订单。

23) Industry-specific risks 行业特定风险★


a) 行业特定风险是公司预期外的变化 unexpected changes,可能是因为某些事情的发生导致现金流变
化 to a business’s cash flows from events,行业环境变化 changing circumstances in the industry,或
公司运营的领域的变化 sector in which the business operates。
b) 预期外的变化可能是新技术 new technology,法律的改变 change in the law,主要商品价格波动等
rise or fall in the price of a key commodity。

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Risk assessment & Risk response★★

典型例题:0806 Q1,1106 Q2,1306 Q3

Comments: The more high-high corner, means the more important and the more strategic the risk will be.
The position of risks can vary over time as environmental conditions vary. The diagram is very similar to
Mendelow’s stakeholder map and in that map as well the position of stakeholders.该图片和利益相关者的
Mendelow 矩阵类似。
Transfer 的方式可以 insurance,这样风险由很多人共享,一起买单。也可以是 outsourcing。

Risk assessment and dynamics 风险评估的动态性★★


a) 公司不仅需要决定如何来评估风险,也要注重多久评估一次 how often assessment should take
place.
b) This will depend on how dynamic the environment is within which they operate, and how changes
in that environment could result in significant and sudden changes in risks, which will in turn mean
that the ways they are managed will change.这取决于公司运营所在的环境的动态性,这种环境的变
化是否会导致重大风险或风险的突变,如果是这样,那么管理的方式而随机应变。
c) Maybe the methods used to mitigate risks will alter, perhaps the priorities given to dealing with
particular risks will change.伴随环境的变化,或许如何降低风险的方式也会改变,以及特定风险
发生的几率也会改变。

Objective and subjective risk perception 风险感知的客观性和主观性★★


1) 有些时候, 评估有比较高的确定性 high degree of certainty,甚至是科学的精确度 scientific accuracy。
在这些环境下,风险可以被客观评估。
2) In other instances however quantitative accuracy is not possible and the risks have to be
subjectively assessed. how accurate these judgments will depend on the knowledge and skills of the
person making the judgments, also the information available and the factors that may influence the
risk levels.其他情况下,量化精确度是不太可能的,因为风险评估比较主观。评价的精确性取决于
判断人的知识和技能,以及他拿到的信息和影响风险等级的其他因素。
3) Some risks may depend on so many factors that only a subjective assessment is possible.有些风险
取决于太多的因素,所以只可能给一个主观的评价。
4) 举个例子,风险就好比扔硬币 tossing a coin,其实每次结果都是客观的正反概率相等,但容易让
人走入赌徒误区。风险的影响的客观测量,可以用受公司价值损失的股东数量来反映。

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5) 风险评估的主观性的例子,如一个偶然事件的发生。因为公司气体液体泄漏,造成的资金损失,
这个就只能靠主观判断了。

Importance of accurate risk assessment 精确的风险评估的重要性★


1) underestimates
2) exaggerated

Risk consolidation 风险合并★


如果风险分析后被归类为部门或子公司的层面,则需要先被合并 aggregated(抵消)到公司的层面,
再按类别划分。合并(抵消)的风险项需要被董事会从整体来评估。

Risk response strategies 公司反应策略


1) Control and uncontrollable 可控和不可控
风险是否可控被视为影响管理策略一个重要因素。风险大部分都是不可控的,无法用降低风险的手段
来有效解决。所以往往要在接受风险和规避风险之间做选择。

2) Stop and go 放弃或继续


当决定最好的风险管理策略时,公司会对非常留意他们可能的回报。
a) 暂停错误 Stop errors: 放弃行动因为风险太高,但后来发现回报大于发生的成本。那么停止行为是
错的,应该继续下去。
b) 继续错误 Go errors:继续行动保留风险,但当风险发生时,成本大于预期回报。那么继续下去的
行为是错误的,应该当时就放弃行动。

3) Risk appetite 风险偏好


a) 决定风险管理不仅依赖于评估结果,可能的回报,也在于管理层对风险的偏好。
b) 一些类型的管理层,如慈善机构和公共事业部门,会尽量规避特定额风险。其他机构,可能尽量
减少风险。这意味着规避风险的组织不产生降低风险的大量费用。

The ALARP principle★★★


1) 许多风险不能被规避。许多公司会有些危险行为,冒着受伤和丧失生命的风险 Many businesses
undertake hazardous activities where there is a risk of injury or loss of life(譬如开采石油,工厂或
农务)这些风险是不能被完全规避的 These risks cannot be avoided completely。然后,可以降低到
一定水平 they have to be reduced to an acceptable level by incurring the costs of risk mitigation,通
过一些风险控制的措施,比如安装防护设备,安全装置,戴帽子和防护镜等。风险减缓的程度其
实是成本和风险发生可能性及影响度之间的一种妥协 The level of risk mitigation is a tradeoff
between cost and the assessment derived from the risk’s likelihood and impact。
2) 我们需要做出判断,决定什么程度的风险算是比较合理的低水平。有些心的控制手段或许可以降
低风险发生率,但如果成本太高,则不适宜。合理的低水平也算是一种对成本的妥协 The level of
risk considered as low as reasonably practicable may well be a compromise。

Reduction of risk 降低风险的方式★★


通常风险可以被部分避免,互相抵减,但完全规避是不现实的。许多商业风险可以通过一些方式来降
低风险,譬如新产品登录时,可以通过市场调研,打广告或其他方式来降低风险。
1) 政策、章程和科技 Policies and techniques

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2) 应急手段,演练 Contingency planning
3) 止损控制 Loss control
4) 分摊风险和报酬 spread risk and return
5) 风险多样化 Diversification of risks
风险多样性是指要让风险和回报多样化 spread risk and return,各种风险的事件各占不同比例
portfolio,这样,有些结果好,有些结果坏,能相互抵消,最后的综合结果还算中立 neutral。公司
需要避免让所有风险都正相关 avoid having all its riks positively correlated,不要全好或全坏。理想
的,不同的生意要尽量的负相关 negatively correlated as far as possible。具体用多样化来管理风险
的方式如下:
a) Having a mix of higher and lower risk investments, products, markets and geographical locations.
有不同风险水平的投资组合,产品,市场和地理位置。具体组合比例看风险偏好
b) Having a mix of equity and debt finance, of short and long-term debt, and of fixed and variable interest
debt 有股权融资和债务融资,短期和长期的,固定和浮动利率,各种都有
c) Expanding through the supply chain by forward or backwards integration 供应链的上下游扩张
(但如果行业大背景不好,扩张后将会面临更大的风险。)

Control activities 控制行动(SPAMSOAP)★★

典型例题:1106 Q1
1) Segregation of duties 权责分离,一个人不能在某一领域全控制,譬如主席和 CEO 不能一个人担任
2) Physical measures 保管财产,保证资产安全,譬如进大楼要刷门卡
3) Authorisation and approval 授权,由合适的人来批准商业活动,譬如 NED 担任薪酬委员会委员,
决定 ED 董事薪酬
4) Management 管理层应该通过分析和检查账户来达到控制目的,譬如建立内审部门
5) Supervision 监督记录和日常交易,譬如监督预算执行情况,通过预期与差异报告
6) Organisation identifies reporting lines, levels of authority and responsibility. 组织里建立报告的渠道,
责任清晰,必要授权。确保每个人意识到各自的控制责任,其他责任,是否按照惯例政策了。譬
如某个员工是否在他授权范围内独立工作。
7) Arithmetical and accounting 数字和账目的正确性,算对帐,数字记录和交易处理要正确。譬如银行
对账单
8) Personnel 对人的控制,选人要恰当,必要的培训和资质考核。譬如,招聘时要做员工的背景调查

Information & Communication 信息和沟通★

典型例题:1212 Q3
Information requirements of directors 董事需要的信息
董事需要大量信息来监督和评估内控系统的运作

Types of information 信息分类★


1) Strategic information 战略信息
a) 用于计划公司目标 objectives of the organisation,评估目标是否实际完成了 assess whether the

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objectives are being met in practice.
b) 这类信息包括整体盈利性,不同商业部门的营利性,未来市场预期,新融资的可行性和融资成本,
总体现金需求,总体人员配置 manning levels 和主要设备需求。
2) Tactical information 战术信息
a) 用来决定公司资源是如何被使用的 how the resources of the business should be employed,监督它们
已经被使用和正被使用的情况。
b) 这类信息包括生产力测试(每小时产量多少),预算控制报告,差异分析报告,现金流预测表,人
员编制水平 staffing levels 和短期采购需求。
3) Operational information 运营信息
用于确保特定的运营任务 specific operational tasks 是如何计划 planned,是否按照计划执行 carried out as
intended。

The qualities of good information 好的信息的特征★★


1) Accurate 精确:数据加总和取舍要恰当,没有输入错误,归类正确,不确定信息的假设前提要写
明。
2) Complete 完整:信息需要涵盖所有必要的内容 include everything that it needs to include,例如外
部数据要相关的,可比较的,定性的,量化的。
3) Cost-beneficial 成本效益的:获取信息花费的成本,不能超过信息带来的利益。这就需要收集信息
和分析信息是有效的。用户不该浪费时间在无意义的事情上。
4) User-targeted 目标清晰:用户需求要始终铭记于心,比如中层管理层需要战略汇总,但初级经理
则需要细节。
5) Relevant 相关性:跟做决定无关的信心应该被摒弃,不管这些信息如何有意思。
6) Authoritative 权威的:信息来源要可靠。除了一些主观因素,很多时候客观信息(如专家意见)
还是很有必要的。
7) Timely 及时性:当需要这些信息的时候,最好信息是触手可得的。这个定义也包括信息涵盖的时
间段,可能是未来的,也可能是过去的。
8) Easy to use / Understandable 可理解的:信息需要清晰陈述,不冗长,通过正确的渠道跟别人沟
通,如邮件,电话,纸质文件等。

Communication with employees 跟员工的沟通★


提高员工能力和态度的程序,需要被嵌入控制框架中去。关于控制和风险管理问题的交流,以及很强
的人力资源流程,加固了控制体系。

Importance of human element 人为因素的重要性★


1) 设计控制程序很容易,但那只是纸上漂亮 appears good on paper,不具备可行性 but is unworkable,
因为它没有结合用户实际 practicality 和效用 usefulness。
2) 比如说,一个详细的关于信息技术控制的技术说明书,对于缺乏必要的信息技术知识的员工而言,
就效用很低。
3) 如果员工缺乏激励 lack motivation,或者一线员工没有必要技能,那么控制的效果也不会太好。

Improving staff awareness and attitudes 提高员工意识和态度★


Turnbull 模型指出,it is important that all staff understand that risk management is an integral,
embedded part of the organisation's operations 所有员工理解风险管理,将风险管理整合,嵌入到公司
组织的运作里去,是非常重要的。

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Part C Professional value and ethics

Monitoring 监督★★

为了实现有效监督,管理层必须保持监督的持续性,并对监督系统有一个单独的评价。
监督中的缺陷应该跟合适的人来沟通,看看如何改善。

Aims of monitoring 监督的目的★


1) Correction of root causes 修正根本原因:may address why staff have made errors 这会帮助找出员
工犯错的原因。具体措施有 training, discipline or control redesign 培训,纪律处罚,重新设计控制
体系。它还包括执行更好的控制,如果当前控制被认为是不充分时。
2) Ongoing monitoring 不间断监督:边干活边审视边纠正 routine review of reconciliation and system
action applications。在小企业中特别有效,因为管理层往往有关于公司活动高级别的第一手信息
first-hand knowledge of company's activities。他们自己参与到运营中 close involvement in
operations,可以帮助辨别差异和差错 identify variances and inaccuracies。
3) Separate evaluation 单独评价:通常由审计师委员会和内部审计来执行 carried out by audit
committee and internal audit,包括每年审查控制程序。如果公司没有内部审查部门,则比较难开
展,如果由公司负责管理的人来审查控制的有效性,往往客观性不足。

Communication structure for monitoring 监督的沟通结构★


1) 监督结果需要报告给正确的人 reported to the right people,并采取补救措施 corrective action taken。
内控缺陷应该报告给控制部门的负责人 person responsible for the control's operation,或比他更高
级别的人 at least one level higher。
2) 缺陷应该像风险一样的方式来评估,控制失败导致风险发生的可能性越高 likelihood,则对风险的
潜在影响越大。

Internal audit 内部审计★★


The role of internal audit will wary according to the organisation's objectives but is likely to include
review of internal control systems, risk management, legal compliance and value for money。内审的角
色根据组织目标不同而不同,但大体上包括内控程序审查,风险管理,合规性和经济性。

The need for internal audit 内审需求★★


UK 的 Turnbull 报告指出,上市公司如果没有内审部门,那么每年至少应该重新考虑下是否要建立内审
部门。而具备内审部门的上市公司则要每年审查下内审部门的工作范围 scope,授权 authority 和资源
resources。具体考虑的因素如下:
1) The scale, diversity and complexity of the company's activities 公司活动的规模,多样性和复杂程度:
公司越大,越多样化,经营活动越复杂,那越需要监督。The larger, the more diverse and he more
complex a range of activities is, the more there is a need to monitor.
2) The number of employees 员工数量:人工人数反映了公司的规模,越是大型的公司,越有可能拥
有内审,来增强投资者信心。
3) Cost-benefit considerations 成本效益考虑:建立内审获得的收益显然必须大于建立的成本。
4) Changes in the organisational structures, reporting process or underlying information systems 公司

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结构,报告流程或基础信息系统的变化:任何内部变化都会改变运作的复杂性,也是种风险。
5) Changes in key risk 核心风险的变化可以根据性质分为内部的或外部的。新产品的引入,登入新市
场,PESTEL 因素的变化,都可能是内审需求的扳机。
6) Problems with existing internal control systems 当前内控系统存在的问题。任何当前系统存在的问
题,都表示要收紧系统,增加监控。
7) An increased number of unexpected events 预期外事件的一再发生:系统失灵或相似事件的发生都
证明了内控系统的薄弱。

Objectives / Role of internal audit 内审部门的角色★★


1) Review of the accounting and internal control systems 审核账目和内控系统。建立充分的记账系统
和内控系统是管理层和董事的职责。
2) Examination of financial and operating information 检验财务和经营信息。这包括审查辨识,测量,
归类和报告这些信息的方法,还会针对某个特定问题,比如测试交易,试算平衡,测试流程。
3) Review of the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of operations.审查经营的经济性,有效性和效率。
4) Review of compliance with laws, regulations and other external requirements.审查是否符合法律,法规,
外部要求,内部政策和知道,或其他要求,比如交易的合理授权。
5) Review of the safeguarding of assets.审查对资产的保护措施。比如价值比较高,又可移动的,如电
脑或现金,是否安全?买这些东西是否有授权?
6) Review of the implementation of corporate objectives.审查公司目标的执行情况。包括计划的有效性,
标准和政策的相关性,公司治理流程,以及某个特定程序的操作,如信息沟通。
7) Identification of significant business and financial risk 便是重大商业和金融风险,监督公司整体的风
险管理政策以确保公司目前运营有效,监督风险管理战略以确保他们持续运营有效。
8) Special investigations into particular areas 特殊领域的特别调查,如怀疑欺诈的调查 suspected fraud。

Risk auditing 风险审计★★★


1) 风险导向审计是系统审计的延伸。审计师会看管理层是否建立了风险评估流程用来及时发现风险,
是否建立扎实的风险管理流程和内控体系。
2) 审计师会意图确认这些风险管理流程和控制操作,降低了风险,确保管理层收到精确的信息,关
于风险,特别是后果严重发生率很高的风险,还有超出管理层风险偏好的风险,以及因为内控的
严重缺陷导致已经发生的风险。
3) 风险审计不是所有公司都强制执行 not compulsory 的。但某些领域有行业规定,如银行和金融服务
行业,它们的风险评估和审计在大多数国家地区都是有强制性要求的。

The stages in a risk audit 风险审计的步骤★★


1) Risk identification 确定风险
2) Assess the risk 确定后,评估风险
3) Review of controls 查看下控制
4) Issue a report to management for further planning and decision-making 发布报告给管理层,有助于未来
的计划和决定

Internal and external risk audit 内部和外部的风险审计★


1) 内部风险审计是由公司员工审计,通常由内审部门执行
2) 外部的话,可以是咨询公司提供。

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Advantages of external risk audit 外部风险审计的优势★
1) 避免审计师的熟悉威胁 familiarity threats
2) 外部审计更中立和独立判断 neutral and independent in its approach
3) 外部审计出报告给股东,增进了投资者关于公司流程和风险管理的信心 enhance confidence in the
process and risk management
4) 如果外部审计师提出,则目前的思维和最佳实践可以更有效执行下去(外来和尚好念经,自己人
障碍重重)

Audit committee 审计委员会★★


1) An audit committee of independent NED should liasie with external audit, supervise internal audit,
and review the annual accounts and internal controls.审计委员会是由独立 NED 组成,负责与外部
审计师联系,监督内审,查看每年账目和内控。
2) 审计委员会非常重要,因为他们的监督职责和整体审查地位。实际上,他们与内审的工作有紧密
联系,内审应该跟审计委员会保持无限制的沟通,紧密合作 internal audit should have unrestricted
access to the audit committee。
3) 美国法律的规定,纽交所上市公司必须有审计委员会 compulsory。
4) 为了实现有效性,审计委员会人员配置精良。UK Smith 报告建议,审计委员会全部由独立 NED
组成 consist entirely of independent NED,至少一个成员有很强的最近的财务经验 at least one
member with significant and recent financial experience。

Benefits of audit committee 审计委员会的好处★★


1) Improve the quality of financial reporting
2) Create a climate of discipline and control
3) Enable the NED to contribute an independent judgement and play a positive role
4) Help the finance director
5) Strengthen the position of the external auditor
6) Provide a framework within which the external auditor can assert his independence
7) Strengthen the position of the internal audit function
8) Increase public confidence

Audit committee - Review of internal control 审计委员会,审查内控★


1) 委员会成员利用他们的经验来监督内控在降低风险上的持续充分性,特别关注于控制环境,管理
层对控制的态度和总体的管理控制 control environment, management's attitude towards controls
and overall management controls。
2) 审计委员会的审查也应该涵盖合法性和道德层面 legal compliance and ethics,例如上市公司规则或
环境立法是否满足。
3) 审计委员会必须主动监督财报控制方法的有效性,秉持职业怀疑态度 demonstrate professional
scepticism.
4) The committee should do address the risk of fraud, ensuring employees are aware of risks and that there
are mechanisms in place for staff to report fraud, and fraud to be investigated.委员会需要指出道德
风险,确保员工意识到这个风险,有机制可以让发现欺诈的员工汇报,欺诈行为将被进一步调查。
5) 每年,审计委员有责任审查公司关于内控的申明 statement on internal controls,在申明被董事会批
准前。
6) 审计委员会要考虑下审计师在给管理层的信中的推荐措施以及管理层的回应 recommendations of

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the auditors in the management letter and management's response。因为委员会是持续存在的,他们能
确保这些推荐措施被宣扬了,合适的被采纳了。

Report & Responsibility 报告和责任

Content of external report on internal controls 内控外部报告的内容★★


1) The report should contain a statement of acknowledgement by the board that it is responsible for
the company's system of internal control and for reviewing its effectiveness.报告包含董事会声明,
承认对公司内控系统和有效性负责。
2) The "tone from the top" is very important in the development of my proposed reporting changes and so
this is a very necessary component of the report.上层基调对于写报告非常重要,是报告不可缺少的一
部分。
3) The report should summarize the processes the board (or where applicable, through its committees) has
applied in reviewing the effectiveness of the system of internal control.报告应该汇总了董事会的审阅
意见,关于内控系统的有效性
4) The report should provide meaningful, high level information that does not give a misleading
impression. Clearly, internal auditing would greatly increase the reliability of this information about a
robust and effective audit committee would also be very helpful.报告应该提供有意义的,高水准的信息,
不能给人以误导印象。非常清楚的一点是,内审应该最大程度增加信息的可靠度,一个靠得住和
有效果的审计委员会将非常有用。
5) The report should contain information about any weakness in internal control that have resulted in error
or material losses.报告应包含内控缺陷的信息,这些缺陷会导致错误或重大损失。

Compulsory external reporting 强制披露的外部报告★★★


以下是赞成强制披露报告的论点 arguments in favour of compulsory reporting:
1) Improved confidence of shareholders 提高股东信心。股东的期望是董事会能负责任地管理风险,
让风险水平不至于过高。强制披露能够加固对信息质量的信心。
2) Stimulus to directors 刺激董事。董事知道他们将不可避免的为自己的控制不力负责,因为投资人
可以读到报告,找到关于控制薄弱的信息, (所以要尽职工作)。
3) Provide valuable information for stakeholders with power to hold directors accountable 强制报告里
的信息能够给外部利益相关者,尤其是市场监管者和机构投资者一些有价值的信息,让他们知道,
董事要为他们的所作所为负责任的。
4) 强制报告让公司想要掩饰他们的控制不力显得不可能,这也间接保证公司会有一个让投资者满意
的好结果。

Board’s responsibilities for internal control 董事会对于内控的责任★


1) 责任包括确立利于内控安排的控制环境,合适的上层基调,有效控制的高逼格承诺 commitment。
2) 还包括执行风险评估来确立那些风险需要由内控程序来控制,如健康风险?
3) 在某些情况下,相关控制行为的引入是特别重要的,比如公司生产的是有毒物质, (结合案例分析)

4) 董事会有责任来提供信息,维持受内控措施影响的各方交流,保证重要措施充分理解和贯彻执行。
5) COSO 指导指出,所有控制必须有监督,保证一定程度的合规性和有效性。这是一个持续的,不
间断的过程,执行过程中有薄弱点和违背之处,都要高度重视。

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The roles and responsibilities of the CEO in internal control 首席执政对内控的职责★
1) CEO 必须承担对系统的责任,这种理念必须成为一种习惯,才能领导好公司。
2) CEO 确立基调,无论是建立还是推行控制环境。控制环境的推行,是通过将遵守内控嵌入到公司
的文化中来实现的。
3) 基调的确立,表达了管理层是如何看待问题,以及公司上下是如何联级一起工作的。
4) CEO 要格外关注那些很脆弱的,容易违规的地方。

Risk committee 风险委员会★


1) 董事会需要考虑是否有一个独立的委员会,负责辨识,监督和管理风险。
2) 如果董事会决定不成立这么一个委员会,那么依据 UK 公司治理准则,审计委员会要执行风险管
理工作。

Role and function of risk committee 风险委员会的角色和功能★★


1) Approving the organisation's risk management strategy and risk management policy
2) Reviewing reports on key risks prepared by business operating units, management and the board
3) Monitoring overall exposure to risk and ensuring it remains within limits set by the board
4) Assessing the effectiveness of the organisation's risk management systems
5) Providing early warning to the board on emerging risk issues and significant changes in the
company's exposure to risks
6) In conjunction with the audit committee, reviewing the company's statement on internal control
with reference to risk management, prior to endorsement by the board.

Risk manager 风险管理者★


1) 对于公司的风险管理,提出整体领导,愿景和方向 overall leadership, vision and direction。
2) 确立整合的风险管理框架 integrated risk management framework,覆盖公司方方面面的风险 all
aspects of risk across the organisation。整合公司风险管理和其他商业计划,以及管理活动。将授
权制和问责制 authority and accountability 融入进管理框架中。
3) 促进企业上下风险管理的胜任能力 Promoting an enterprise risk management competence,包括促进
技术企业风险管理专业知识的发展,帮助管理者调整风险使其在公司可容忍的范围内,开发合适
的控制程序。
4) 发展风险管理 Developing RM policies,包括量化管理层风险偏好,设定一定的风险范围,定义相
关人员角色和责任,确保遵守准则法规和法律,参与制定目标为了最终的贯彻执行。
5) 建立公共的风险管理语言
6) 执行风险管理指标和报告
7) 跟保险公司打交道
8) 分配经济资源 Allocating economic capital 进行商业活动
9) 给 CEO 报告进程和推荐一些反措施

Absolutism & relativism 绝对论 VS 相对论

典型例题:1012 Q1
Ethical relativism 道德相对论★★★
Relativism is the view that a wide variety of acceptable ethical beliefs and practices exist. The ethics

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that are most appropriate in a given situation will depend on the conditions at that time.相对论认为,存
在各种各样的可接受的道德信仰和做法。在某个情境下,哪种伦理最合适,取决于当时的情况。

Ethical absolutism 道德绝对论★★★


Absolutism is the view that there is an unchanging set of ethical principles that will apply in all
situations, at all times and in all societies.绝对主义的观点认为,存在不变的道德原则,适用于所有情况,
所有时间和所有社会。
There is a set of moral rules that are always true. There are various methods of establishing these:有一
套道德准则,总是真实的。它可以由不同方式来建立:
a) Religions 宗教
b) Law 法律
c) Natural law 自然法则
d) Deontological approaches (see below).道义法
Many absolutists would accept that some ethical truths may differ between different cultures. However
they would also believe in certain basic truths that should be common to all cultures (for example 'thou
shall not kill').许多绝对主义者会接受一些不同文化的道德真理。他们也会相信某些基本的真理适用于
所有文化。比如,“你不能杀人”。

Deontological v Teleological ethics 道义论 VS 目的论

Deontological ethics 道义论伦理学★★★


Deontology is concerned with the application of absolute, universal ethical principles in order to arrive
at rules of conduct, the word deontology being derived from the Greek for 'duty'.道义论关注的是绝对
应用,从普遍的道德原则到行为规则。道义这个词来自希腊文“责任”。
Deontology lays down criteria by which actions may be judged in advance, the outcomes of the actions
are not relevant.道义论制定标准,提前判断会采取哪些行动,行动的结果是不相关的。

Teleological or consequentialist ethics 目的论伦理学★★★


The teleological approach to ethics is to make moral judgements about courses of action by reference to
their outcomes or consequences. Right or wrong becomes a question of benefit or harm rather than
observance of universal principles.道德目的论方法是参考行为结果,来做出行为过程的道德判断。对或
错,成了一个得益或损失的问题,而不是遵守普遍原则。
There are two versions of consequentialist ethics 目的论有 2 个版本:
1) Utilitarianism – what is best for the greatest number 功利主义-追求数字最大化
2) Egoism – what is best for me 利己主义–什么是对我最好的

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Kohlberg's cognitive moral development

(典型例题:0712 Q1,1106 Q2,0912 Q1)


Kohlberg 解释了个人道德发展要经历三个道德层次,每个层次又分 2 个阶段.尽管这些层次涉及到个人的
经历,但实际上所有层次还是关系到一个道德的行为。
They show the reasoning process of individuals. It is possible that individuals at different levels will
make the same moral decisions, but they will do so as a result of different reasoning processes. Kohlberg
emphasises how the decision is reached, not what is decided.他指出,每个人同一行为的推导过程是不一
样的。不同层次的人可能做了同样的道德决定,但他们这么做的理由各不相同。Kohlberg 强调了怎样
做出这样的决定(推导过程),而不是做了怎样的决定。

Kohlberg’s theory 理论★★★


Level 1.Preconventional level 前惯性 Stage 1.Punishment-obedience orientation 惩罚-服
Morality is conceived of in terms of rewards, 从
punishments and instrumental motivations. Stage 2.Instrumental relativist orientation
Those demonstrating intolerance of regulations 相对主义观点:权衡利弊
in preference for self-serving motives are typical 行为是出于奖励、惩罚和其他一些动机。
preconventionalists. Mike 总结:人治,更多考虑利益,钱
Level 2.Conventional level 惯例 Stage 1.Good boy-nice girl orientation
Morality is understood in terms of compliance 同辈压力(的俗语说法)
with either or both of peer pressure/social Stage 2.Law and order orientation
expectations or regulations, laws and guidelines. 遵守法律和秩序
A high degree of compliance is assumed to be a 基于同辈压力和社会期望,遵守法律法规和准则。
highly moral position. Mike 总结:法治,更多声誉,社会责任
Level 3.Postconventional level 后习俗 Stage 1.Social contract orientation
Morality is understood in terms of conformance 社会契约论,约定俗成的做法
with ‘universal’ ethical principles. Stage 2.Universal ethical principle orientation 普
Postconventional assumptions often challenge 世伦理原则
existing regulatory regimes and social norms and 发自内心想这么做,自我约束’成本’很高
so postconventional behaviour is often costly in 总结:心治,不考虑钱和声誉时
personal terms.

American Accounting Association (AAA) model - 7 步模型★★★

典型例题:0912 Q1
1) What are the factsof the case?事情的事实是什么?
2) What are the ethical issues / dilemma in the case?事情的道德窘境是什么?
3) What are the norms, principles and values related to the case?案件中的规范,原则和价值观是什么?
4) What are the alternative courses of action?备选方案是什么?
5) What is the best course of action that is consistent with the norms, principles and values identified?基于
规范,原则和价值,最佳的备选方案是什么?
6) What are the consequences of each course of action?每个方案造成的结果是什么?
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7) What is the decision?最后的决定是什么?

Tucker’s 5-question model★★★

典型例题:1212 Q4
1) Profitable? 是否盈利
2) Legal?是否合法–站在公司立场
3) Fair and equitable?是否公平公正–站在利益相关者立场:对 A 公平,则对 B 不公
4) Right, which is prone to subjective judgement?是否对,有主观判断
5) Sustainable or environmentally sound?是否可持续发展,或有利环境
这种方式结尾会有个 summary。

Corporate codes of ethics

公司有压力,行为有道德,具体有发布道德伦理规范,确立对利益相关者的价值和责任。
An ethical code typically contains a series of statements setting out the organisation's values and explaining
how it sees its responsibilities towards stakeholders.一个典型的道德准则包括一系列申明,确立公司的
价值,解释它怎样看待对利益相关者的责任。
企业的道德条例往往包含以下特征:
1) 它们关注监督 regulating 管理员工个人的行为
2) 它们是正式的文件
3) 它们涵盖了特定领域,譬如多少价值的礼物是可接受的;反竞争行为怎样定义,等等

Corporate code of ethics – Purposes 目的★★★


(典型例题:1112 Q1)
A corporate code of ethics (sometimes contrasted with a professional code) has five general purposes.企
业道德规范有 5 个基本目的★★★:
1) The first is communicating the organisation’s values into a succinct and sometimes memorable
form. This might involve defining the strategic purposes of the organisation and how this might
affect ethical attitudes and policies.首先是将组织的价值观传达为一种简洁而令人难忘的形式。这
可能包括定义公司的战略目的,这可能会影响道德的态度和政策。
2) Second, the code serves to identify the key stakeholders and the promotion of stakeholder rights
and responsibilities. This may involve deciding on the legitimacy of the claims of certain
stakeholders and how the company will behave towards them.准则帮助识别关键的利益相关者和
促进利益相关者的权利和责任。这可能包括决定某些利益相关者的要求的合法性,以及公司对他
们采取的行为。
3) Third, a code of ethics is a means of conveying these values to stakeholders. It is important for
internal and external stakeholders to understand the ethical positions of a company so they know
what to expect in a given situation and to know how the company will behave. This is especially
important with powerful stakeholders, perhaps including customers, suppliers and employees. 道
德规范是向利益相关者传达这些价值的一种手段。重要的一点是,内部和外部的利益相关者,了

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解一个公司的道德立场。这样他们知道在一个特定的情况下,该公司将如何表现。
4) Fourth, a code of ethics serves to influence and control individuals’ behaviour, especially internal
stakeholders such as management and employees. The values conveyed by the code are intended to
provide for an agreed outcome whenever a given situation arises and to underpin a way of
conducting organisational life in accordance with those values.一个道德规范的行为,可以影响和控
制个人的行为,特别是内部的利益相关者,如管理层和员工。规范传递的价值观,其作用是每当
一个给定的情况出现时,结果也是一定的;另一方面,支撑组织生活的一种方式,令其与这些价
值相一致。
5) Fifth, a code of ethics can be an important part of an organisation’s strategic positioning. In the
same way that an organisation’s reputation as an employer, supplier, etc. can be a part of strategic
positioning, so can its ethical reputation in society. Its code of ethics is a prominent way of
articulating and underpinning that.道德规范可以是公司战略定位的重要组成部分。公司作为雇主,
供应商等的声誉,都是战略定位的一部分,还包括在社会上的道德声誉。道德规范是阐明和支撑
战略定位的一个重要的方式。

Professional codes of ethics 职业道德规范(同 F8)★★★

典型例题:1106 Q4
职业道德规范适用于专业从业人员的个人行为,往往是以原则为基础,补充以威胁指导和保障措施
Professional codes of ethics apply to the individual behaviour of professionals and are often based on
principles, supplemented by guidance on threats and safeguards.

Fundamental principles 5 个基本原则★★★


1) Integrity 诚实
Members should be straightforward and honest in all business and professional relationships.成员
应该是坦率和诚实,在所有的商务和专业的关系中。
2) Objectivity 客观
Members should not allow bias, conflicts of interest or undue influence of others to override
professional or business judgements.成员应该不偏不倚,避免利益冲突或不适当的影响,始终保持
专业或商业判断。
3) Professional competence and due care 勤勉尽责
Members have a continuing duty to maintain professional knowledge and skill at a level required to
ensure that a client or employer receives competent professional service based on current
developments in practice, legislation and techniques.成员有持续的责任,通过实践发展,立法或科
技,保持专业知识和技能在一定水平上,确保客户或雇主获得足够胜任的专业服务。
Members should act diligently and in accordance with applicable technical and professional
standards when providing professional services. 会员在提供专业服务时,应勤勉及符合适用的技术
和专业标准。
4) Confidentiality 保密性
Members should respect the confidentiality of information acquired as a result of professional and
business relationships and should not disclose any such information to third parties without proper
or specific authority or unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose. Confidential
information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships should not be used for

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the personal advantage of members or third parties.成员应尊重获取的信息的保密性,这些信息来
源于专业或商业关系,不应泄露给第三方,除非有适当或明确的授权,或有立法和专业权利和义
务需要披露。保密信息不能用来为自己或第三方成员创造利益。
5) Professional behaviour 专业行为
Members should comply with relevant laws and regulations and should avoid any action that
discredits the profession.成员应该遵守相关法律法规,应该避免任何败坏行业的行为。

Ethical threats 道德威胁★★★


1) Self-interest 个人利益威胁
Financial or other interests of a professional accountant or of an immediate family member
inappropriately influence judgement or behaviour
2) Familiarity 熟悉威胁
A close relationship resulting in excessive trust in, or sympathy for, others。
3) Self-review 自我审查威胁
Evaluation of a judgement by the accountant who made the judgement, or a member of the same
organisation
4) Advocacy 吹捧威胁
Accountant promoting a position or opinion to the point where objectivity may be compromised
5) Intimidation 压力威胁
Accountant not acting objectively because of actual or perceived pressures

Conflicts of interest 利益冲突★★★


1) Conflicts between members' and clients' interests 成员和客户的冲突★★
a) 这种冲突产生于成员直接跟客户有竞争关系 if members compete directly with a client,或成员的合
资公司或其他合作形式,跟客户存在竞争。
b) Rules 要求成员或事务所不应该接受或持续为客户服务了 not accept or continue engagements,如果
成员,公司或客户间存在非常大的利益冲突 significant conflicts of interest。

2) Conflicts between the interests of different clients 不同客户之间的冲突★★★


a) 鉴证业务事务所,可能存在客户间有竞争关系。公司应确保客户之间的纠纷不会成为公司的问题。
它还必须管理它的工作,使一个客户的利益不会对其他客户产生不利影响 interests of one client do
not adversely affect the other client。
b) 即使有保障措施,任何对客户的利益产生重大损害的承诺,也不得接受或继续委任。Where
acceptance or continuance of an engagement would, even with safeguards, materially prejudice the
interests of any client, the appointment should not be accepted or continued.
c) Managing conflicts between clients' interests
i. Notifying the client of the interest/activities that may cause a conflict of interest and obtaining their
consent to act in the circumstances, or
ii. Notifying all known relevant parties that the member is acting for two or more parties in respect
of a matter where their respective interests are in conflict, and obtaining their consent so to act, or
iii. Using separate engagement teams 选择不同的参与小组
iv. Procedures to prevent access of information (such as special passwords)建立信息壁垒,避免信息泄
露,譬如特别的口令

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3) Individuals’ conflicts of interest 个人利益冲突★
a) 企业内的个人也面临他们自己的利益冲突。这可能包括对他们的老板和为他们工作的员工的忠诚
和责任之间的冲突。
b) 也可能包括个人在企业中维护或提高自身地位的愿望与坚持他们的道德立场之间存在的冲突。譬
如,执行审计查询到多深?

Bribery and corruption 贿赂与贪污★★


1) Bribery is the offering, giving, receiving or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of
an official or other person in charge of a public or legal duty.贿赂是过提供、给予、接受或索取有
价值的物品,对官员或其他公共或法律负责人的行为进行影响。
2) Corruption can be defined as deviation from honest behaviour.腐败可以被定义为偏离诚实行为。
3) 为什么贿赂和贪污会造成社会问题?
a) Lack of honesty and good faith 社会缺乏城市和真诚
b) Conflicts of interest 社会成员之间的利益冲突
c) Economic issues 社会经济问题:Bribery and corruption results in a misallocation of resources. 社会资
源的不公平配置。如:政府投标项目给了行贿最多的开发商,而不是最有效率的开发商。
d) Reputation 社会风气不好了

Public interest 公众利益★★★


a) XXX owes a duty to the public interest both as an accountant and as a company director.某人无论
是作为会计师,还是公司董事,都承担了对公众利益的职责。
b) This means that it is her duty to behave in such a way as to maximise the public good and not act in
terms of pursuing personal interests only.这也就意味着他要以最大化公众利益来行为,而不是单单
追逐个人利益。
c) Accounting and other professionals are bound to recognise this duty and to comply with it
regardless of the temptation or inducement to act otherwise.会计和其他专业人员一定要承认他们
的责任,遵从它,不管受到怎样的引诱。

Insider dealing/trading 内幕交易★★


1) Insider dealing (also called insider trading) is the buying or selling of company shares based on
knowledge not publicly available.内幕交易是指利用未公开的信息,买卖公司股票来盈利。
2) Directors are often in possession of market-sensitive information ahead of its publication and they would
therefore know if the current share price is under or over-valued given what they know about
forthcoming events. 董事常常拥有市场敏感信息,在它们公开发布前,所以他们知道当前估价是否
高估或低估,对于即将公布的事情被公布之后。
3) If, for example, they are made aware of a higher than expected performance, it would be classed as
insider dealing to buy company shares before that information was published. 比如,如果他们意识到公
司表现好于预期,那么如果他们在发布利好消息前买入公司股票,则视为内幕交易。
4) Similarly, selling shares in advance of results publication indicating previous over-valuation, would also
be considered as insider dealing.相似的,在公司不良业绩被发布前卖出股票,同样被视作内幕交易。
5) Why is insider trading unethical and often illegal?内幕交易是不道德的/非法的理由:
a) By accepting a directorship, each director agrees to act primarily in the interests of shareholders. This
means that decisions taken must always be for the best long-term value for shareholders.

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b) If insider dealing is allowed, then it is likely that some decisions would have a short-term effect which
would not be of the best long-term value for shareholders.

c) For example, businesses which are about to be taken-over often see a significant rise in their share price.
In this situation directors might purchase shares in their own companies, seek potential buyers for the
company and recommend the sale to shareholders, in order to make a profit on their own share
investments.
d) For this reason, a blanket ban on insider dealing ensures that such short-term measures are not taken.因
为这个原因,全面禁止内幕交易,确保没有采取这样的短期措施。
e) There is also the potential damage that insider trading does to the reputation and integrity of the capital
markets in general which could put off investors who would have no such access to privileged
information and who would perceive that such market distortions might increase the risk and variability
of returns beyond what they should be.

Corporate social responsibility 公司的社会责任

定义★★★
Corporate social responsibility is a concept whereby organisations consider the interests of society by
taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on wider stakeholders.企业社会责任是这么一个概
念,即企业必须考虑社会的利益,通过其活动的影响而对广大利益相关者承担责任。- 这是一个广义
的 Stakeholder 理论。
This obligation can be seen to extend beyond statutory obligations to comply with legislation.这种责任
是超过法律规定的强制义务。

CSR (Carroll)★★– 4 level 层面,层层递进 (该理论和 stakeholder 广义理论一致)


1) Economic 经济性: 股东希望得到分红,资本利得;员工希望有公正的待遇;客户想要高质量的产

2) Legal 合法性:在所有的社会中,遵守法律都是一个基本要求,虽然法律的合规性在某些社会中比
其他地方有更大的负担
3) Ethical 道德的: 以公平公正的方式行事
4) Philanthropic 博爱的-宗教层面: 自愿捐款给社会

Corporate citizenship (Matten et al)企业的公民身份★★


1) Corporate citizenship is the business strategy that shapes the values underpinning a company's
mission and the choices made each day by its executives, managers and employees as they engage
with society.企业公民权是一种经营战略,塑造公司使命的价值观, (将使命嵌入到公司文化中),
影响了其管理层和员工,因为他们是与社会接触的。

2) Three core principles define the essence of corporate citizenship, and every company should apply
them in a manner appropriate to its distinct needs: minimizing harm, maximizing benefit, and being
accountable and responsive to stakeholders.企业公民权的实质有 3 个核心原则,每个公司都应该以
适当的方式将它们应用于不同的需求:最小化伤害,最大化利益,对利益相关者的问责和回应。

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3) 这些年,有关企业社会责任的辩论已经从企业公民权的角度来讨论了很多问题,部分是因为在商
业决策的背景下,使用道德和责任是否有必要。(商业就是挣钱,提起道德和责任是干嘛呢?)

套话积累:Discussion of corporate citizenship also often has political undertones, with corporations
acting instead of governments that cannot – or will not – act to deal effectively with problems.企业公民
权的讨论也往往具有政治色彩,政府做某些事情,可能效果非常差,让公司来做,会解决这种问题。
套话积累:Commentators have also pointed to liberalisation, deregulation and privatisation placing
more power in the hands of corporations and less in the hands of the state.有些观点指出了自由化,去
监管化和私有化,让更多的权力掌握在企业手中,而不在国家手中。

4) 3 个观点:
 Limited view 有效观点:只考虑有限项目下公司的自我利益。公司经营的主要利益相关者群体是当
地社区和员工。
 Equivalent view 均衡观点:基于一个更广泛的企业社会责任的一般定义,这部分是自愿的,部分是
外界强加的。
 Extended view 扩展观点:社会权利,公民权利,政治权利。

Ethical Stances (Johnson & Scholes)道德立场理论★★


An organisation's ethical stance relates to how it views its responsibilities to shareholders, stakeholders,
society and the environment.公司的道德立场涉及公司的观点,如何看待对股东、利益相关者、社会和
环境的责任。
An organisation's ethical stance is defined by Johnson and Scholes as the extent to which it will exceed its
minimum obligation to stakeholders.这种观点是一种拓展,超出对利益相关者的最小义务。
1) Short-term shareholder interest 股东短期利益–狭义
2) Long-term shareholder interest 股东长期利益–狭义
3) Multiple stakeholder obligations 多重利益相关者的义务–广义
4) Shaper of society 重塑社会–广义

7 Social Responsibility Viewpoints (Gray Owen & Adams)★★★7 种社会责任观


1) Pristine capitalists 原始资本★★★
The private property system is the best system, companies exist to maximise profits and seek
economic efficiency. Businesses therefore have no moral responsibilities beyond their obligations to
shareholders and creditors.私有产权制度是最好的制度,企业为了实现利润最大化,追求经济效益
而生存。企业因此只对股东和债权人有义务,没有其他道义上的责任。

2) Expedients 权衡利益得失★★★
Economic systems do generate some excesses, therefore businesses have to accept some (limited)
social legislation and moral requirements if such behaviour is in the business's economic interests.
经济系统确实会产生一些过激行为,因此企业必须接受一些(有限)的社会立法和道德要求,如
果这种行为是为了企业长远的经济利益。

3) Proponents of the social contract 社会契约的支持者★★★


Organisations should behave in a way broadly in conformance with the ethical norms in society

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because there is effectively a contract or agreement between the organisations in power and those
who are affected by the exercise of this power.
A business effectively enjoys a licence to operate. However this licence will only continue to be
granted by society if the business’s actions deserve it. A business may therefore have to deliver
benefits (or avoid causing harm) to society in general. It may also be responsible for delivering
benefits to the specific groups from whom it derives its power (such as customers or employees).

4) Social ecologists 社会生态学★★


Businesses leave a social and environmental footprint.企业会留下一个社会和环境足迹。特别是人
类环境存在的问题,它们由大型组织而生产,需要被消除。Economic processes that result in
resource exhaustion, waste and pollution must be modified. 经济活动导致资源枯竭、浪费和污染,
这些必须进行修改。组织必须采取相应的社会责任感。事态的发展可能也超出了社会所需的,或
所期望的。

5) Socialists 共产主义–不考

6) Radical feminists 女权主义–不考

7) Deep ecologists 深层生态学★★


Human beings have no greater rights to resources or life than other species and do not have the
rights to subjugate social and environmental systems. Economic systems that trade off threats to
the existence of species against economic objectives are immoral.

Social and environmental effects 社会和环境效应

典型例题:1212 Q1
Environmental footprint 环境足迹定义★★★
Environmental footprint is the impact that a business's activities have upon the environment including
its resource environment and pollution emissions. It concerns the environmental consequences of a
business’s inputs and outputs

1) Ways of assessing the impact of inputs include the measurement of key environmental resources
used such as energy, water, inventories or land.评估投入的影响的方法,包括测量的关键环境资源,
如能源,水,自然资源库存或土地。
2) Measurement of the impact of outputs includes the proportion of product recyclability, tonnes of
carbon or other gases produced by company activities, waste or pollution.对产出的影响测量包括产
品回收的比例,由公司活动产生的碳或其他气体吨,浪费和污染。
3) A business may also be concerned with the efficiency of its processes, maybe carrying out a mass
balance or yield calculation. 一个企业还要关注其流程的效率,可能实施大规模的平衡或收益率计
算。

Direct and indirect impacts 直接和间接影响★★


1) 对影响的测量,可以只看直接的,对组织狭义的影响 directly and narrowly to the organisation;也可

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以是间接的,广义的影响 more broadly to the indirect。
2) 对于一个制造商,间接的措施要考虑它的上游和下游的供应链,从采购原材料,到产品推向市场。
银行业本身不对环境产生影响,但考虑他的时候,要看看它是否把贷款放给了高污染企业,是看
它放贷而对环境产生的影响。
3) 间接措施的报告是罕见的,因为其他缔约方主要负责报告他们有直接影响的报告。很显然,一家
银行要追踪其所有业务的影响是特别困难的。

Social footprint 社会足迹定义★★★


The term ‘footprint’ is used to refer to the impact or effect that an entity (such as an organisation) can
have on a given set of concerns or stakeholder interests. A ‘social footprint’ is the impact on people,
society and the wellbeing of communities.

Impacts can be positive (such as the provision of jobs and community benefits) or negative, such as
when a plant closure increases unemployment or when people become sick from emissions from a plant
or the use of a product.

Social - Stakeholder expectations 利益相关者预期★★


1) 利益相关者增加的预期导致扩大企业的公共问责的范围,以及知道如果忽视这种压力而导致的后
果,都对企业造成了很大压力。
2) 在这方面的利益相关者包括社区 communities(特别是在公司经营地),客户 customers(产品安全
问题),供应商和供应链参与者和竞争对手。
3) 如工厂关闭,污染,就业创造,采购等问题,都会对这些利益相关者产生强大社会影响,或好或
不好。

Sustainability 可持续发展定义★★★
In relation to the development of the world's resources, sustainability has been defined as ensuring that
development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.

1) Extension of sustainability 可持续发展的拓展★


a) 关键问题包括是否可持续性只是意味着自然的可持续性,还是说社会和经济的可持续性也是很重
要的。
b) 特别是如果社会和经济可持续发展的关系得到认可,但也有可能随时间或两者之间关系的变化而
变化。
c) One approach to sustainability is known as the triple bottom line (or 'TBL', '3BL', or 'People, Planet,
Profit') approach.一种可持续发展的方式被称为三重底线★★
1) People means balancing up the interests of different stakeholders and not automatically prioritising
shareholder needs 人,意味着平衡了不同利益相关者的利益,而不是按照股东的需求自动排序。
2) Planet means ensuring that the business's activities are environmentally sustainable 星球,意味着确保企
业的活动是环境可持续的
3) Profit is the accounting measure of the returns of the business 利润是会计计量公司业务的回报

2) Strong and weak sustainability 强可持续发展 VS 弱可持续发展定义★★★


a) Weak sustainability believes that the focus should be on sustaining the human species and the

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natural environment can be regarded as a resource.。
b) Strong sustainability stresses the need for harmony with the natural world; it is important to
sustain all species, not just the human race.

Reporting and audit 报告和审计

Environmental report 环境报告★★★


1) In most jurisdictions, the production of environmental information is voluntary in that it is not
required by any accounting standard or legal statute.在大多数司法管辖区,环境信息的生成都是自
愿的,这是不需要任何会计标准或法律法规。
a) 大多数时候,环境信息是包括在年报里的,'独立'的环境和/或可持续发展报告‘stand alone’
environmental and/or sustainability reports 需要每年发布。
b) 虽然这些文件通常是纸质文件,但也经常在公司网站上提供。
2) 环境报告的目的:In each case, however, the purpose of an environmental report is to report on some of
the details of the company’s environmental impact or ‘footprint’.在每种情况下,环境报告的目的是
报告一些公司的环境影响或“足迹”的细节。
由于某些信息是技术性的,需要系统生成和内部确保数据正确,类似于生成准确的财务数据所需
使用的系统。
3) 环境报告的内容:The contents of an environmental report typically include information on the
company’s direct environmental impact (through its own manufacturing and distribution) and also
its indirect impacts (through its forward and backward supply chains).环境报告的内容通常包括公
司对环境直接影响的信息(通过它自己的制造和分销)以及它的间接影响(通过其正向和反向供
应链)。
It involves recording, measuring, analysing and reporting on the environmental impact, usually in
respect of two aspects: consumption (of energy and other resources) and production. This latter impact
(production) involves the measurement and reporting of the environmental impact of products and also any
other emissions, such as by-products and any pollutants.它涉及记录、测量、分析和报告对环境的影响,通
常在两个方面:消耗(能源和其他资源)和生产。后者的影响(生产)涉及的产品和任何其他的排放
量,如副产品和任何污染物的环境影响的测量和报告。

披露环境报告的优势:
1) Transparency and accountability 透明度和问责制
2) Impact on internal control systems 对内控系统的影响
3) Addressing investor concerns about risk 提出投资者对风险的关注
4) Improved reputation 提高声誉
5) Damage limitation 减损伤害

Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)全球报告倡议& Full Cost Accounting (FCA) ★


企业可以采取任何办法来报告他们对环境的影响。然后,有 2 种主流方式来提供更多的社会和环境信
息的指导,全球报告倡议和全面成本核算。
1) GRI 框架指标 Indicators:
Environmental Human rights

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Labour practices and decent work 体面工作 Society
Product responsibility Economic

2) 全面成本核算要素 Elements:
Tier 0 Usual costs 常规成本 Basic capital and revenue costs 一般资本和收入费用
Tier 1 Hidden costs 隐形成本 Costs usually included as overheads 如制造费用(摊销),管
理成本和安全成本
Tier 2 Liability costs 责任成本 Contingent liability costs 或有负债,如罚金
Tier 3 Less tangible costs 无形成本 Costs of poor environmental management 糟糕的环境产生的
成本,如丧失客户好名声,声誉风险
Tier 4 Environment focused costs 环境 Costs that ensure that project has zero environmental effect 确
成本 保项目 0 污染成本

3) FCA 优点:
a) Knowledge of full extent of environmental footprint 了解环境足迹的整段历程
b) Reducing environmental footprint 减少环境足迹
c) Assisting decision-making 帮助做决策
d) Favourable publicity 公众口碑变好
4) FCA 缺点:
a) Data required 数据从哪里来?
b) Which cost figures to use?数据归类,如何使用?

Integrated reporting 综合报告


(▲考情分析:这是近几年热点! )
目的★★★:The aim of integrated reporting is to demonstrate the linkage between strategy,
governance and financial performance and the social, environmental and economic context within
which the business operates.综合报告的目的是为了证明战略、治理和财务绩效之间的联系,以及业务
经营的社会、环境和经济环境之间的关系。
1) 通过这些连接,企业应该能够采取更可持续的决策 sustainable decisions,帮助确保稀缺资源的有
效配置 effective allocation of scarce resources.
2) 投资者和其他利益相关者应该更好地了解 better understand 一个组织是如何执行的。尤其是他们
应该对组织的经营模式和战略的长期可行性 long-term viability 进行有意义的评估。

IR 的内容 Capitals:
IR 成为一种途径来传达一个组织发展到现在的商业模式和它价值创造的来源 conveys an organisation’s
business model and its sources of value creation over time。IR 模型包含六种类型的资本,他们被企业消
耗 consumed by a business,成为企业流程的一部分 created as part of its business processes。IR 模型的核
心思想就是资本是怎样被消费,转化和创造的 consumed, transformed and created。
6 种类型的资本是 six types of capital:★★
1) Financial capital 财务资本:通过融资或经营得来的可用于生产的资本
2) Manufactured capital 生产资本:用于生产或服务提供的物理对象(都是靠人创造出来的资源),
如厂房,设备,基础建设
3) Intellectual capital 知识资本:专利、版权、软件、权利和牌照
4) Social and relationship capital 社会关系资本:共同的价值观和行为、品牌和声誉,社会赋予的无

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形的经营证(企业值得社会的托付)
5) Human capital 人力资本:人的技术,经验和激励,包括融入支持企业的治理框架和道德观,贯彻
公司战略,忠诚度和激励。
6) Natural capital 自然资本:大自然自身赋予我们的,如水,土地,矿场,森林,物种和生态环境

IR 的核心原则 Guiding principles★★★:


1) Strategic focus and future orientation 关注战略和未来方向:洞察战略,公司创造短期,中期和长
期价值的能力,以及它如何影响资本
2) Connectivity of information 信息关联度:结合各个(对创造的价值有影响的)因素之间的关联和
依赖关系,形成一个整体的观点。
3) Stakeholder relationships 利益相关者的关系:与主要利益相关者的关系的性质和质量,如何考虑
他们的合法需求和利益
4) Materiality, conciseness, reliability and completeness 实质性、简洁性、可靠性和完整性:提供重
要和可靠的信息,包括所有材料项目,包括正面和负面,以简洁的方式。
5) Consistency and comparability 一致性和可比性:在时间上有一致性,与其他公司的报告有可比性

IR 的好处★★:
1) 首先,需要报告每一类资本, 以这种方式报告创造和增强了内部系统 create and enhance a system of
internal measurement,记录和监督每一个资本状态。举个例子,IR 记录了人力资本,必须有系统
来评估员工能力经验是否可以胜任,提高内控。
这些系统支持了公司的内控,提高公司的问责制 support the company’s internal controls and make
the company more accountable,将有更多的指标来报告。
2) 其次,这些信息的披露(一旦被审计和公布),将创造一个更全面和详细的说明关于哪些资源增值
哪些面临风险 fuller and more detailed account of the sources of added value, and threats to value 。
对股东和其他人而言,告诉他们公司是如何 identify, access and manage its key risks。
除了单单在年报里记录财务数据,IR 也告知股东和其他读者,在会计期间内,公司是关于如何积
累、转移或处理不同类型的资本的。 (从题目中,找个资本的例子。 )
3) 第三,充分开发的 IR 会展示公司是如何为利益相关者,而非仅仅是股东 not just for the
shareholders,来创造价值的。这延伸了企业活动的受益群,它利用了不同类型的资本,来传达这
个信息。
对于那些希望从他们自己的角度来评估某一特定类型的资本的利益相关者 stakeholders who wish
to value a particular type of capital from their own perspective 可以评估公司在这方面的价值变化,
是变好还是变坏,在会计期间内。

European Union's Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)★


欧盟生态管理和审计计划(EMAS)成立于 1993 年,是一个自愿参与计划。它的重点是建立目标和改
进,现场检查和披露和核查的要求(偏 rule 的)。Its emphasis is on targets and improvements, on-site
inspections and requirements for disclosure and verification.对目标的坚持意味着加入它的组织不能仅
仅依赖于监控。他们必须提高环保上的表现。

Social and environmental audits 社会和环境审计★


社会和环境审计的目的是确定该组织是否遵从公司准则的最佳实践或内部指导 whether the
organisation is complying with codes of best practice,以及是否履行更广泛的要求,做一个好的企业公
民。

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 Social audits:检查组织是否已达到既定目标的过程,会演变为一个社会审计,由公司来执行的。
社会审计可以涵盖资源的可持续利用、卫生和安全合规、劳动条件(无剥削劳动)和平等机会
sustainable use of resources, health and safety compliance, labour conditions (no exploitation of
labour) and equal opportunities.
 Environmental audits:环境审计是一个系统的,记录的,定期和,客观的评价,关于一个实体,其
管理和设备的运行情况,是否达到了帮助维护环境的目的,通过促进环境行为的管理控制,评估
是否遵从企业政策和外部法规 compliance with entity policies and external regulations。环境审计
通常被用来审核环境报告的真实性和公正性 truth and fairness of an environmental report,而不是
组织本身。社会审计也一样!

Public sector governance 公共部门治理

典型例题:1412 Q2
The public sector is different from the private sector in a number of ways but in general the main
differences are in the aims and purposes of the public sector, its sources of funding and accountability.
公共部门与私营部门在许多方面都不同,但总的来说,主要是因为公共部门的目标和宗旨,其资金来
源和问责。

Public sector 定义★★★:


In a mixed economy the public sector delivers those goods and services that cannot or should not be
provided by private sector companies or the business sector.在混合经济中,公共部门提供不能或不应该
由私营部门公司或商业部门提供的商品和服务。The public sector provides services for the population
either free of charge or for a cost.公共部门提供服务给人民,无论是免费的或仅仅以非常低的成本价格。
1) 所提供的服务可以在国家层面的,如国民健康服务,或地方级别的,如图书馆。
2) 公共部门可能来自地方税收 local taxation,或中央政府补助 central government grants,或两者的
结合。

Private sector 定义★★★:


This comprises a large variety of organisations with the principal aim of, in simple terms, making a
profit for the benefit of individual owners or shareholders who provide the capital or funding for
commercial activity.这涵盖了一个很庞大的组织,其主要目标,简单的说,就是创造财富,为了提供资
金的个人所有者或股东的利益。

Charities 慈善机构:★★
These are organisations set up for not for profit purposes, funded from donations.不为营利目的而设立
的组织,由捐款资助。

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)and quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organisations


(QUANGOs)非政府组织&半自治组织:★
半自治机构,由中央政府设立的,类似于政府功能,但非选举产生执行成员。英国内阁办公室对它的
定义是:一个在国民政府过程中扮演角色的机构,但不是政府部门,或者是其中的一部分,相应的运
作在部长触手可及的一个更大或较小的范围内。
Pullc sector Private sector Charitable status NGOs/quasl
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NGOs
Purposes and Public service Profit Relief of poverty, As defined by
objective research, ect. owners
Performance Central regulation Financial reporting SORP Set outcomes
Ownership Government Partners/shareholders Donors Government
Stakeholder The public, central Shareholders, Service users Government, lobby
(Including Government. regulators, taxation group
lobby groups) Service users authorities

Levels of public sector organisations 公共部门组织的层级★


1) Subnational 州政府:中央一级政府的一个部门,例如一个州,县或省。
2) National 联邦政府:中央政府,通常设在一个国家的首都
3) Supranational 联合国/欧盟:超越个别国家政府的

Public and private sector arrangements★★


1. Strategic objectives 战略目标★★:
1) 私营部门存在的理由是在公司章程 Memorandum and Articles of Association 或类似文件中明列的。
战略目标是由董事会制定的,有特定的目标,如增加利润或提高市场份额。
2) 公共部门的目标是由出资机构 funding body 决定的。但公共部门也可以有一个自主权 level of
autonomy,决定如何运作,并能够设置本地的目标,以满足特定的需求。

2. Leadership 领导力★:
1) 在私营部门,董事会 board of directors 来领导提供的,在某些情况下,由多数股东批准 ratified by a
majority of shareholders 后决定(例如任命外部审计员)。
2) 在公共部门,领导是建立在高标准的行为和领导力之上的 high standard of behavior and leading。
3) Nolan committee of UK in 1995 提出公共部门的 7 个原则分别是:leadership 领导力,无私 selflessness,
正直 integrity, 客观 objectivity, 问责 accountability, 公开 openness and 诚实 honesty.

3. Governance arrangements 治理安排★:


公共部门组织必须有适当的安排,以证明公共资金被适当地使用 public money is being used appropriately,
公共服务已满足既定的目标 specified objectives are being met in the provision of public services。审计或
检查计划可以用来报告实现目标成功与否。

Characteristics of public sector governance 公共部门治理的特征★


1. Nature of the state 国家性质★
国家的特点取决于它是否是民主 democracy,是否有正式的宪法 formal constitution 等。例如,英国是君
主立宪制国家,君主是国家元首(大体上是礼仪性的角色),首相是政府首脑。大多数国家要求以下四
个“国家机关 organs of state”功能:
1) Legislature 立法机构-制定法律
2) Judiciary 司法部-解释法律
3) Executive 行政部门-由内阁部长 cabinet ministers 领导的政府部门
4) Secretariat 秘书处-行政或公民服务

2. Nature of democratic control 民主控制的本质★★★:

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In a democracy the Government is answerable ultimately to the electorate. This may be at national or
local level.在一个民主的政府,对选民承担责任。这是在国家或地方层面的。

3. Policy implementation 政策执行★:


 在中央政府层面,政策执行是部长 Ministers 的责任,他主管政府部门。
 在地方政府中,委员会 council 通过当地政府主管部门的人来处理事务。

4. Accountability and reporting 问责制和报告★★★:


Public entities generally need to demonstrate that they have used public money for the purposes
intended and have obtained value for that money. One way of measuring this is to evaluate performance
against the three 'Es'。公共机构通常需要证明他们已经使用了的公共资金的目的,并且这些钱花的是
否有价值。测量的一个方法是对 3 个 E 的性能进行评估:
1) Economy – obtaining inputs of the appropriate quality at the lowest price available 以最低价格,获
得适当质量的产出
2) Efficiency – delivering the service to the appropriate standard at minimum cost, time and effort 或
Efficiency is defined as the amount of work achieved for a given level of input.最低的成本,时间和
精力获得适当标准的服务
3) Effectiveness – achieving the desired objectives as stated in the entity's performance plan 表现达到
公司计划的目标

补充真题:
 有价值:2015/06 Q1; 2014/06 Q1; 2013/06 Q1; 2012/12 Q1
 价值不大:2014/12 Q1; 2012/06 Q1; 2012/06 Q2; 2011/06 Q3

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