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P1笔记总结分享
P1笔记总结分享
Any agency relationship involves two parties: a principal and an agent. The agentis accountable to the
principal. The relationship arises from the separation of management and ownership in public
companies (and in other situations insociety).
代理关系涉及到委托人和代理。代理人对委托人负责,委托人有权向代理人问责。这种关系的产生源
于管理权和所有权的分离-对上市公司而言(私企的话,可能所有权=管理权)。
An agency relationship is one of trust between an agent and a principal which obliges the agent to meet
the objectives placed upon it by the principal. As one appointed by a principal to manage, oversee or
further the principal‘s specific interests, the primary purpose of agency is to discharge its fiduciary
duty to the principal.
代理关系是委托人和代理人之间的一种信任托付关系,强制代理人实现委托人设定的目标。委托人任
命代理人管理、监督和拓展委托人的利益,代理人的主要目的是履行委托人赋予的基于信任的义务。
股份公司的代理问题是因为委托人(所有人)不能自己管理经营,必须依赖代理人(管理层)来工作。
The agency problem - solution 代理问题的解决方案★
Remove
Exercise control
Introduce mechanism to control the activities of the agent.
委托人要承担 agency cost, which are the costs of the monitoring that is required because of the
separation of ownership and management.因为所有权管理权分离而导致的监督成本,称为代理成本。
解决代理问题-利益一致★★
利益一致意味着代理人的目标与股东目标整体一致 Alignment of interests is accordance between the
objectives of agents acting within an organisation and objectives of agents within an organisation and
the objectives of the organisation as a whole,也称为 goal congruence。
比较好的方式是给管理层以 1)跟利润挂钩的薪酬机制;2)提供其他跟利润或股价有关的激励。具体:
a) Profit – related / economic value-added pay
b) Rewarding managers with shares
c) Executive share option plans (ESOPs)
Corporate governance is a set of relationships between a company’s directors, its shareholders and
other stakeholders. It also provides the structure through which the objectives of the company are set,
and the means of achieving those objectives and monitoring performance and determined.
补充内容:★
1) 风险 risk:在一个好的公司治理下,管理层能够意识到、评估和降低风险。这包括运作一个充
分且合适的内控系统
2) 精神 spirit:好的公司治理不仅仅是外部行为准则,也是内部的意愿,将精神融入法律条文。
3) 问责制 accountability:问责制是好的公司治理框架体系的主题,问责制不仅是对股东,也适用
于其他利益相关者;不仅仅针对管理层,也针对审计师。
1. Transparency 透明化★★★
Transparency means open and clear disclosure of relevant information to shareholders and other
stakeholders, also not concealing when it may affect decisions. It means open discussion and a default
position of information provision rather than concealment.
透明表示没有遮掩的,完全披露相关信息给股东和其他利益相关者,不隐瞒会影响决定的这些信息。
这意味着公开讨论和信息披露的默认态度不是隐瞒。
Disclosure includes information in the financial statements, not just the numbers and notes to the accounts but
also narrative statements such as the directors’ report. It also includes all voluntary disclosure that is
disclosure above the minimum required by law or regulation.
The main reason why transparency is so important relates to the agency problem that the potential
conflict between owners and managers. Without effective disclosure the position could be unfairly
weighted towards managers, since they have far more knowledge of the company’s activities and
financial situation than owner/investors. (Information asymmetry)
为什么透明这么重要,主要是解决了代理问题,即所有者和管理者潜在的利益冲突。若没有有效披露,
则管理层和所有人/投资者信息不对称,管理层极不公平地拥有更多关于公司活动和财务状况的信息。
Publication of relevant and reliable informationreassures investors and underpinsstock market confidence
in how companies are being governed and thussignificantly influences market prices.
披露相关和可靠的信息可以让投资者安心,也加固证券市场对于公司治理的信心,也会因此极大地影
响公司股价。
2. Accountability 问责制★★★
Accountability is a key relationship between two or more parties. It implies that one party is
accountable to, or answerable to, another. This means that the accountableentity can reasonably be
called upon to explain his, her or its actions and policies.
问责制是双方或多方的核心关系。它暗示一方对另一方的后果承担责任,一方有权对另一方问责。举
例:管理层被股东要求解释他的行为和他颁布的政策。
It is important that companies are seen by stakeholders as competent, ethical, fair to others and
reputable. Company boards must enjoy the full confidence of several important stakeholders in order
to enjoy full access to resource and product markets. A poor reputation can quickly affect a company's
ability to, for example, attract high quality employees, sell its products or attract capital.
补充内容:★
维布伦商品(Veblen good):用来指代那些产品定价高反倒增强自身吸引力的商品。
4. Integrity 正直★★
Integrity means straightforward dealing and completeness.财务报告要求诚实地将公司事务的全貌
表现出来。影响财务报告正直性,还取决于谁来准备和呈现它们。
Integrity can be taken as meaning someone of high moral character.正直还涉及到人的道德品质,
坚守道德原则,不管面对怎样的压力(不该说的不说,不该做的不做)。
公司治理的核心目的就是刺激市场参与者(投资人)的信心,这个极大程度取决于公众认为公司
是否有能力或足够正直 significantly depends on a public perception of competence and integrity.
5. Fairness 公平★★
无论是管理者的考量还是公司系统的构建,都充分考虑到每个人的合法利益,尊重他们的权利和观点
taking into account everyone who has a legitimate interest in the company, and respecting their
rights and views.
在许多司法中,公司治理指导方针加强了对特定团体的立法保护。例如,保护少数股东的权益。
6. Innovation 创新★
公司治理中的创新观点是认可公司和股东的诉求是会不断变化的。
7. Scepticism 职业的怀疑态度★
UK 公司治理准则鼓励非执行董事推行一种怀疑态度的氛围,这样他们才能敢于挑战管理层的决定,扮
演好监督的角色。Non-executive directors (NEDs) to adopt an air of scepticism so that they can
effectively challenge management decisions in their role of scrutiny.
8. Independence 独立★
独立性是避免被既得利益者施加不当的影响 unduly influenced by vested interests,应该不受约束 being
free from any constraints,防止被限制采取正确的做法。
这是一种坚守不受不当影响,不遭受管理层捕获 managerial capture,始终做出正确的,一尘不染的决
定 uncontaminated decision。
独立性是个人拥有的质素,是职业水平和专业行为的必要元素。
Stakeholder 利益相关者★★★(主要是定义和诉求)
Stakeholders are any entity (person, group or possibly non-human entity) that can affect or be affected
by the achievements of an organisation's objectives. It is a bi-directional relationship. Each stakeholder
group has different expectations about what it wants and different claims upon the organisation.
Stakeholder claims mean the demands that stakeholder interests make upon organisations, based on the
view that the impact of companies is so great that they have responsibilities to different sections of
society, not just to shareholders. Management has to decide on the legitimacy and relative strength of
different stakeholder claims.
Knowledge of who stakeholder are and what claims they make is a vital part of an organisation's risk
assessment, since the claims made by stakeholder can affect the achievement of objectives.
Since it may determine the organisation's decision if it has to decide between competing stakeholder
claims. 我们需要 assessment of the influence of stakeholders in terms of their power and interest 评价
利益相关者的权利和利益方面的影响力。一个组织还需知道利益相关者的哪些地方会有冲突和紧张。
组织可能也会曲解诉求,take the wrong or unnecessary actions, or fail to take the right actions, to deal
with stakeholder concerns.采取了错误或不必要的行动来处理利益相关者的问题。这也可能歪曲了组织
This suggests the existence of ethical and philanthropic responsibilities as well as economic and legal
responsibilities and organisations focusing on being altruistic.如果没做到这些,会导致社会不和谐
breakdown of social cohesion,每个人道德败坏,世风日下,和可能的经济衰退。
Mendelow matrix classifies stakeholders on a matrix whose axes are power held and likelihood of
showing an interest in the organisation's activities. These factors will help define the type of relationship
the organisation should seek with its stakeholders and how it should view their concerns.
1) Directors 高管★
2) Company secretary 董秘★
3) External auditor 外部审计师★
4) Employees 员工★★★
Employees will focus on how the company is performing, and how the company's performance will
impact on their pay, working conditions and career path.
Employees also have information requirements. Surveys suggest that the most interesting information
for employees is information concerned with the immediate work environment and which is future
orientated.
员工在公司 implementation of strategy 执行战略时扮演了重要角色。他们需要 comply with the
corporate governance systems in place and adopt appropriate culture 遵守公司治理系统和符合企业文
化。
6) Suppliers★★
a) 主要供应商是 key 利益相关者,particularly in businesses where material costs and quality are
significant.尤其是那些对物料成本和质量问题非常敏感的企业。
b) 和供应商的合作非常重要,譬如尽量低的库存量来降低资金占用量,这时对供应商的可靠度依赖
非常高。
c) 需要及时付款给客户,糟糕的付款记录会恶化供应商关系,这会导致供应商 limit or withdraw
credit 改变赊销额度,或征收较高利息,或降低服务质量。更糟糕的是,停止供货给你,而 switch
to supplying competitors 卖给竞争对手。
7) Customers ★★
a) With increasingly competitive markets, consumers are able to exercise increasing levels of power
over companies.
b) consumer behavior has also enhanced the importance of consumers and costs of retaining existing
customers are significantly less than those of obtaining new customers。
c) they will satisfy their immediate material needs, but also how they will satisfy their deeper moral
needs.
8) Regulator 监管者★
高顿财经 ACCA | acca.gaodun.cn
Methods of regulation 监管方式:
(▲考试要求:P1 只要看看即可)
监管者应该让竞争多元化 competition authorities are responsible for ensuring diversity,尽管有些领域
存在自然垄断 natural monopoly。鼓励竞争手段:
i. Price control 价格管制,要求逐渐降价(实质降价,考虑通胀因素)
ii. Profit control 利润管制,生产配额限制
9) Government 政府★
政府会对销售、利润、分红收税。他们通过公司销售来获得收入税和销售税。税的架构会影响投资者
的选择,是宁愿公司分红还是资本增长。政府可以通过法律来营造整个监管和控制的氛围。包括积极
型的财政政策或紧缩型的财政政策,或者政府介入。政府也可以直接投资资金,或者通过税务优惠政
策来鼓励私人投资项目。
机构投资者的缺点★★:
a) Excessive market influence 对市场影响太大,过多干预市场。对于完全竞争的资本市场来说,
不应存在一个投资者是可以有足够规模来影响市场价格的。
b) Playing safe 大多数机构投资者需要规避投机的股票,而更多应投资蓝筹股。
c) Lack of power of investors 真正的投资者权利缺乏。机构投资者实质上是股票代持,但真正的
投资者(广大基民)不可能真正行使权力,不能再 GM 上发表言论。
行使机构投资者权利的方式★★:
a) One-to-one meetings 一对一会议。跟公司管理层一对一谈话的机会。
b) Voting 投票权(机构投资者尽量不投反对票,不干预公司管理层决议)
c) Focus list 机构投资者自己持有的关注名单,哪些公司有重大变数,需要格外关注
d) Contributing to corporate governance rating systems 公司治理评级的贡献
典型例题:1112 Q2;1006;1212 Q2
1) Principle-based approach 定义-背诵★★★
2) A principles-based approach works by usually a stock market making compliance with a detailed
code a condition of listing. Shareholders are then encouraged to insist on a high level of compliance
in the belief that higher compliance is more robust than lower compliance.
3) When, for whatever reason, a company is unable to comply in detail with every provision of a code,
the listing rules state that the company must explain, usually in its annual report, exactly where it
fails to comply and the reason why it is unable to comply. The shareholders, and not the law, then
judge for themselves the seriousness of the breach. (又称为 comply or explain; 另外一点:如果跟法
律重叠的部分,必须遵从,否则犯法)
Examples: UK-combined code 2006 (CC06)
典型例题:1206 Q4
1. Insider systems (family companies - 股权集中,通常为家族企业)定义★★★
1) Insider or relationship-based systems are where most companies listed on the local stock exchange
are owned and controlled by a small number of major shareholders.这类公司大多数在当地证券交
易所上市,大股东人数少,他们拥有并控制企业。股东包括创建公司的家族成员,银行,其他公
司或政府。Concentration of share ownership
2) 家族企业是股权集中构架的最好示例。代理问题在家族企业中不凸显,因为他们即是拥有着也是
管理者。Agency is not really an issue with families because of their direct involvement in management.
3) 个人行为不仅受到公司道德准则影响,也受家族道德观念影响。因为家族企业希望持续投资经营
下去。
4) 然后这种长久经营的意愿也取决于家族成员是否愿意接班,经营下去。longevity depends on the
willingness of family members to continue to be actively involved 另一方面,家族企业也需要家族成员
团结一致 family unity,如果做不到,公司治理会变得异常艰难。
总结:
Insider Outsider
Agency problem 代理问题 比较低 比较高
Robust governance 稳健治理 比较差 比较好
Minority 保护少数股东权益 比较差 比较好
Long-term 为了公司长远发展 比较好 比较差
Hostile takeovers 恶意收购 几率低 几率高
1. BOD 的角色
2. BOD 的人员构成需要考虑的因素
规模 Size
内外结合 Inside/outside mix
多样化 Diversity
3. BOD Structure
5 个常规的角色/作用
所有这些都是关于推荐或任命董事会成员的。
1) 建立合适的平衡 balance 的 ED 和 NED。在某些国家,这些是有法律规定的。在 UK,公司治理守
则知名至少董事会一半成员为 NEDs。
2) 确保董事会成员包含必要的技能、知识和经验 skills, knowledge and experience,来有效领导公司 to
effectively lead the company。任何不足 identified gaps,最好由新任命的成员来补足。
适应计划的总体目地是为了让新董事尽快有效的开始新工作。主要有 4 方面内容:
1) 转换 convey 到新工作环境中,包括公司的规范 norm,价值 values 和文化 culture。如果新员工是
从其他不同类型的企业文化中转来,则这一点更为重要。
2) 跟新董事沟通实际流程和职责,包括跟新员工有关的公司政策 company policy。举例:公司架构
里的定位 orientation,报告流程 reporting line(up and down),工作组织的方式 the way in which work is
organized in the department and practical matters.
3) 理解公司的经营性质,运作方式,战略,核心利益相关者和外部关系 nature of the company, its
operations, strategy, key stakeholders and external relationships。对一个新董事来说,越能尽早理
解战略是非常必要的。合理的理解公司运作’works'可以让她很快适应新角色。
4) 建立和发展新董事跟同事的关系 develop the new director’s relationships with colleagues,特别是
那些他日常需要打交道的同事。第一印象很重要,初期的误会需要更多时间和精力来修复。
CPD 针对不同岗位的人,内容和重要性各有不同。举例,它对保持专业会计或公司董事的职业性,胜
任能力等,非常重要,这也是 CPD 的目的。CPD 的优点如下:
1) CPD 可以维持和更新专业人员的知识和技能 maintain and update the currency of her skills and
knowledge。
2) CPD 可以拓展技能 broaden skills,或横向触类旁通,或纵向深入。譬如学习更多管理和控制的方
法,如内控,是深入发展会计专业技能的途径。另,作为一个财务总监,必须对商业运行有个整
体的很好的理解,也必须拓展会计专业外的管理知识。
3) 某些专业性非常强的职位,需要不断培训来使其适应社会需求 support of society。维持技能和知识,
才能更好服务于社会。这也需要保存好 CPD 记录,来提高社会对专业机构的职业性的信心。
1) 评价董事会的表现是非常重要的控制手段,目地是提高董事的有效性,最大化它的能力,解决它
的薄弱环节。它是公司内反馈流程中不可缺少的一部分,或许可以促使董事改变它的方式或行为
目地。
2) UK 公司治理守则建议最好一年一次评估董事个人和委员会的表现。
3) 理想的评估应该由外部第三方来执行,以此保持评估的客观性。
Leaving 董事会成员离开的几种方式★
CEO 的角色★★★
1) 领导公司,在各方面保护股东利益 lead the company and to protect shareholder interests above all
others
2) 发展和贯彻公司政策和战略,使其最大化股东的价值 develop and implement policies and strategies
capable of delivering superior shareholder value
3) 管理公司的金融和实物资源,监督结果,确保公司运作有效,有适当的风险控制程序 manage the
financial and physical resources of the company, monitor results, and ensure that effective operational
and risk controls are in place
4) 监督公司的管理团队,协调董事和其他员工的关系 oversee the management team, co-ordinate the
interface between the board and the other employees in the company
董事委员会:(以下这些委员会都是平等的,所以称为一元架构)★★
1) 审计师委员会 Audit committee:是饱受争议的最重要的委员会,负责联络外部审计师,监督内审
和审查每年的账户和内控。要求全部是 NED。
2) 提名委员会 Nomination committee:负责推荐和任命新的董事会董事
3) 薪酬委员会 Remuneration committee:负责提议执行董事的薪酬政策和每个董事的其他福利
4) 风险委员会 Risk committee:负责监督公司如何应对风险和管理战略
NED 定义★★★
1) Non-executive directors have no executive (managerial) responsibilities.
2) Non-executive directors should provide a balancing influence, and play a key role in reducing
conflicts of interest between management (including executive directors) and shareholders. They
should provide reassurance to shareholders, particularly institutional shareholders that
management is acting in the interests of the organisation.
NED 有 4 个角色★★★
1) Strategy role 战略角色:NEDs may challenge any aspect of strategy they see fit and offer advice or
input to help to develop successful strategy.
2) Scrutinising role 监督角色:NED's independence is perhaps the most important. NEDs are required
to hold executive colleagues to account for decisions taken and company performance. In this
respect, they are required to represent the shareholder's interests against any vested interests or
short-term executive pressures.
4) People role 人员管理角色:NEDs oversee a range of responsibilities with regard to the management
of the executive members of the board. This typically involves issues concerning appointments and
remuneration, but might also involve contractual or disciplinary issues, and succession planning.
NED 人数要求★
1) 董事会需要有足够素质和人数的非执行董事,来制衡董事会,赋予合理权重。
2) New York Stock Exchange 规则需要上市公司有大多数的非执行董事,即>1/2 数量。
3) 其他公司准则,注入 Singapore code,建议至少 1/3 董事为独立的非执行董事。
Cross-directorships 交叉管理★
即一个人为 A 公司 ED,B 公司 NED;另一人为 B 公司 ED,A 公司 NED。彼此独立性受阻,公允性
不足。
风险管理委员会
对风险管理中发现的问题,需要汇报给执行董事,让执行董事去执行改进程序 report their finds to the
executive board
家族企业执行一元构架会面临的困境★★
1) 一元构架中,家族成员会丧失对公司紧密的控制 loss the tight control
2) 一元构架中,所有战略决定必须被整个董事会采纳,包括非执行董事 all strategic decisions need to
be taken by a full board including the NEDs.
3) NED 的引入,制衡了某些强大的执行董事小群体,他们不再可以拍板做决定。
4) 公司做决定不再迅速,要花时间取得所有人同意 lose the capacity for fast decision-making in the
family supervisory board。大型董事会会经常在固定时间碰头讨论。NED 和其他执行董事可能会
要求外部董事会决定的解释,也可能反对成员的决定。
5) 公司文化的转变会让家族企业管理变得困难,也比较难适应新的一元结构。这种需要跟更多的人
讨论,并达到一致同意,是比较难接受的转变。家族企业习惯了自己人做决定,很难处理。
董事薪酬的目的:★★
1) 清晰充分的薪酬,可以吸引 attract 优秀人才
2) 薪酬方案的建立需要保证激励 motivate 作用
薪酬政策:★★
1) UK 的 Greenbury committee 确立了一个比较好的归总,关于如何制定薪酬制度
2) 董事的薪酬应该由董事会的独立成员(NED)来制定 independent
3) 任何形式的奖金都必须跟可评价的表现挂钩 related to performance
4) 股东薪酬足够透明 transparency,包括养老金政策等 pension rights,都得在每年的账户里列明
NED 不适用于绩效相关薪酬的原因★★
1) NEDs are usually not allowed to receive share options or other performance-related
elements as part of their reward packages is because it could threaten their independence
and hence their usefulness to the company's shareholders.
2) NEDs need to be motivated in different ways to their executive colleagues.为了扮演好 NED 的角色,
更好行驶监督的角色 scrutiny role,要减少 NED 与 ED 的相似性。如果 ED 和 NED 都以一样的方
式激励,他们就没法监督战略,风险,合规度,股东利益等,因为缺乏一个有效监督的激励。 (ED
和 NED 利益一致,已经无法有效监督了。Similarity means the scrutiny role is weaken)
3) 如果 ED 和 NED 薪酬结构相似,他们会以同样方式对待工作,更倾向于短期利益而非长期目标。
关注于短期股价波动,或做一些让公司股价短期上涨的决定,牺牲了长期战略考量 focus away from
long-term strategic issues and make them more concerned with maximizing market value in the short
term.
4) 因为 NED 构成了薪酬委员会,如果再让他们来决定自己的薪酬,显然不合适。他们可能滥用权力
abuse of the responsibility 或辜负股东信任来给自己过多的奖励,以一种不合适的方式激励自己。
所以,最好是给 NED 一个与其他公司相比,合理的薪酬 fair rate,这样也不至于薪水过高。通常
来说,NED 的薪酬与 ED 相比,只占小部分 small fraction.
AGM EGM
全称 Annual general meetings Extraordinary general meetings
定义 是所有有限责任公司正常财年 normal financial 临时召开的,用于股东间讨论战略或其他重
calendar 里需要完成的一件事,一般是为了对 要事项。
年末结果做一个陈述,发布年报。
共同 是公司董事和股东之间的正式会议。董事会(主席和 CEO)做陈述,也是股东向董事会提问
目的 的机会。Presentation by the board, chance for shareholders to question the board.
其他 董事会向股东汇报今年的成果 present 临时决议适用于那些需要董事讨论和批准的决议,但
代理人投票的好处:
1) 出席 attendance
a) Institutional shareholders often hold shares in hundreds of companies. It is impractical to expect their
representatives to attend every annual general meeting.
b) It gives smaller shareholders who cannot attend meetings in person the chance to have some influence
over the company's strategies and policies.
2) 代表股东观点 Representative of shareholders' views
公司年报同时包含了强制披露和主动披露内容。
强制披露:
1) Mandatory disclosures are those statements that are compulsory under relevant company laws or stock
market listing rules.强制披露是那些根据相关的公司法或上市公司条例规定,强制披露的内容。
2) 在大多数司法权 jurisdictions,强制披露的项目包括主要的财务报表 main financial statements,如收
支平衡表,财务状况表和现金流量表。
3) 上市公司管理条例中,如 UK 要求公司治理披露董事持股和薪酬,以及董事合同的细节 disclosures
such as directors' shareholdings and emoluments, and details of directors' contracts.
主动披露:
1) Voluntary disclosures are not required by any mandate but are provided, usually in narrative rather than
quantitative form.主动披露往往不是强制执行的,而是自发或者约定俗成的,通常是陈述性的文字,
而非量化的报告。
2) 通常认为有些信息涉及股东利益或其他利益相关者,但又不能以数字来传达,因此需要写其他的
典型例题:1212 Q3
Risk 风险★★
定义★★
1) Risk is a condition in which there exists a quantifiable dispersion in the possible results of any activity.
风险是可能结果的量化分布。
2) Hazard is the impact if the risk materialises.危险是风险发生时候产生的冲击。
3) Uncertainty means that you do not know the possible outcomes and the chances of each outcome
occurring.不确定性意味着你不知道每个结果会怎样,以及不同结果发生的几率。
COSO’s framework★
1) Internal Environment 控制环境
2) Objective Setting 目标制定
3) Event Identification 事件识别
4) Risk Assessment 风险评估
5) Risk Response 风险应对
6) Control Activities 控制活动
7) Information & communication 信息与沟通
8) Monitoring 监督检查
定义:The internal or control environment is influenced by management's attitude towards control (tone
at the top), the organisational structure and the values and abilities of employees.★
根据企业确定的任务或预期,管理者确定企业的战略目标,选择战略方案,确定相关的子目标并在企
业内层层分解和落实,各子目标都应遵循企业的战略方案并与战略方案相联系。
1) 跟战略相符合 Strategy
2) 跟风险偏好相符合 Risk attitude –高风险高回报,低风险低回报
管理者意识到了不确定性的存在,包括某一事项是否会发生、何时发生或者如果发生其结果如何。作
为事项识别的一部分,管理者应考虑会影响事项发生的各种企业内外部的因素。外部因素包括经济、
商业、自然环境、政治、社会和技术因素等,内部因素反映出管理者所做的选择,包括企业的基础设
Strategicrisks 战略风险定义★★★
These arise from the overall strategic positioning of the company in its environment. Some strategic
positions give rise to greater risk exposures than others. Because strategic issues typically affect the
whole of an organisation and not just one or more of its parts, strategic risks can potentially concern
very high stakes – they can have very high hazards and high returns. Because of this, they are managed
at board level in an organisation and form a key part of strategic management.
Examples of strategic risks include those affecting products, markets, reputation,supply chain issues
and other factors that can affect strategic positioning.
Examples include those risks that, whilst important and serious, affect one part ofthe organisation and
not the whole, such as machinery breakdown, loss of sometypes of data, injuries at work.
b) Cash flow can be strongly influenced by how much debt to equity a business has, its need to service
that debt and the rate at which it is borrowed.
c) Likewise, the ability of a business to operate on a day-to-day basis depends upon how it manages its
working capital and its ability to control payables, receivables, cash and inventories.
d) Any change which makes its cash flow situation worse, such as poor collection of receivables,
excessive borrowing, increased borrowing rates, etc, could represent an increased financial risk for
the business.
Comments: The more high-high corner, means the more important and the more strategic the risk will be.
The position of risks can vary over time as environmental conditions vary. The diagram is very similar to
Mendelow’s stakeholder map and in that map as well the position of stakeholders.该图片和利益相关者的
Mendelow 矩阵类似。
Transfer 的方式可以 insurance,这样风险由很多人共享,一起买单。也可以是 outsourcing。
典型例题:1106 Q1
1) Segregation of duties 权责分离,一个人不能在某一领域全控制,譬如主席和 CEO 不能一个人担任
2) Physical measures 保管财产,保证资产安全,譬如进大楼要刷门卡
3) Authorisation and approval 授权,由合适的人来批准商业活动,譬如 NED 担任薪酬委员会委员,
决定 ED 董事薪酬
4) Management 管理层应该通过分析和检查账户来达到控制目的,譬如建立内审部门
5) Supervision 监督记录和日常交易,譬如监督预算执行情况,通过预期与差异报告
6) Organisation identifies reporting lines, levels of authority and responsibility. 组织里建立报告的渠道,
责任清晰,必要授权。确保每个人意识到各自的控制责任,其他责任,是否按照惯例政策了。譬
如某个员工是否在他授权范围内独立工作。
7) Arithmetical and accounting 数字和账目的正确性,算对帐,数字记录和交易处理要正确。譬如银行
对账单
8) Personnel 对人的控制,选人要恰当,必要的培训和资质考核。譬如,招聘时要做员工的背景调查
典型例题:1212 Q3
Information requirements of directors 董事需要的信息
董事需要大量信息来监督和评估内控系统的运作
Monitoring 监督★★
为了实现有效监督,管理层必须保持监督的持续性,并对监督系统有一个单独的评价。
监督中的缺陷应该跟合适的人来沟通,看看如何改善。
典型例题:1012 Q1
Ethical relativism 道德相对论★★★
Relativism is the view that a wide variety of acceptable ethical beliefs and practices exist. The ethics
典型例题:0912 Q1
1) What are the factsof the case?事情的事实是什么?
2) What are the ethical issues / dilemma in the case?事情的道德窘境是什么?
3) What are the norms, principles and values related to the case?案件中的规范,原则和价值观是什么?
4) What are the alternative courses of action?备选方案是什么?
5) What is the best course of action that is consistent with the norms, principles and values identified?基于
规范,原则和价值,最佳的备选方案是什么?
6) What are the consequences of each course of action?每个方案造成的结果是什么?
高顿财经 ACCA | acca.gaodun.cn
7) What is the decision?最后的决定是什么?
典型例题:1212 Q4
1) Profitable? 是否盈利
2) Legal?是否合法–站在公司立场
3) Fair and equitable?是否公平公正–站在利益相关者立场:对 A 公平,则对 B 不公
4) Right, which is prone to subjective judgement?是否对,有主观判断
5) Sustainable or environmentally sound?是否可持续发展,或有利环境
这种方式结尾会有个 summary。
公司有压力,行为有道德,具体有发布道德伦理规范,确立对利益相关者的价值和责任。
An ethical code typically contains a series of statements setting out the organisation's values and explaining
how it sees its responsibilities towards stakeholders.一个典型的道德准则包括一系列申明,确立公司的
价值,解释它怎样看待对利益相关者的责任。
企业的道德条例往往包含以下特征:
1) 它们关注监督 regulating 管理员工个人的行为
2) 它们是正式的文件
3) 它们涵盖了特定领域,譬如多少价值的礼物是可接受的;反竞争行为怎样定义,等等
典型例题:1106 Q4
职业道德规范适用于专业从业人员的个人行为,往往是以原则为基础,补充以威胁指导和保障措施
Professional codes of ethics apply to the individual behaviour of professionals and are often based on
principles, supplemented by guidance on threats and safeguards.
c) For example, businesses which are about to be taken-over often see a significant rise in their share price.
In this situation directors might purchase shares in their own companies, seek potential buyers for the
company and recommend the sale to shareholders, in order to make a profit on their own share
investments.
d) For this reason, a blanket ban on insider dealing ensures that such short-term measures are not taken.因
为这个原因,全面禁止内幕交易,确保没有采取这样的短期措施。
e) There is also the potential damage that insider trading does to the reputation and integrity of the capital
markets in general which could put off investors who would have no such access to privileged
information and who would perceive that such market distortions might increase the risk and variability
of returns beyond what they should be.
定义★★★
Corporate social responsibility is a concept whereby organisations consider the interests of society by
taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on wider stakeholders.企业社会责任是这么一个概
念,即企业必须考虑社会的利益,通过其活动的影响而对广大利益相关者承担责任。- 这是一个广义
的 Stakeholder 理论。
This obligation can be seen to extend beyond statutory obligations to comply with legislation.这种责任
是超过法律规定的强制义务。
2) Three core principles define the essence of corporate citizenship, and every company should apply
them in a manner appropriate to its distinct needs: minimizing harm, maximizing benefit, and being
accountable and responsive to stakeholders.企业公民权的实质有 3 个核心原则,每个公司都应该以
适当的方式将它们应用于不同的需求:最小化伤害,最大化利益,对利益相关者的问责和回应。
套话积累:Discussion of corporate citizenship also often has political undertones, with corporations
acting instead of governments that cannot – or will not – act to deal effectively with problems.企业公民
权的讨论也往往具有政治色彩,政府做某些事情,可能效果非常差,让公司来做,会解决这种问题。
套话积累:Commentators have also pointed to liberalisation, deregulation and privatisation placing
more power in the hands of corporations and less in the hands of the state.有些观点指出了自由化,去
监管化和私有化,让更多的权力掌握在企业手中,而不在国家手中。
4) 3 个观点:
Limited view 有效观点:只考虑有限项目下公司的自我利益。公司经营的主要利益相关者群体是当
地社区和员工。
Equivalent view 均衡观点:基于一个更广泛的企业社会责任的一般定义,这部分是自愿的,部分是
外界强加的。
Extended view 扩展观点:社会权利,公民权利,政治权利。
2) Expedients 权衡利益得失★★★
Economic systems do generate some excesses, therefore businesses have to accept some (limited)
social legislation and moral requirements if such behaviour is in the business's economic interests.
经济系统确实会产生一些过激行为,因此企业必须接受一些(有限)的社会立法和道德要求,如
果这种行为是为了企业长远的经济利益。
5) Socialists 共产主义–不考
典型例题:1212 Q1
Environmental footprint 环境足迹定义★★★
Environmental footprint is the impact that a business's activities have upon the environment including
its resource environment and pollution emissions. It concerns the environmental consequences of a
business’s inputs and outputs
1) Ways of assessing the impact of inputs include the measurement of key environmental resources
used such as energy, water, inventories or land.评估投入的影响的方法,包括测量的关键环境资源,
如能源,水,自然资源库存或土地。
2) Measurement of the impact of outputs includes the proportion of product recyclability, tonnes of
carbon or other gases produced by company activities, waste or pollution.对产出的影响测量包括产
品回收的比例,由公司活动产生的碳或其他气体吨,浪费和污染。
3) A business may also be concerned with the efficiency of its processes, maybe carrying out a mass
balance or yield calculation. 一个企业还要关注其流程的效率,可能实施大规模的平衡或收益率计
算。
Impacts can be positive (such as the provision of jobs and community benefits) or negative, such as
when a plant closure increases unemployment or when people become sick from emissions from a plant
or the use of a product.
Sustainability 可持续发展定义★★★
In relation to the development of the world's resources, sustainability has been defined as ensuring that
development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
披露环境报告的优势:
1) Transparency and accountability 透明度和问责制
2) Impact on internal control systems 对内控系统的影响
3) Addressing investor concerns about risk 提出投资者对风险的关注
4) Improved reputation 提高声誉
5) Damage limitation 减损伤害
2) 全面成本核算要素 Elements:
Tier 0 Usual costs 常规成本 Basic capital and revenue costs 一般资本和收入费用
Tier 1 Hidden costs 隐形成本 Costs usually included as overheads 如制造费用(摊销),管
理成本和安全成本
Tier 2 Liability costs 责任成本 Contingent liability costs 或有负债,如罚金
Tier 3 Less tangible costs 无形成本 Costs of poor environmental management 糟糕的环境产生的
成本,如丧失客户好名声,声誉风险
Tier 4 Environment focused costs 环境 Costs that ensure that project has zero environmental effect 确
成本 保项目 0 污染成本
3) FCA 优点:
a) Knowledge of full extent of environmental footprint 了解环境足迹的整段历程
b) Reducing environmental footprint 减少环境足迹
c) Assisting decision-making 帮助做决策
d) Favourable publicity 公众口碑变好
4) FCA 缺点:
a) Data required 数据从哪里来?
b) Which cost figures to use?数据归类,如何使用?
IR 的内容 Capitals:
IR 成为一种途径来传达一个组织发展到现在的商业模式和它价值创造的来源 conveys an organisation’s
business model and its sources of value creation over time。IR 模型包含六种类型的资本,他们被企业消
耗 consumed by a business,成为企业流程的一部分 created as part of its business processes。IR 模型的核
心思想就是资本是怎样被消费,转化和创造的 consumed, transformed and created。
6 种类型的资本是 six types of capital:★★
1) Financial capital 财务资本:通过融资或经营得来的可用于生产的资本
2) Manufactured capital 生产资本:用于生产或服务提供的物理对象(都是靠人创造出来的资源),
如厂房,设备,基础建设
3) Intellectual capital 知识资本:专利、版权、软件、权利和牌照
4) Social and relationship capital 社会关系资本:共同的价值观和行为、品牌和声誉,社会赋予的无
IR 的好处★★:
1) 首先,需要报告每一类资本, 以这种方式报告创造和增强了内部系统 create and enhance a system of
internal measurement,记录和监督每一个资本状态。举个例子,IR 记录了人力资本,必须有系统
来评估员工能力经验是否可以胜任,提高内控。
这些系统支持了公司的内控,提高公司的问责制 support the company’s internal controls and make
the company more accountable,将有更多的指标来报告。
2) 其次,这些信息的披露(一旦被审计和公布),将创造一个更全面和详细的说明关于哪些资源增值
哪些面临风险 fuller and more detailed account of the sources of added value, and threats to value 。
对股东和其他人而言,告诉他们公司是如何 identify, access and manage its key risks。
除了单单在年报里记录财务数据,IR 也告知股东和其他读者,在会计期间内,公司是关于如何积
累、转移或处理不同类型的资本的。 (从题目中,找个资本的例子。 )
3) 第三,充分开发的 IR 会展示公司是如何为利益相关者,而非仅仅是股东 not just for the
shareholders,来创造价值的。这延伸了企业活动的受益群,它利用了不同类型的资本,来传达这
个信息。
对于那些希望从他们自己的角度来评估某一特定类型的资本的利益相关者 stakeholders who wish
to value a particular type of capital from their own perspective 可以评估公司在这方面的价值变化,
是变好还是变坏,在会计期间内。
典型例题:1412 Q2
The public sector is different from the private sector in a number of ways but in general the main
differences are in the aims and purposes of the public sector, its sources of funding and accountability.
公共部门与私营部门在许多方面都不同,但总的来说,主要是因为公共部门的目标和宗旨,其资金来
源和问责。
Charities 慈善机构:★★
These are organisations set up for not for profit purposes, funded from donations.不为营利目的而设立
的组织,由捐款资助。
2. Leadership 领导力★:
1) 在私营部门,董事会 board of directors 来领导提供的,在某些情况下,由多数股东批准 ratified by a
majority of shareholders 后决定(例如任命外部审计员)。
2) 在公共部门,领导是建立在高标准的行为和领导力之上的 high standard of behavior and leading。
3) Nolan committee of UK in 1995 提出公共部门的 7 个原则分别是:leadership 领导力,无私 selflessness,
正直 integrity, 客观 objectivity, 问责 accountability, 公开 openness and 诚实 honesty.
补充真题:
有价值:2015/06 Q1; 2014/06 Q1; 2013/06 Q1; 2012/12 Q1
价值不大:2014/12 Q1; 2012/06 Q1; 2012/06 Q2; 2011/06 Q3