INDIAN

GEOGRAPHY
BY → SHIVAM SAXENA
• NORTHERN MOUNTAINS (HIMALAYAS)
• NORTH EAST MOUNTAINS
• NORTHERN PLAINS
• PENINSULAR INDIA
• DRAINAGE PATTERN IN INDIA (RIVER SYSTEMS)
• SOILS IN INDIA (GREEN REVOLUTION)
• CLIMATE IN INDIA (MONSOON)
• RAINFALL PATTERN IN INDIA
• FOREST AND VEGETATION IN INDIA
• MINERALS AND ORES AND RESOURCES IN
INDIA
• MISCELLENOUS (NATIONAL HIGHWAYS AND
NATIONAL WATERWAYS
Himalayan
system

Northern
Plains

Peninsular
India
Formation of Himalayas
 Panthalasa Tethys sea

Alfred Wegener
• Proposed continental
drift theory
• Continent float on
Asthenosphere layer
(molten rocks)
• India was part of
Gondwana land and
gradually moved
towards northern
hemisphere (Laurasia)
• Formation of volcanos requires
at least one ocean plate
• Ocean plate get submerged
into asthenosphere due to
heavy density
• Due to high temperature, crust
gets melting → increasing
pressure → leads to formation
of volcanos
 70-80 Mn years ago
Indo-Australian • Indian plate moving towards Eurasian plate due
Tethys Eurasian Plate to magma flow
plate
sea plate • Sediments (geosyncline) will be deposited by the
rivers on the edges of continent plate

Himalayan Volcano
formation formation
started started 50-40 Mn years ago
• Oceanic plate subjugate to Eurasian plate which
Indo-Australian will be melt down in asthenosphere creating high
Tethys Eurasian Plate
plate pressure which will erupt volcanos
sea plate
• Sediments (geosyncline) also get folded to height
High temp magma at both ends due to pressure
Young, fold asthenosphere
mountains
Present time
• Oceanic plate completely creating many fold in
Indo-Australian plate Eurasian Plate
the sediment → mountain formation
• No volcanos will be formed because no ocean
plate→ no subjugation → no melting → no
pressure
 Trans Himalayas Trans Himalayas
Karakoram range Laddakh range
Rakaposhi Zanskar range
K2 (Godwin Austin) 8611m Kailash range
Gasherbrum
 Great Himalayas
Nanga Parbat (laddakh)
UK→
Kamet
Banderponch
Badrinath
Kedarnath
Nanda Devi
Trishul
Great Himalayas
Nepal, Sikkim,
Tibet
Great Himalayas
Nepal, Sikkim,
Tibet
 Great Himalayas
Arunachal Pradesh
Kangto
Namcha Barwa
 Lesser Himalayas
Pir panjal range
Dhauladhar Range
UK→ Nag tibba
Mussoorie and Kumaoun range
Nepal→ Mahabharat range

Trans Himalayas
Karakoram range → Rakaposhi, K2, Gasherbrum
Ladakh Range, Zanskar range
Kailash range (Tibet)
Great Himalayas
Ladakh → Nanga Parbat
UK → Kamet, Banderponch, Badrinath,
Kedarnath, Nanda Devi, Trishul
Nepal → Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Makalu,
Shishapangma, Gaurishankar, Cho oyu, Everest,
Lohtse, Mansalu
Sikkim → Kanchenjunga
Arunachal Pradesh → Kangto, Namcha Barwa

Lesser Himalayas
J&K – HP → Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar range
UK → Nag Tibba, Mussoorie Range, Kumaun
Range
Nepal → Mahabharat Range
Questions
Q. The Himalayan mountain system belongs to
which one of the following ?

(a) Fold mountains

(b) Volcanic mountains
(c) Block mountains
(d) None of these
Q. The highest mountain peak in India is
(a) Kanchenjunga
(b) Mount Everest
(c) Godwin Austin
(d) Nanda Devi
Q. Match the following :
A. Pir Panjal 1. Arunachal Pradesh
B. Dhauladhar 2. Uttarakhand
C. Nag Tibba 3. Jammu and Kashmir
D. Mishimi Hills 4. Himachal Pradesh

A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 4 3 2 1
Q. Which one of the following is most prone to earthquakes ?

(a) Coastal plains

(b) Northern plains
(c) Plateaus
(d) Young folded mountains
Q. The Himalayas are formed of parallel fold ranges of which
the oldest range is :

(a) the Siwalik Range

(b) the Lesser Himalayas
(c) the Great Himalayan Range
(d) the Dhaula Dhar Range
Q. Arrange the following Himalayan peaks in order
as they occur from west to east :

I. Kanchenjunga II. Mt. Everest

III. Nanda Devi IV. Dhaulagiri

(a) I, II, III, IV (b) I, II, IV III

(c) III, II, I, IV (d) III, IV, II, I
Which of the following relates to the formation of the Himalayas ?

(a) Folding of the earth’s crust

(b) Accumulation of loess deposits
(c) Folding of the geosyncline
(d) Faulting of the earth’s crust
North East Himalayan Mountains
 Arunachal Pradesh
Dafla hills
Miri Hills
Abor hills
Mishmi hills
Kangto peak (highest of ArPr)
 Nagaland
Naga Hills
Saramati peak
 Manipur
Laimatol range
Mount Iso/Tempu (highest peak)
 Mizoram
Mizo hills
Blue mountain/Phwangpui (highest
peak)
Lushai hills
 Tripura
Betling Sib peak (on border, Highest
peak)
 Meghalaya
Not part of Himalayan system but of peninsular India
(pre-Cambrian)
Separated by Garo-Rajmahal gap or Malda fault
This gap filled up by sediments of Brahmaputra and
Ganga river
Garo hills
Khasi hills, shilong peak (highest)
Jayantia hills
 Assam
Also not part of Himalayan system
Mikir hills
Rengma hills
Japhu peak (highest)
 Assam – ArPr – Nagaland
Patkai Bum

Assam – Nagaland – Manipur

Barail range
QUESTIONS
Q. Arakan Yoma is the extension of the Himalayas
located in :

(a) Kashmir
(b) Nepal
(c) Baluchistan
(d) Myanmar
Q. Which of the following gives the correct sequence of hills in
the east-west direction ?

(a) Naga, Mikir, Khasi, Garo

(b) Garo, Khasi, Mikir, Naga
(c) Khasi, Garo, Naga, Mikir
(d) Mikir, Naga, Khasi, Garo
Passes in India
Jammu-Srinagar → Banihal Pass
NH44 (jammu to kanyakumari)

Srinagar-Kargil → zojila pass

Kargil-Kashmir valley → Pensila
Kargil-Leh → Fotu la
Kargil- gilgit → Burji la
Leh – Nubra valley → Khardung la

Mintaka pass → AFG-IN-CN

Aghil pass → IN-CN
Karakoram→ IN-CN
Lanak la
Chang la
Imis la
 Himachal Pradesh
Shipki la (tibet)
Satluj river passes

Manali to Leh→ Rohtang pass (ravi

beas origin)
Baralacha la (chenab river origin)

Kunzum pass towards Lahul spiti

valley
Uttrakhand
Mana la
Niti la
Lipu la
 Sikkim
Jelep la → towards Bhutan → Lhasa
(tibet)
Nathu la → Tibet
Naku la → tibet (in north Sikkim)
 Arunachal Pradesh
Bum la
Sela pass
Bomdi la
Yongyabb pass (Brahmaputra entry)
Diphu pass (trijunction of CN-
MYNMAR-IN
 Manipur
Tuzu pass (Imphal to Myanmar)
Passes done
 Miscellaneous facts
• Kashmir Valley → between GH & LH, Zanskar & PP Range
• Karewas → glaciated soil → eroded from Glaciers → Saffron cultivation
• Marg → Alpine Grassland (high altitude plain grasslands)
In UK it is known as “Bugyals & Payars”
• Dwar or Duns → Valley area in Northern Mountains
• Duar → plain area of WB, Sikkim, Assam → tea plantation
QUESTIONS
Which of the following mountain passes lies outside India ?

(a) Khyber (b) Bomdila

(c) Bara Lacha La (d) Shipkila
Zojila Pass connects :

(a) Kashmir and Tibet

(b) Nepal and Tibet
(c) Leh and Kargil
(d) Kargil and Srinagar
Which of the following passes and locations is/are wrongly matched ?
1. Zojila and Burzila — Jammu & Kashmir
2. Bara Lacha La and Shipki La — Uttar Pradesh
3. Thanga La, Niti Pass and LipuLekh — Himachal Pradesh
4. Nathu La and Jelep La — Sikkim

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
The main India-Tibet route connecting Kalimpong with
Lhasa passes through the :

(a) Zojila (b) Shipki La

(c) Jelep La (d) Thanga La
Plains in India
Sediments eroded from the
Himalayan rivers formed
the Great Northern plains

Foredeep area filled by

these sediments are todays
plains
 • South of Shivalik • Re emergence of
Due to high altitude of
• Trees long roots river
mountains speed of
• Bolder pebbles • Marshy/Swampy
river is more → more
• River disappears land
erosion → river load
• Technically no soil • Less speed of river
capacity is more
• Less vegetation • Large area of River

Bhangar Region Khadar Region

• Less chances of • More chances of
flood flood
• Old alluvial soil • Alluvial soil renews
• Low productivity • More productivity
• Less agriculture • More agriculture
output output
QUESTION
Q. The new alluvial deposits found in the Gangetic plain
are known as :

(a) bhabar (b) bhangar

(c) khadar (d) terai
Match the following :

A. Bhabar 1. Younger alluvial

B. Terai 2. It is very porous

C. Bhangar 3. Has thick forest and wild life

D. Khadar 4. Older alluvial

A B C D A B C D

(a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 1 2 3 4

(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 4 3 1 2
Drainage pattern in India
(River system)
Mahanadi
system
CG→ OD
 Godavari
system
MH-CG-TL-AnPr
 Krishna
system
MH-KA-TL-AnPr
Kaveri
system
KA-TN
 Indus:
• Originates from Bokharchu glacier in Kailash mountains
• Also known as Singh Khamba
• Enters in India from Ladakh→ Pakistan → Arabian Sea
 Sutlej:
• Originates from Rakas Tal (Tibet)
• Also known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet
• Enters in India through Shipkila pass (HP) → Punjab→ Pakistan

Beas:
• Originates from Rohtang pass (HP) → Punjab
• Merge with Sutlej @Harike Barrage
• Indira Gandhi Canal from this Barrage → water to Rajasthan

Ravi:
• Originates from Rohtang pass (HP)
• Enters into Punjab through J&K border → Pakistan
• Merge with Chenab in Pakistan

Chenab:
• Originates from Tandi (HP), near Baralachla pass
• Enters into J&K → Pakistan The place where Sutlej
• Merge with Sutlej in Pakistan merge with Indus in
Pakistan “Panchnad” and
Jhelum: then finally drains to
• Originates from Verinag in Srinagar Arabian Sea
• Merge with Chenab in Pakistan
• Wular lake near it
Doab → Land between two
tributaries of a river

Sutlej-Beas → Bist Doab

Beas-Ravi → Bari Doab
Ravi-Chenab →Rechna Doab
Chenab-Jhelum → Jech Doab
 Brahmaputra:
• Originates from Chemyungdung glacier in Kailash mountains
Brahmaputra • Also known as Yarlung Tsangpo/ Zangpo
system • Enters in India from Yongyabb pass (Namcha Barwa, ArPr) with name
ArPr--AS Brahmaputra → Assam (also known as Dihang)
• Then enters in Bangladesh with name “Jamuna”
• Majuli Island → largest river island (Assam)

In Bangladesh
Padma(Ganga) + Jamuna(Brahmaputra) → Meghna
Ganga system
UK-UP-BR-JH-WB
→B’desh
Yamuna system
UK-HP-UP

Barak River
Manipur→Nagaland→Mizoram→Assam
Then enters into Bangladesh with name
Surma
Sabarmati (from Aravalli/Mewar)
Mahi (origin from Vindhyan range)
• (cut Tropic of Cancer 2 times)
Narmada
Tapi
QUESTIONS
The Himalayan rivers are :

(a) monsoon fed (b) snow fed

(c) ephemeral (d) seasonal
Which of the following is the longest river in India ?

(a) Ganga
(b) Narmada
(c) Brahmaputra
(d) Godavari
The longest river of peninsular India is :

(a) Narmada (b) Godavari

(c) Mahanadi (d) Cauveri
Which of the following rivers meet Ganga in Bihar ?

1. Ghaghra 2. Gandak
3. Son 4. Punpun

(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
 City River passing through the city
A. Nasik 1. Krishna
B. Surat 2. Cauvery
C. Ujjain 3. Godawari
D. Vijayawada 4. Shipra
5. Tapti

AB C D A B C D
(a) 3 5 4 1 (b) 4 1 3 2
(c) 3 1 4 2 (d) 4 5 3 1
 Rivers Origin

A. Indus 1. Uttaranchal
B. Ganga 2. Tibet
C. Godavari 3. Madhya Pradesh
D. Narmada 4. Maharashtra
5. Karnataka

Match the following :

A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 3 4 1 2
 Peninsular India
Mountains peaks in peninsular India
Passes
Coastal plains
Plateaus
 Rajasthan
• Aravalli range
• GJ—RJ—HR—DL
• Example of Residual mountains formed in
Pre-Cambrian era, old fold mountains
• Important mineral region: granite, marble,
limestone
• Gurushikhar (highest peak of RJ)
• Eastern side→ Mewar Plateau
 Gujrat
• North Gujrat
• Kachh Peninsula
• Gulf of Kachh
• Kachhi hills, Dhola range

• South Gujrat
• Kathiawar Peninsula
• Gulf of Khambat
• Mandav Hills
• Girnar (highest peak of GJ)
 Madhya Pradesh
• Example of Block mountains

• North MP
• Vindhyan range
• Eastern part→ Kaimur hills

• Narmada Rift Valley

• South MP
• Satpura Range
• Rajpipla Hills (w), Mahadeo Hills (M), Maikal
Range
• Dhupgarh (highest peak of MP)
 Maharashtra

• Western Ghats (aka “Sahayadri”

• MP—MH border → Gawilgarh Hills

• Ajanta Hills

• Satmala Hills
• Kalsubai (highest peak of MH)
• Harishchandra range, Balaghat Range
• Mahabaleshwar (origin of Krishna river)
 Karnataka

• Bababudan hills
• Mulyangiri (highest peak of KA)
• Kudremukh (iron ores)
• Brahmagiri hills (origin of Kaveri river)
 KL-TN border

• Nilgiri Hills (EG & WG connects)

• Dodabetta peak (highest peak of TN)

• Annamalai Hills
• Anaimudi peak (Highest peak of
WG/Peninsular India)

• Cardamom hills

Tamilnadu
• Javadi hills
• Gingee hills
• Shevroy hills
• Panchmalai hills
• Palni hills
• Sirumali hills
• Vanshnad hills
• Agastyamalai peak
 Andhra Pradesh

• Palkonda range
• Velikonda hills
• Shisachalam hills
• Nalamalla hills (TL-AnPr border)
• Aroyakonda peak
 Jharkhand
• Parasnath Peak
• Rajmahal hills

Chattisgarh
• Gaurlata (highest peak)
• Ramgarh hills (coal mines)
• Baila dila (iron supplier)
• Dandakaranya plateau

Odisha
• Garhjat hills (minerals area)
• Malaygiri peak
• Nayagarh hills
• Dwadi Mundo (highest peak of OD)
• Mahendragiri peak
Passes in Peninsular India
 Passes in Peninsular India

• Aravalli range → Haldighati pass (Udaipur)

• MH
• Mumbai to Nasik → Thalghat
• Mumbai to Pune → Bhorghat

• KL-TN
• Nilgiris to Annamalai → Palghat (towards
Coimbatore)
• Annamalai to Cardamom →
Senkotta/Sengotta (towards Madurai)
Coastal Plains in Peninsula
 Coastal plains in Peninsular
India

• Kathiawar Coast (South GJ coastal border)

• Konkan Coast (Mumbai to Goa)
• Kannada Coast (Goa to Manglore)
• Malabar Coast (Manglore to Kanyakumari)
• Coromandal Coast (Kanyakumari to South
Northern Sircar)
• Utkal Coast (Odisha coastal border)
PLATEAUS
 Plateaus in Peninsular India

• Mewar Plateau (RJ)

• Central Indian Plateau (RJ+MP)
• Malwa Plateau (MP+MH)
• Bundelkhand Plateau (MP+UP)
• Baghelkhand Plateau (MP+CG)
• Chota Nagpur Plateau (WB+JH)
• Hazaribagh Plateau (JH+BR)
• Ranchi Plateau (JH)
• Shilong Plateau or Karbi Anglong (MG+AS)
• Deccan Plateau (MH)
• Karanataka Plateau (KA)
• Telangana Plateau (TL)
• Dandakaranya Plateau (MH+OD+CG)
 Andaman and Nicobar Island
North Andman
Saddle Peak (highest peak of A&N)
Barren Island (India’s only active volcano)
Narcondam Island (Dormant volcano)

Middle Andaman
Mt. Diavolo

South Andaman
Mt. Koyob
Port blair

Duncan Passage (between South and Little Andaman)

Little Andaman

10 degree channel (between Little Andaman and Car Nicobar)

Car Nicobar
Little Nicobar
Great Nicobar (Indira Point) (Mt. Thullier)
Lakshadweep Islands
Amindivi Island

11 degree channel

Kavaratti island

9 degree channel
Androth
Minicoy Island (largest island)
Cannanore island
8 degree channel

Maldives
SOILS IN INDIA
Soil
• The thin layer of the original rock which support
plant life is called soil
• The process of soil formation is called pedogenesis
• Factors of soil formation:
• Weathering of rocks due to climate, vegetation,
leaching, calcification
• Soil is a mixture with various composition and
proportion of clay, silt, sand, gravel, organic humus.
Hence it has different types, texture, colour
• Lesser the particle size, more the water holding
capacity
Soil formation in Indian condition
• Factors:
• Rocks(parent material) → decides mineral composition, colour,
texture, location, water holding capacity
• Volcano→ lava→ rock→ erosion→ soil
• Lava above surface → faster cooling→ less crystalline→ high WHC
• Lava below surface→ slow cooling→ more crystalline→ less WHC
• If silica in lava is high then flow of lava is less and vice versa
• Organism→ rhizobium earthworms → fertility increase, N increase
• Soil is arranged in layers and these layers are nothing but horizons
• O→ Topmost layer contains organic material like grasses, dead leaves, organisms etc
• A→ topsoil, porous, soft and can retain more water, humus
• E→ contains nutrients leached from O and A
• B→ larger minerals, less humus, harder
• C → small rocks
• R→ more compact layer that contains rocks
Indian Council of Agricultural
Research
Major Soil Minor Soil
• Alluvial soil • Arid soil
• Black soil • Saline soil
• Red soil • Peaty soil
• Laterite soil • Forest soil
 Major soils → Alluvial soil
• Largest soil group covering 46% of the area
• Not mature, Kankar formation, Porous soil, suited for
agriculture
• Khadar region (younger) and Bhangar region (older)
• In India→ Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains, Deltas of
Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and Kaveri
• Less in Humus, N, P
• Potash high
• UP, BR, WB, OD, AnPr
• Crops → Wheat, Rice, Sugarcane, Jute, Fruits and
vegetables
 Major soil → Red Soil
• Second largest soil group
• Texture→ from Sandy to clay
• Presence of Iron Oxide develops giving red colour
• States → occurs in low rainfall regions of
• TN, KA, TL, AnPr, MP, CG, WB, UP
• Parts of South Bihar, Chota Nagpur plateau, Aravallis and
Eastern RJ
• Humus, N, P less
• Crops→
• Cotton, tobacco, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, oilseeds etc
 Major soil → Black Soil (Regur)
• Origin→ volcanic rocks in Deccan plateau
• Titaniferous magnetite give it black colour
• Texture→ more than 62% clayey feature
• High temp and low rainfall
• Swells greatly on absorbing water and develops cracks
after losing it
• Also known as self ploughing soil
• Contains lime, iron, magnesium,
• Lacks in P, N, organic matter
• States→ Most of the part of Deccan plateau, MH, MP,
GJ, AnPr, TN
• Crops→ best suited for cotton
• Tobacco, groundnut, millets, jowar
Major soil → laterite soil
• Only 1% of total geographical land in India
• Lacks in humus, N, Phosphate, Ca
• Excess in Iron oxide, potash
• States→ MP, OD, AnPr, TN, KL, AS
• Lacks fertility due to intense leaching of lime and silica
• After manuring and irrigation plantation crops can be taken
• Cashewnut, rubber, coffee, coconut
Minor soil → Arid soil (desert soil)
• ~4.32% in India
• Sandy in structure and saline in nature
• Colour → red to brown
• High temp and high evaporation regions
• Lacks in moisture, humus, N
• States→ western RJ, arid region of PB, HR
• Crops (only drought and salt tolerant crops can be grown)
• Millets, Pulses, Maize
• If irrigation done well then good response (eg. Indra Gandhi Canal)
 Minor Soil → Saline soil (alkaline soil)
• Known as “Usara” soul
• Excess in Mg, Na, K
• Lacks in N, Ca
• Infertile soil, more salt, don’t support
vegetation growth
• Western GJ, swampy areas of Sundarbans
Delta, some parts of PB and HR, parts of TL,
AnPr, UP
• Gypsum can be used in its treatment
Minor Soil → Peaty soil (marshy soil)
• Heavy rainfall, high humidity areas
• Excess in large amount of dead organic matter,
rich in humus
• Lacks in Potash, Phosphate
• Heavy soil and black in colour
• States → Norther part of BR, southern part of
UK, coastal areas of WB, OD, TN, KL
• Crops → paddy cultivation, jute cultivation
Minor soil → Forest soil
• ~9% in India
• Variable soil, heterogenous soil
• Fertile in valley region
• Excess in humus
• Lacks in potash, P, lime
• Crops→ tea, coffee, spices, fruits,
• wheat, barley, maize in Himalayan region
Irrigation
• Tank irrigation→ mostly in South India because of non porous rock
base, no ground water recharge
• Canals→ Near the river system
• Tube Wells→ mostly in North India because metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks, ground water recharge during rain, good for
small area only
• Mirco-irrigation→ sprinklers and drip irrigation
Agriculture
• Barren and Waste land → like hilly terrain, desert land, ravines etc. normally
can’t brought under cultivation with available resources
• Net Sown Area → crop sown and harvested area only,
(fallow land, current fallow land, tree area, forest area, grazing land…. Not included in
Net sown area)
• Area under permanent pasture and grazing land → most of this land owned
by village panchayat/ govt. , common property resources
• Area under Misc. tree crops & Mangroves → much of this land is privately
owned, fruit trees, orchards (not included in NSA)
• Cultivable land/Fallow land → any land which is left fallow (uncultivated)
for more than 5 years, it can be brought under cultivation after improving it
through reclaimation process
• Current fallow→ land left uncultivated for one or less than 1 year
 Green Revolution
• Initially known as “High Yield Variety Programme” → gave big results/changes →
Revolution
• Need and History:
• Before 1947 → Britishers mostly designed agricultural policies for profit, so cash crops only like
Cotton, Indigo etc (which were raw material for Industrial revolution of Britain)→ decline in
wheat, paddy crops production
• After 1947→ sudden change from Cash crops to food crops is not an easy task, with very much
less experience
• 1st FYP → Provisions for agriculture but land reforms issue
• 2nd FYP→ focus was mainly on Industries + war with China
• 3rd FYP → Health infra focused, so life expectancy increased, so resulted in population
explosion
USA under PL-480
• 1960s → famine due to Monsoon failure → Hunger issue programme, agreed to
• Hence it’s a crisis management programme send wheat and food
grains to India
 MS Swaminathan
• thought to do research & development and reduce dependency on
imports of food grains
• Started HYV programme
• Intensive agriculture development programme → intensive agriculture area
programme
• Mexico and Philippines already have succeeded in this program which have
limited resources they why not India can do it
• Components:
• Fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides, agricultural credits, rural electrification,
irrigation, develop mechanisation, agricultural universities
Climate of India
Edmund Halley concept of thermal heating
• Monsoon in India → due to land and sea breeze
• In summer →
• Indian landmass heatup → so low pressure
• Winds from Arabian Sea (High pressure)→ move towards India land →
contains moisture in wind (sea breeze) → monsoon rainfall
• In winter →
• Indian landmass (high pressure) due to colder condition → Arabian sea (low
pressure) → wind blows land to sea (land breeze)→ retreat monsoon rainfall
 Flohn’s concept
• Role of ITCZ (inter-tropical convergence
zone)
• In summer →
• sun overhead on Tropic of Cancer → ITCZ moves
northwards (creating low pressure)
• SE trade winds → crosses equator → become
SW Monsoon winds under influence of Coriolis
force (Monsoon rainfall)
• In Winter→
• Sun in southern hemisphere → ITCZ shifts
southwards→ creates NE trade winds → retreat
monsoon rainfall
Koteshwaram theory
• Role of Tibetian plateau or Role of Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
• In summer → Tibet plateau → Low Pressure (intense insolation)
• So 7-14 km above ground → High pressure created → sink near
Madagascar→ created High pressure system which further intensify SW
monsoon winds
 Edmund Halley Flohn Koteshwaram
Explained about why only in
Concept of thermal heating Explained about why only
region of the world
• Tropical region→ more in this time of the year
Due to extreme heat in the
insolation→ more this is happening
northern India and impact
evaporation→ creation of Shifting of ITCZ in
of Tibetan plateau → more
more low pressure area→ northern direction → shift
low pressure→ upward
faster movements of winds the whole pressure belt
current movement→ Jet
(SW monsoon winds) system→ coming of
stream in above air with
monsoon on western
high speed→ falls near
Drawbacks coast of India
Somalia→ completing
Why only in this region??
pressure cell cycle
Why only in June to Drawbacks
October?? Why only in this region of
October heat
Main reasons?? the world??
Western disturbances
Rainfall pattern in India
 June – October Sept – Oct – Nov Nov -- Feb Mar – Apr – May – June
Monsoon rainfall Retreat Monsoon North India Pre Monsoon showers
SW monsoon winds NE winds Temperate cyclones in Intense heating
Mediterranean sea Low pressure system
Western Disturbances Strong winds, short time rainfall
Cumulus clouds (cotton shaped)
North India
In Eastern Ghats
Clear sky→ If started raining then cumulus
Due to NE winds nimbus
October heat
Vegetation & Forests in
India
 Evergreen Forest in India

Evergreen Semi Evergreen

Western Ghats Lesser rainy
NE India parts of these
A & N Islands regions

Rosewood White cedar

Mahogany Hollock
ebony Kail
 Deciduous Forest in India

Moist deciduous Dry deciduous

NE states with foot hills of Rainy area of
Himalayas peninsular
Eastern slopes of WG plains of UP, BR
Odisha NI plains

Teak, sal, shisham Tendu, palash

Sandalwood, amla Axlewood
Mahua
 Thorny Forest in India

Semi arid area of SW PB,

HR, RJ, GJ, MP, UP
Plants remain leafless
Tussocky grass (upto2m)
Babool, ber
Wild date palm
Neem
 Montane Forest in India

Northern Mountain forest

Tundra region
Lichens, mosses
Alpine forest
Juniper, silver Southern Mountain forest
ferns, birch 4000m Grasslands Nilgiri, Annamalai, Cardamom hills
Aka “Sholas”
Pine forest 3000m
Such forest also found in Satpura and
Blue pine, spruce Pine forest Maikal range
2000m Chir pine, deodar
Chinar walnut Magnolia, chinchona, Wattle
1500m Temperate deciduous
More wet, less Temp
Oak, chestnut
1000m
Vegetation pattern in India
 Mangroves
• Type of vegetation, different group of forest
in coastal area
• Muddy pattern soil near sea coast in littoral
zone (both land and water species found in
this zone) (enriched area)
• Sundari tree, rizhofora, sonereta, Avicennia
ceriops topus
• Salt tolerant species (Halophytes)
• Mangroves grow below the high water level
of spring tides (intertidal zone)
• Due to muddy soil, very less porus, that is
why their roots came out towards
photocentric rays aka pneumatophores or
air roots
India state of Forest report 2021
• Biennial report of Forest survey of India by Union Environment Minister
Bhupender Yadav
• Tree cover→ defined as all tree patches of size less than 1 ha, occurring
outside recorded forest area
• Total forest cover increased by 1540 sqkm and 721 sqkm of tree cover
compared to 2019 report (max increase in AnPr, TL, OD, KA, JH)
• Area wise (MP, ArPr, CG, OD, MH)
• In terms of forest cover %age wise (MZ, ArPr, MG, MN, NG)
• India’s total forest and tree cover area is now 81 million hectares which is
~25% of total geographical land area
• Mangrove cover of country (OD, MH, KA, WB, GOA, GJ)
Mineral ores in India
 Iron ores in India

Chandrapur
Ratnagiri Badampur, Mayurbhanj
Sindhudurg Gurumahisani mines
kendujagarh/keonjhar
sambalpur
Bababudan hills
Kemmangundi mines Karnool
Kudremukh deposits Cuddapah
Bellary-Sandur region Annantpur
Shimoga, dharwar, Nellore
tumkur Guntur
 Iron ores in India

Jaipur, Udaipur
Bhilwara, Mewar
Sikar, Bundi

Bonai Range
Singhbhum
Gua Mines
Daltenganj (Palamu)
Dhanbad, Ranchi,
Hazaribagh, Santhal

Bailadila mines (bastar region)

Dhalli-Rajhara (Durg)
[20% of total country]
 Coal mines in
India
Assam: Makum river
Talcher- Anugul distt basin
IB river basin ArPr: Nanchik-Namrup
Sambalpur,
Sundargarh
Sohagpur-shahdol
Singrauli
Umaria
Raniganj
Darjeeling
Jalpaiguri

Jharia-Jayanti (Dhanbad)
Karba, Bisrampur Bokaro-Hazaribagh
Hasdeo-Anand Karharbari-Giridih
Lakhanpur Ramgarh
Talapani, Chirmiri Auronya-Hutar (Palamu)
Jhilmili-Koriya
Johilla
Neyveli lignite field (90%)
 Copper mines in
India
Khetri – Singhana belt Malanjkhand Belt (balaghat distt)
(Jhunjunu) Bargaon (betul distt)
Koh- Darika mountain
(SW of Alwar) Largest producer of Cu is MP
Pali, Sikar, Sirohi, Ajmer

Largest Cu Reserve

Hazaribagh
Palamu
Gaya (Bihar)
 Bauxite ores in
India
Ranchi
Lohardaya
Palamu
Gumla
Dumka
Jamnagar
Junagarh
Bhavnagar
Kheda
Kalahandi
Koraput
Kolahpur
Sundargarh
Bolangir

Shevroy hills Amarkantak region

Javdi hills Maikal range (Bilaspur)
Salem
 Limestone Mica Silimanite
RJ and MP (largest production) AnPr, RJ, MH, Kodarma(JH) Glass making sand
KA largest reserve OD, TN, UP, AnPr, AS, KL

Kynite
High melting point
TL, AnPr, KA, JH
 Uranium ores in India Uranium Plants in India
Narora UP
Gorakhpur AVP (HR)
Rawatbhata (RJ)
Tarapur & Jaitpur (MH)
Kakrapar &Mithivirdi (GJ)
Kaiga (KA)
Kundankulam & Kalpakkam (TN)
MG→ Mahadek Basin, Mawsynram, Wahiklyn Kovvada (AnPr)
Haripur (WB)
JH→ Singhbhum thrust belt Chutka (Mandla) & Bhimpur (Shivpuri) proposed
Operating mines- Jaduguda, Bhatin, in MP
Narwapahar, Turamdih
New mines- Bagjata, Mohuldih
Monozite sand in Kerala coast for Thorium reserve
AnPr→ Tumulapalle, Kanampalli
TL→ Pedagattu
CG basin area
Bhima basin in KA
Aravalli's in RJ
 Crude oil reserves in India Oil refinaries in India
Bhatinda (PB)
Panipat (HR)
Barauni (BR)
Bina (MP)
Mumbari (MH)
Manglore (KA)
Kochi (KL)
Koyali, Jamnagar, Vadinar (GJ)
Manali, Nagapattinum (TN)
GJ→ Mehsana, Kalol, Sanand, Bakrol Haldia (WB)
Vizag, Tatipaka (AnPr)
RJ→ Mangla, Bhagyam, Aishwarya, Rajeshwari AS→ Bongaigaon, Guwahati, Numaligarh, Digboi

Arabian Sea→ Panna Mukta oil field, Bombay

High, Bassein region

AS→ Digboi, Naharkatia, Baghjan, Sibsagar,

Dibrugarh
 Gold Mines in India

KA → Kolar Gold Fields (Dharwar), Huttir Gold

field (hassan-Raichur distt)

JH→ Subarnarekha river sands (gold streak)

AnPr→ Ramgiri (Anantpur distt)

BR has largest Gold reserves in India

Miscellaneous
DAM STATE RIVER
Chamera Himachal Ravi
Pradesh
Bhakra Nangal HP & PB border Sutlej
Tehri Uttrakhand Bhagirathi
Kota Barrage Rajasthan Chambal
Rana Pratap Sagar Rajasthan Chambal
Indira Sagar Madhya Pradesh Narmada
Sardar Sarovar Gujrat Narmada
Hirakud Odisha Mahanadi
Nizam Sagar Telangana Manjira
Tungbhadra Karnataka Tungbhadra
Nagarjun Sagar TL & AnPr Krishna
Border
Gandhi Sagar Madhya Pradesh Chambal
Krishna raja Sagar Karnataka Kaveri
 Project Bharatmala
➢ A road built along India’s vast west-to east land border, approx. 5300km, from Gujarat to Mizoram
➢ Linking it to a road network in coastal states, from Maharashtra to Bengal
➢ This is a road network that will, as it were, garland the territory of India
➢ The Bharat Mala plan has a strong strategic component
➢ It’s India’s attempted answer to improve reach and connectivity in border areas, right across a large part of which
lies China’s impressive road infrastructure
Rashtriya Rajmarg Zila Sanjoyokta Pariyojna – Roads will be developed to connect 100 district HQs across the country
Setubharatam – Govt to build 210 rails over bridges in the next two years and about 400-500 bridges would be built as
standalone projects.
Ennore → 1st corporate port
End of file
BY → SHIVAM SAXENA