TH E M O D E RN M A T H E M A T I C A L S E R I E S

LUC I E N AUGU S TUS W AIT GE NER A L ED ITOR

(S E N IO R RO E O R
P F SS OF M A TH E M A IC IN CORNELL I ER I
T S UN V S TY )
 TH E MO DERN MATH EM ATIC AL S ERIES .

LUC IEN AUGUSTUS WAIT ,

(Sem or Professor of M a t hema t i cs 1 7: C orn ell Um v ersityJ ‘

G ENERA L IT ED OR .

This s e ries in cl u d e s t h e fo llo win g w k or s

AN AL Y TIC GE OM ETR Y . By J . H . T ANNER an d JO SE PH AL LE N

I RGI L N
.

D IFFERE N TIA L CAL CUL US B y J M E S M C M AH O a . A N nd V S YD ER .

INTE GR AL CAL CUL US B y D A M RRAY . . . U .

D IFFE RE N TIAL AN D INTE GR AL CAL CUL US B yV . I RGI L N S YD ER an d J I

UT INSON
.

H CH .

E LE M EN TAR Y AL GEB R A . By J . H . ANNER

T .

E L E M E N TAR Y GEOM E TR Y . By J M A E S M M A ON C H .

T h e An alyt ic Ge om e t ry, D iffe re t ial C alc u lu s , n and In t e gral C alc ul u s (p ub

l is h e d in S e pt e m b e r o f 1 898 ) e re w rit t e w n
p rim a rily t o m ee t t h e n e e d s o f c o lle ge
“

s t u d e n t s p u rs u in g c o u rs es in E n g in e e rin g a n d Arc h it e c t u re ; a cc o rd in g ly, p rae

t ic al p rob l e m s , in il lu s t ra t io n
O f g e n e ra l p ri c ip le s u d e r d is c u s s io n p la y a n n n ,

n
im po r t a t p a rt in e a c h b o o k .

k
Th e s e t h re e b o o s , t re a t in g t h e ir j
s ub ec ts in a wa y t h at is s im pl e an d p ract i
c al , ye t t h o ro ug hly rig o ro u s , a n d a t t ra c t ive t o b o t h t e ac h e r a n d s t u d e n t , re c e ive d

s uc h g e n e ral a n d h e a rt y app ro va l o f t e a ch e rs , a n d h a v e b e e n s o id e ly a d o p t e d w
in t h e b e s t c o lle g es a n d u n iv ers it ie s o f t h e c o u n t ry, t h a t o t h e r b oo s , rit t e on k w n
n
t h e s a m e g e n e ra l p la n , a re b e i g a dd e d t o t h e s e rie s .

n n
Th e D iffe re t ial a n d I t e gral C alc u lu s in o n e v o lu m e w as w rit t e n e s p e c ially

for t h os e in s t it u t io n s w h e re t h e t im e g iv e t o t h e s e n s u b ec t sj is n ot fi nt
s u f c ie to
n
u s e a d v a t a g eo u s l y t h e t wo s e p a ra t e b o o s k .

Th e m o re e l e m e n t a ry boo k t h is s e ries a re d e s ign e d t o im pl a t t h e s p irit o f

s of n
t he ot h e r b oo k s in t o t h e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls Th is ill m a e t h e
. o r , fro m t h ew k w k
s c h oo l s u p t h ro ug h t h e u n iv e rs it y, c o n t in u o u s a n d h a r m o n io u s , and free fro m
t h e a b r u pt t r a n it i n whi h
s o c n
t h e s t u d e t s o o ft e n e xp e r e c es in c h an g in g fro m i n
h is p re parat ory t o h is c o ll e ge m at h e m a t ic s .
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL
CALCULUS

I I
V R G L S N Y D ER , PH D - . .
( G O TT I N G E N)
AN D

J OH N I I
RW N (C I C
H A G O )
OF CO RN E LL UNI V ER S I TY

NE W Y OR K C I N C IN NATI C H IC AGO

AM ERI C AN B O OK C O M PA N Y
 C ORY R I G H T , 1 902 , B Y

VI L
R GI SN Y D E R O
AN D U T C NSON
J HN I . H HI

ENTERE AT STATIONER ALL LON ON

D S
’
H , D .
 PREFACE

TH Efavorable re c eptio n a c c or d e d t he two v ol u m e s o n t he

C al cu l u s in t hi s s eri e s s h ow s t h at t h e y ha ve b e e n s e rv i c eable
in s u p plyi n g a r eal n e e d A ge e r al d e m a d h as a i s e n for
. n n r

a S i m ilar tre atm e n t of t he s u bje c t s in b iefer for m s u it able r ,

for u s e in s h o rte r an d m o e e l e m e n t ary c o u rs e s Ac c or d

r .

in gly in re s po s e to n u m e ro u s req u e s t s an d s u gg e s tio n s t he

, n ,

pre s e n t volu m e has bee n prep are d .

The p art o t h e D i ffe r e n ti al C al cu l u s is of e s s e n ti ally t he

n

am e c h a ra c t e r as t h e for m e
s s ep ar ate vol u m e ( w h i ch will
r

be r e f e rr e d to in t h e te x t a s D bu t t h e ra n g e of topi c s
.

is r e s t i c t e d ; v a rio u s t h eor e m s h av e bee n pu t in le s s ah

r

s t a c t for m
r a n d f e w e r alt e
, a tive pro o fs h a v e b e e n
rn
g ive n .

The ch apte on t h e e x p an s io n of f u n c tio s h as be e n s o

r n

a rr a n e d th at t h e r e m ai n d e t h e m m be o m itte d W it h
g o e ray r

o u t m a rri g t he c o n ti n u it y of t h e s u bj e c t
n I n t h e tr e a tm e n t .

of f u n c tio n s of two i n d ep en de n t v ariabl e s n o u s e is m ade of

a n au x ili a r y v a ri abl e .

The c ha a c t e ri s ti c fe at u re s of t he l arg er b o ok a re ret ai n e d

r .

S o m e o f t he s e are as foll o w s :

1 T he d e riv ative is pre s e n te d ri g oro u s l y as a l m it

. i .

2 Th e p o c e s s o f d iffe e n ti a tio n is s o a rr a g e d a s to g ive

. r r n

t h e x -d eriva tiv e of a f u n c tio n of u i w h i ch u is a f u n c tio n , n

of x ; t h e r e s u lti g t yp e for m s b e i n g pri n t e d in f u ll -fa c e

‘
n

lett e s in t he t e x t an d c olle ct e d for refe r e n c e at t he e n d of

r

t he ch apter .
vi PR E FA CE
3 . M ax i m a an d m in im a a re d i s cu s s e d as t u rn i n g
t he
v alu e s in t he vari atio n o f a f u n c tio n , with c om pl e te g rap hi
c al repre s e n t atio n .

4 Th e n o t i on s o f r at e s a d d iff e r e n tial s are s o pre s e te d

. n n

a s t o g o w n at u all y o u t o f t he i d e a O f a d e riv a ti v e a n d are

r r ,

n o t i n t o d u c e d u til t h e s t u d e n t h as b e c o m e fam ili a r w it h

r n

t he pr o ce s s o f fi d i g t h e d e iv ative a n d with it s u s e in
n n r

s t u dyi g t h e v a i a ti o n o f a f u n c t io n
n r .

5 T he
. e l at e d the o i e s o f in fi e x io n s cu rv atu re an d
r r , ,

a s ym ptot es r e c e iv e d i e c t a d c o m p e h e s ive t e atm e n t

r n r n r .

T h e p art o n t he I t e g a l C al c u l u s has b e e n writte n e n

n r

t i ely an e w
r .

Th e fi s t fi v e ch apt e s d i s c u s s t h e o di n a y m eth o d s o f
r r r r

i n t eg atio n T he aim h as b e e t o m ak e c le a t h e r t ion a le

r . n r a

o f e ac h p o c e s s a n d to e n c o u r a e t h e s t u d e n t s t o b e c o m e
r , g
i n d ep e d e t O f fo rm u l as
n n .

T he m e t h o d of e d u c tio n has bee n p u t in t h e s i m pl e s t

r

po s s ibl e f o m ; in t h e s ol u tio n of p obl e m s s t u d e n t s n e e d

r r

m ak e n o u s e o f fo m u l s o f r e d u c tion r a .

I n t h e re s o l u ti on O f r at io al fr a ctio n s i n to s im pl e r o n e s
n ,

c a e h as bee n take n to s h o w t h e lo g i c al b as i s of t h e u s u al
r

a s s u m ptio n s .

Th e r a tio n ali z atio n O f a d ifi e re n t ial c o n t ai n i n g t h e s qu are

root of a q u a drati c e x pr e s s i o n has b e en tr e ate d m u ch m ore
f u lly than u s u al The pr o bl e m is i n t e rprete d ge o m e t i cally
. r

as e qu iv al e n t t o t h e r a tio n a l e x p e s s io n o f t h e c o O d in at es of
r r

a v a i able poi n t o n a c o n i c in t e r m s o f a v a r yi n g p ar a m e ter

r .

T hi s m ak e s c l e a r h o w t he requ ir e d tr a n s f o r m atio n s are s u g

g e s te d a n d p u t s t h e s u bje c t in a m ore a ttr a c tive for m .

S pe c i al c are has be e n t ak e in pre s e n ti n g t he s u bje c t of n

i n te gr ation re gar d e d as a s u m m atio n s o as to c o m bi n e ri gor

a n d s i m pli c it Th e or d i n ar s e s of d i s c o n ti n u it y eit he r
y .
y c a ,
 PR E FA CE

of t he i n te gran d or of t he vari able of i n tegration are ih ,

c l u d e d in t h e d i s c u s s io n .

In d e ivi n g t h e f o r m u l a for le n g th of are t he d e fi n itio n

r ,

o f s u c h l e n g t h is g iv e n as t he li m it of t he s u m of c h or d s a ,

d e fi n iti on w hi c h r e ad il y e x pre s s es it s elf by t h e u s e o f t h e

,

m e an v al u e th e or e m in t he for m of a de fi n it e i te g r al
-
,
n .

T he e x e r c i s e s ; w hi ch a re n e w th ro u gh o u t t h e book a re ,

c a ef u ll y g r a d e d
r N u m ero u s ill u s t a tiv e e x am ple s are work e d
. r

o u t in t h e t e x t an d a re ac c o m p an i e d b v a rio u s s u g e s t io n s
,
y g
a n d re m ark s r e l a ti n to bot h t h eo n d pr ac ti c e
g yr a .

The au th or s g a t e fu ll y ac k n o wl e d g e t h e ir i n d e bte dn e s s t o
r

the ir c olle agu e Profe s s o Jam e s M c M ahon fo p e m i s s io n

, r , r r

to m ak e fr e e u s e of M c M ahon an d S n yd er s D i ffe r e n ti al
’

C al c u l u s for a n u m b e r of v a l u abl e s u gg e s tio n s an d for as

, ,

s is t an c e in re a d i n g portio n s of t he m a n u s c rip t an d proof .

 CONTENTS

I
D FFER E N T I AL CALC U LU S

H AP T E R I C

FU N A M EN T A L P R I NC I P L
D E S
AR ICLE
T

1 . E l
em e nt ary de finit i on s

2 . I n fi n it es im als an d in fi n it e s
3 . F n d m nt l t h
u a e a e ore m s c o n n in g i
ce r n fi n it e s im a ls an d lim it s in
g n l e e ra

C mp i n f
o ar so O v a riab e s l
5 . C mp i n f i
o ar s o o n fi n it e s im als a n d o f in fi n it e s . O rd e rs of m ag
n it u de

f l ll n
Us e u i u s t rat io s o f in fi n it e s im al s o f diffe re t o rd e rs n
n n
Co t i u it y O f u c t io s f n n
n l n
C o m pa ris o o f s im u t a e ou s i ite s im a i c re m e t s nfin l n n of t wo
l
re at e d v ariab es l
9 . De fin it i n o of a d eriv at iv e
10 . Ge o m e t ric a i l ll u s t rat io n s of a d e riv at iv e
11 . The o pe ra ti no nt i t i n
o f dif e re f a o

12 . In c re as in g d d
an in g f n t i n
e c re as u c o s

13 . Alg b e ra c i t t f t h in t
es o l f in e e rv a s o c re a s i ng an d d e cre a s i g n
14 . D iffere nt i ti n f f n t i n f f n
a o o a u c o o a u ct io n

C H AP T E R II

D I FF E R EN TI A TIO N OF TH E E L E M E N T AR Y F O R MS
Di ff nt i e ren f th p d t f n t nt d
a t io o e ro uc o a co s a an a v ar iab e l
D iff ti ti n f
e re n m a o O a su

D iff nt i ti n f p d
e re a t o o a ro uc

D iff nt i t i n f
ere q ti nt
a o o a uo e

D iff nt i t i n f m m n bl p w f f n
ere a o o a co e s u ra e o er o a u c t io n
El m nt ay t n
e e n d nt l f n t i n
r ra s ce e a u c o s

D iff n t i t i n f l g
e re a d l g a
o o o o, s an
a o ,

1X
X C ON TE N TS

ARTICLE
22 . f
D i fere t iat io n n o f t he s im p e e x po l
n nt i l f n t i n e a u c o

23 . D if
fe re nt i at io n of t he g n l p
e n n t i l
e ra f n t i n
ex o e a u c o

D ifi e re n t ia t io n o f an in m m n co bl p w e s u ra e o er

25 . Di nt i t i n
ff e re a o o f s in u

26 . D iff nt i ti n
e re a o O f co s u

27 . D iff nti t i n
e re a o O f t an u

28 . D iff nti t i n
e re a o O f cot u

29 . D iff n t i t i n
e re a o o f s ec u
.

30 . D iff n t i t i n
e re a o o f cs c u

31 . D iff nt i t i n
e re a o o f v ers u

32 . D iff nt i t i n
e re a o o f s in
“
1
u

33 . D ifi ere n t iat io n o f t he r e m ai n ing in v e rs e t rigo n o m e t ric f o rm s

34 . T ab l e of f ndu am e n t a lf o rm s

H AP T E R IIIC

S UCCE SSI E D I F E R E N TI A TIO N

V F

35 . De fin it i n f t h o o e n th de riv at iv e
Ex p i n f
re s s o t h or e nt h de riv at ive in c e rt a i n c a ses

C H AP T E R IV

E X PA N S IO N OF F UN C TI ONS
Con ve rge n c e an d d iv erge n ce o f s e rie s

G n e e ra lt e st n
for i t e rv a l of c o n v e rge n ce

Re m a in d er a ft er n t e rm s
M acla u rin
’
s e x pa nin s o of a f n
u c t io ni n po w e r-s e rie s

T ay or s l ’
se ries

Ro ll e s
’
t h e o re m

F orm o f re m ai nd er in M aclau rin

’
s s erie s

An th o e r e x pre ss io nf o r re m a i nd er

Th m e o re of m e a n l va u e

H AP T ER
C V

I N D E T ER MI N A T E F O RM S
De finiti n o n o f an n
i d e t e rm i at e f o rm

In d t m in t f m m y h
e er a e or s a av e d et e rm i n l
at e v a u e s

E l t i n by d
va u a l pm nt o eve o e

E l t i n by d iff
va u a nt i t i
o e re a on
 C ON TE N TS

AR ICLE
T

50 . Eva lu at io n o f t he n
i d e t e rm i n at e f orm

51 . Ev a lu at io n Of the f o rm 0 0 0
52 . E va lu at io n o f t he f o rm 00 co

53 . E va lu a t io n of t he f o rm

54 . E va lu at io n of t he f o rm s 00
0

C H APT E R VI
M O DE OF VA RI A TIO N OF FU N C TI ONS OF ON E VA RI A B L E

R evI e w of i n c r ea s i ng an d de c re as i g n f n u c t io n s

nn f n n
T u r i g va u e s o f a u l c t io

l l l
C rit ic a v a u e s o f t he v ariab e

M t h d f d t m inin g w h t h
e o o d ( ) h n g it ign i
e er e er )
’
23 c a es s s n

p i n
as s g t h gh i nfin it y
ro u z e ro o r

Se co nd m t h d f d t m ining w h t h
e o o ( ) h n ge er ig n i e er 33 c a es S n

p i n
as s g h
t gh ro u z e ro

C n d it i n f m im d m inim d i d f m T yl
’
o o s or ax a an a e r ve ro a or s

th m
e o re

Th m e im d mi im
ax fa an y n t i f n t i nn a o an co n u ou s u c o occ u r

alt t ly e rn a e

S im plifi t i n t h t d
ca t lt o it i l
s l a o no a e r cr ca va u e s

G m t i p bl m i m im
eo e r c ro d m ini m
e s n ax a an a

H AP T E R VII
C

R A T ES D I FF E R EN TI A L S
AN D

64 . R at e s . Tim e as n
i d e pe de t v ariab n n l e

65 . Abbre viat e d n o t at io n
fo r rat es
66 . f
D if e re t ia n l ft n s o e s u b s t it u t e d for rat e s

C H AP T ER VI II
D I FF R NTI A TI ON
E E OF FUNC TIO N S O F Two VA RI A B LS E

De finit i n f n tin ity

o o co u

P t i l d iff n t i t i n
ar a ere a o

T t l d iff
o a nt i l e re a

L ng g
a f diff n t i l
ua e o e re a s

D iff n t i t i n f im pli it f n t i n
e re a o O c u c o s

S i
u cce ss v e
p t i l d iff n t i
ar t i n a e re a o

O d
r f d iff n t i t i n i d ifi
er o ere nt a o n e re
 C ON TE N TS

C H APT E R IX

AR ICLE
T
A NG E CH OF TH E VA RI A B L E

74 . n
I t erc ha ng f d p nd nt
e o e e e an d n
i d e pe de t n n v a riab e s l
75 . Ch ng a e o f t h d p n d nt
e e e e v ariab e l
76 . Ch ng a e O f t h in d p n d n t
e e e e v ariab e l

A PPLI CA TI ON S TO GE OM E TR Y
C H AP T E R X

TA NG E N TS A N M A S ND OR L

i
Geo m e t ric m e a i g n n f—iiZ o

E q u at io n o f t n g nt
a d ne an o rm a l at a g iv e n p int
o

n
Le gt h o f t n g nt n m l
a e , or a , s u bt a ng n t e , su bn m l
or a

P O L A R C OO R I N A T E S D

80 . nn
M e a i g Of p
gg
dy do
81 . Re l t n b tw n d
a io e ee
x
an d
pd
p
82 . Le ngt h f t n g nt n
o a e , o rm a l , p o a l
r s u bt a ng nte , an d po l ar s u b

n orm l a

C H AP T E R XI

DE RI V A T IV AN AR C , A R EA VO L U M E AN D S UR F AC
L
E OF , , E

OF R E V O U TIO N

D e riv at ive of a n arc

Tri go n o m et ri c mea n ng
i of
dx
’
dy
D e rivat ive o f t he v o u l m e of a s o lid o f rev o lu t io n
D e riv at ive f
o f a s u r ace o f re v o u t io l n
D erivat iv e o f are
in p o ar c o ord i at e s l n
D e riv at iv e of area in p o ar c o Crdin at e s l
CH A P I ER
’ ‘

XII
AS Y M PTOT E S
89 . Hyp li
e rb o c an d parab o ic b ra ch e s l n
90 . De fin it i n o of a ln
rec t i i e a r a s m t o t e
y p
 C O N TE N TS x iii

T E RMI N A TIO N S M P T O T ES
ARTICLE DE OF A Y

91 . h l
M e t o d o f im it in g i t erce pt s n
92 . M e t ho d o f i s p ect io I n it e n . nfin o rd i n at e s , a s m
y pt o t e s p ara ll le

to ax e s

93 . M et h o d O f s u b s t it u t io n . Ob i lq u e as ym pt o t e s

94 . N u m ber o f a s ym pt o t e s

95 . M e t ho d o f e x pa nin s o . l
E x p ic it f n
u c t ions

H AP T E R XIII
C

D IR C TIO N O
E F B E N ING PO IN TS
D . OF INF L EX I ON
n
C o cav u it y pw d
ar an d d o wnw ard

Algebraic t e s t fo r p o s it iv e an d n e gat iv e n n
be d i g
An lyt i l d i t i n f t h t
a ca er va o o e est fo r t he d irect io n o f be n d i ng .

C n
o it y d
c av n ity t w an co ve x o ard s t he ax is

C H AP T E R XIV

C ON T AC T AN D C U RV A T UR E

O rde r of c o nt a ct

N u m be r Of co n dit i n
im p ie d byo s l co nt act

Co n t ac t o f o dd an d o f e v e o rde r n
C irc le o f c u rv at u re

Le gtn h of radiu s of curvat u re ; coo rdi n ate s of c e nt er of

c u rv at u re

D irect io n o f ra diu s of c u rv at u re

To t a l c u rv at u re o f a give n a rc ; av e rage c u rv at u re

M e asu re o f c u rv at u re at a give n p int o

C u rv at u re O f o sc u lat i ng c irc e l
D ire c t d e riv at io n of t he e x p re ss io n for K an d R in po l ar

EV O U TE S L AN D IN O LU T
V ES

1 10 . De finit i on of an ev o u te l
111 . Prope rt ies of t h e e vo ute l
C H AP T ER XV
S I NG U L A R PO I . N TS

1 12 . De finit i n f in g l p int
o o a s u ar o

113 . De t m in t i n f in g l
er a p i o o s u ar o n t s of a lg b
e ra ic c u rv e s
xi v C ON TE N TS

ARTICLE
1 14 . l l
M u t ip e po i t s n
115 . C u sps .

1 16 . Co nj u
ga t e poi t s n
C H AP T E R XVI
E N E L O PE S
V

1 17 . F ly f
am i O c u rv e s

118 . En l p f f m ily
ve o e o a a o f c u rv es

119 . Th n lp t h
e e ve o e ouc e s e v er
y c u rv e of t he f ly
am i

1 20 . En l p fn m l
ve o e o or a s of a
give n c u rv e

£21 . Two para m e te rs , on e e q u a t io n f n dit i n

o co o

IN TE GR AL C AL C U L U S

H AP T E R I C

GENERA L P R I N C I P L E S IN T EG RA TI ON OF

T he f nd
u n t l p bl m
am e a ro e

I n t g t i n by i n p t i n
e ra o s ec o

Th f n d m nt l f m l
e u a e a or u as of n
i t e grat ion
C t in g n
er a l p in ipl
e era r c es

I n t g t i n by p t
e ra o ar s

I n t g t i n by
e ra b t it t i n
o su s u o

Add it i n l t n d d f m
o a s a ar or s

C H AP T E R II

RE D UC T I ON FO RM U L AS
C H AP T E R III

INT E G RATI ON OF RA TIO NA L F R AC TIO NS

1 32 . D e c o m pos it io n o f rat io n l f ti n a rac o s .

1 33 . C AS E I . F a c t ors o f th fi t d g e n rs e ree , o n e repe at ed

 C ON TE N TS XV

1 34 . C AS II F E . act o rs o f t h e fi rs t d e gree , s o m e re pe at e d

1 35 . C A S E I II O . c c u rre n ce of q u ad rat ic f a c t o rs , n n
o e rep e at e d

1 36 . CA S E IV O . cc u rre n ce o fq u a d rat ic f a c t o r s , s o m e re pe a t e d

1 37 . G n e l th
e ra e ore m o n n
t he i t egra t io n O f rat io n lfa ract io n s

C H AP T E R IV

INTE G RA TIO N
A TIO NA L I A TI ON B Y R Z

n
I t e gra ti n f f n ti n
o n t inin g t h i t i n lity Q/
o u c o s co a e rra o a ax b

I nt g e ra ti n fo p i n O n t in
ex in g /re s s ob s co a \ a x2 x c

G n e e ra l t h m t h in t g t i n f i t i n l f n t i n
eo re on e e ra o o rra o a u c o s

H AP T E R V
C

INT E GRA TION OF TR I G O N OM E TRI C OT AN D H E R T R AN

S C E N D E N TAL FU N TIO NS C

n
I t e grat io n by b t it t i n
su s u o

Int e gra t io n ff x d f
o s ec
2“
x, cos e c
zn
x dx

n
I t e gra t io n of
j s ec m a: t an
?" 1
xd x,
I c o se c
m
a: c ot
?" 1
xd x

ff
n
I t e grat io n ta n xd"
[ c ot xd
‘
n
o x, x

n
I te grat io n of
j s in
m
x c os "
x dx

dx
‘

n
I t e grat io n o f
j a b co s x
’

n
I te grat io n o f
f e
w
s in n x dx

H AP T E R VI C

INT G RA TION A S UMM A TI ON

E AS

1 48 . finit int
Th e d e e e gra l . 248
1 49 . G m t i l in t
eo e r ca e rp re t at io n of t he d e fin it in te e gra l a s a n are a 2 53
1 50 . G n
e li t i n
e ra za o of t he are a f orm u a l . Pos it ive an d n e gat ive

1 51 . n p p ti
C e rt ai ro er e s of finit in t g l
de e e ra s

1 52 . D fin it i n f t h
e o o e de fin it int g l w h n f(
e e ra e x ) be c o m e s i nf
in it e .

I nfin it lim it e s
 C O N TE N TS

C H AP T E R VI I
OM T R I CA L APP L I CA TI ONS
ARTICLE GE E

1 53 . Are as .Re ct an gu a r c o o rdi at e s l n

1 54 . Are as . n
S ec o d m e t o d h
1 55 . n
Pre c au t io s t o b e obs erve d in e va l
u at i ng d fin it int
e e e gra sl
1 56 . Are as . l
Po a r c o ord i at e s
’

n
1 57 . n h
Le gt o f c u rv e s . Re c t a gu n l ar co cir din at es
'

1 58 . n h
Le gt o f cu rv e s . Po l ar c o Crdin at e s

1 59 . n
M e a su re m e t o f arc s by t he aid o f p ara m e t ric repre s e nt at io n

1 60 . f
Are a o f s u r ace o f rev o u t io l n
161 . Vo l u m e o f so lid o f re v o u l ti no

1 62 . M iscellan e ou s app li c at io ns

C H AP T E R VI II
UCCE SSI I N T E RA TIO N
S VE G

S i in t g t i n f f n t i n
ucce s s v e e ra f in gl o o u c o s o a s l
e v ariab e

Int g t i
e ra f f n ti n
on o f ul i bl c o s o s ev e ra v ar a es

I n t g t i n f t t l diff
e ra o o nt i l
a o a e re a

M lt ipl int g l
u e e ra s

D fin it m lt ipl in t g l
e e u e e ra s

Pl n
a by d bl in t g t i n
e are as ou e e ra o

V l m s
o u e
2 DI FFE R E N TI AL CA L C UL U s [ L I
GI .

e x am pl e s of li m i t s m e t with i e l e m e n t ary geo m e try are n

u s u a ll y of t h e s e c o n d ki n d ; i t h e v a i able d o e s n o t r e ac h . e . r

t h e l im it T h e li m iti g v al u e s of al g ebr ai c e x p e s s io s are

. n r n

m o e f e q u e n tl y of t he fi s t ki n d
r r r .

E g . .
, t he f n ti n u c o
2
h as t h e im it 1 l wh n b m e 35 e co es z e ro ; it h as
x 1
lim it
t he 0 wh n b e 3: e co m e s infin it e . The f n ti n i x h
u c o s n as t he lim it 0
wh n b xh 1 wh n x b
e c o m e s z e ro t an t he lim it m
2
e 3: as e e co es .

EXERC IS ES

1 . Le t ¢( x, y) Ax + B y C; S h ow t h at
y) 0, — x) 0
a re t he e q n
u a t io s O f t wo
p er
pe n l lind ic u ar es .

2 If f (x) 2e 1 h w th t f
( g)
2
. 33 , S o a s in = s in x

3 , If ( bo) p
x 1
, sho w t h at m u .

x + 1 1 + zy

4 . If f( ) x = lo g
il z S h w th
o at
f( ) x + f (y) z
f
<fi > ~

5 . Giv e n f( x ) VI x
2
, fin d x
2
) .

6 . If f (xy) :
f ( x) p ro v e t h at f ( 1 ) 0 .

7 . Give f( n x y) h w th t S o a f( )
0 0, an d t h at

pf ( 23
) f p x) p , be i g n y p i t i
an in t g os ve e er .

8 . Us i g t he n sa m n t ti n
e o a i th o l t as n e as e x am p e , l p rov e t h at

f(mx) mf (x) , m b in g
e
y t ioann l f t i n
ra a rac o .

2 . In fi n it es im al s an d in fi n it e s . A v a ri abl e that appr o ach e s

z e ro a s a li m it is an i n fi n i t es i m al . I ot h e wo d s an in fi i
n r r , n

t e s im al is ri abl e t hat b e c o m e s
a va s m all e t h a an y n u m b e
r n r

t ha t c a be a s s i g n e d
n .

T h e e c ip o c al of an i n fi it e s i m al is t he n a v a ri able th at
r r n

b e c o m e s l a ge r th an an y n u m b e that c a be as s i g e d an d
r r n n ,

is c all e d a i fi n i t e v a i abl e n n r .

E g t h n mb
. .
, Q ) i einfin it uim l w h n i t k
ern l g d "
s an es a e n s a e ar e r a n

l g ; d it
ar e r ip an l2 i i fin it s re ci bl roca " s an n e va r a e .
1 F UN DAM E N TAL P R I N CI PL E S 3

From e fi n itio n s of t he words li m it an d in fin it e s i

t he d “

m al t h e foll o wi n g u s ef ul c oroll ari e s are i m m e d i at e i n fere n c e s

”
.

Cor 1 . T he d i ffere n c e betwee n a vari abl e an d it s lim it

.

is an i n fi n ite s i m al vari able .

Cor 2 . C o n ver s el y if t he d ifi e re n ce betwee n a c o n s t a n t

.
,

an d a v a ri abl e be a n in fi n ite s i m al t h e n t h e c o n s ta n t is t h e ,

li m it of t he va iable r .

F or c o n v e n ie n c e t h e s ym bol 5 will be u s e d to i n di c at e
,

that a v ari able a ppro ac he s a c o n s t an t as a li m it ; thu s t h e

s ym boli c fo m 5 a is to be rea d
r a; t h e v ariabl e approa ch e s 3:

t h e c o n s t an t a as a li m it .

T he s p e c i al for m a: 5 is re ad be c o m e s i n fi n ite
. 00
“
11: .

T he c oroll arie s j u s t m e n tio n e d m ay a cc or d i n gl y be s ym

bolic ally s t at e d thu s :

1 If x é a t h e n x = a +
. wh erei n 5 0 ;
,
a, 04

2 . If x = a + a , an d a _ t h en x éz a .

It will appe ar t hat t he chief u s e of C or 1 is to c o n v e rt .

g iv e n li m it e l a tio n s i n to t h e fo m of o d i a r
r
y eq u atio n s r r n ,

s o t h a t t h e y m ay be c o m bi n e d or tr an s for m e d by t h e l a w s

g over i n
n
g t h e eq u a lit y of n u m ber s ; an d t h e n C o 2 w ill s e rve r .

t o e x p e s s t h e e s u lt in t he o ri g i n al f o m of a li m it rel atio n
r r r .

In all c a s e s w het her a va i able ac t u ally b e c o m e s eq u al to

,
r

it s li m it o n ot t he i m port a n t p op e rt y is th at t h e ir d i ffe r
r , r

e n c e is a n i n fi n ite s i m al An i n fi n ite s i m al is n o t n e c e s s arily

.

in all s tage s of it s hi s t o y a s m all n u m ber It s e s s e n c e li e s

r .

in it s pow e r of d e c re as i n g n u m e i call y h a vi n g z ero fo it s r , r

li mi t an d n o t in t he s m all n e s s of an y of t h e c on s t an t v al
,

u es it m a p t h r ou h I t i fre u e tl d fi e d
y as s g s q n
y e n . a s a n

“
i n fi n it e ly s m all qu an tity bu t thi s e x pre s s io n s h o u l d be ,

i n t e rpret e d in t he abov e s e n s e T hu s a c o n s tan t n u m ber .

,

h owever s m all it m ay be is n o t a n i n fi n ite s i m a l , .

4 DI FF E R E N TI A L CA L C UL Us [ O IL I .

3 a e n tal the ore m s con cer n in g in fi n it es imals an d

. Fu n d m
l im i ts in ge n eral T he f ollowi n g t he o e m s a u s e f ul in . r re

t he p o c e s es o f t h e c al c u l u s ; t h e fi r s t t h r e e r e l at e to in
r s

fi it e s im als t h e l as t fo u r t li m it s in ge n e r al
n , o .

e ore m 1
Th . Th e pro d u c t o f an i n fi n ite s i m al a by an y

fi i t e c o n s t an t
n ki s an i n fi n it e s i m a l

i . e .
, if a 5 : 0,

t he n lea 0.

F or letbe an y as s i gn e d n u m be r The n by hypoth e s i s

, c .
, , a

0
c an be c o m e l e s s t han ; h e n c e le c an be c o m e l e s s th a n 0 t h e a
70
,

arbit a y as s i gn e d n um b e an d is t he e for e i fi n ite s i m al

r r , r, , r , n .

Th e ore m 2 . Th e al ge br ai c s u m of an
y fi n it e n um ber n

o f in fi n it e s im als is an i n fi n ite s i m al
t . e .
,
if 05 5 0, 6 5 0,

t he n a + ,8 +

Fo r t h e of t he n vari abl e s d o e s n o t at an y s tage

s um

n u m e i c ll y e x c ee d n t i m e s t h e l a g e s t o f t he m
r a bu t thi s r ,

pro d u c t is an i n fi n ite s i m al by the o r e m 1 ; he n c e t he s u m

of t he n v a i able s is eith er an i n fi ite s i m al or z e r o
r n .

NOTE nfin it n m b
. T he sum of a n i e u er of in fi n it es im als m ay be
infi i t im l fin i t
n infin it
es a din g t
,
i e , or e , acc o r o c rc u m s t a c e s n .

E g if b fin it n t n t d if b
. .
,
a e a e co s a , an n e a v ariable t h at becom es

i fin it ; t h n fl 9 ll i fin it im l l
a
n e e , ,
_ _
’ a re a n es a v ariab e s ; bu t
2
11 n

£
5
3
3
to n t e rm s w hi h i
c s in fin it e s im al,
n n

whi l e 9 9 to n t erm s a, w hich is finite ,

n n

to n t e rms w hi h i
c s in fin it e.
3 F UN DAME N TAL P RI N CI PL E S 5

Th e ore m 3 The pro du c t of two

. or m or e in fi n it e s im als
is an i n fi n ite s i m al .

Th eo re m 4 . If two v ari abl e s x y be alw ays e q u l a d , a , n

if on e of t he m , a, a ppr oa c h a li m it a t he t he o t he r ap , n

p ro ac he s t he s am e li m it .

e ore m 5 If t h e s u m of a fi n it e n u m b e r o f v ari able s

Th .

be v a i abl e t he n t h e li m it of t he ir s u m is eq u al to t he s u m
r ,

of their li m it s ;
t . e .
, lim ( as + y+

F or , le t x é a,
y é b,

Th e n x = a + a ,
m
, [ Art 2 ,
. C or 1 . .

w herei n O, —O
a i
B i ,

h en c e x + y+

bu t or 3 + 0, [ T h 2 . .

he n c e , by A rt . 2 C or 2,
, .

lim x + li1n y + ~

e ore m 6 If t he pro du ct o f a fi ite n u m ber o f v a i a

Th . n r

bl e s be v a ri abl e t he n t he li m it of their pro du ct is e qu al to

,

t h e p o d u c t of t heir li m it s
r .

Th e ore m 7 If t h e qu otie n t of two v ariabl e s x y be

.
,

v ari abl e the n t he li m it of the ir qu otie n t is e q u al to t he

,

qu otie n t of their li m it s provi de d t he s e li m it s are n o t bo t h ,

i n fi n ite or n ot both z ero

, .

4 ari s on of variabl es S o m e of t he prin c ipl es j u s t

. Comp .

e s t bli s he d will n o w be u s e d i c o m p ari g v a i able s w ith

a n n r

e ach oth er The e l ative i m po t an c e o f two v a i able s t h at

. r r r

are a pproa c hi n li m it i m ea u re d b t h li m it of t h eir

g s s s y e

ratio .
6 DI FF E R E N TIAL CA L C UL U s [ O IL I .

D E FI N I TI O N i bl e is s aid t o be i fi it e s i m al
. One v ar a a n n ,

i fi it e o r fi ite i c o m p a is o wit h n o th e v a i abl e wh e n

n n , n , n r n a r r T

t h e li m it of t h e i a t io is e r o i fi n i t e or fi n it e
r r a a: z ,
n , .

I n t h e fi r s t t w o c as e s t h e p h a s e i fi it es im l o r i n fi it e
, r
“
n n a n

i c o m p a i s o n wit h
n r is s o m e ti m e s r e pl a c e d by t h e l e s s pre
c i s e p h as e i fi n itel y s m aller or i n fin it e ly l a ge r than
“ ”
r n r .

I t h e t h i d cas e t h e v a i abl e s will be s ai d to be of t he s am e

n r ,
r

o r d e r of m a n it u d e
g .

The foll o wi g t h eor e m an d c oroll ar y are u s e f u l in c o m

n

pa ri n g two v ariable s
Th e ore m 8 . The li m it o f t he q u otie n t of an y two vari a
bl e s x, y is n ot a lt e e d by a d d i n
r
g to t h e m a y two umbe s n n r

a, whi ch a e
B , r r e s p e c tive ly i n fi n ite s i m al in c o m pari s on wit h
t he s e v a ri able s ;

i . e .
,

provi d e d

Fo r s nci e
x a x

it follows , by t h eore m s 4 , 6 , th a t
x a
l m
i
x li m
A B a

bu t , by th e ore m s 7 , 5 , an d hypoth e s i s ,

33

t h eref o re ,
4 F UN DAME N TAL P RI N CI PL E S 7

Cor . If t he d ifi e re n c e betw e e n two v ariable s x , y b e

i n fi i t e s i m al
n as to eith e r, t h e li m it of th eir ratio is 1 , an d
c o n v e r s e ly ;
x 9 th e
’

i e if
. .
,
0, n
y 9

F or s i n c e
,

h e n ce 1 5 0, an d
g
i 1 .
[ Art 2 C or 2.
, . .

x yé
C on v e r s el y, if th e n
1,
; 0 .

For, by Art . 2,

” “

y
i . e .
,

5 . Comparis on of in fi n it es im als , an d of in fi n it es . Orders of

m a gn itu de .
y b
I t h ase e n s t t e d t alt
a re a d
h a n
y two v a ri a ble s a

are s ai d to be of t h e s am e or d e r of m agn it u d e w he n t h e li m i t

of th e ir atio is a fi n it e u m be ; that is to s ay is n eithe

r n r , r

i n fi n ite n o z e ro I n le s s p e c i s e l a g u age two v ari able s

r . r n ,

a re of t he s am e or d e o f m a n it u d e w h e n o n e v a ri able is
‘

g r

n e ith e i n fi n itel y l a g e n or i n fi n it e ly s m all e t han t h e oth er

r r r r .

F or i n s t an ce M9 is of t he s am e o de as B w h e n k is an y
, r r

fi n it e n u m be ; thu s a fi n ite m u ltiplier or d ivi s o d o e s n ot

r r

af f e c t t he or de r of m ag itu d e o f an y v ari abl e wh e the n , r

i n fi n it e s i m al fi it e o i fi n ite
, n , r n .

In a proble m i n volvi g in fi n it e s im als an y o n e o f th e m n , ,

a,

m ay be c h o s e n as a s t an d a d of c o m p a i s o n a s t o m a gn i r r

t u d e th e n is c alle d t he pri cip al i n fi n it e s i m al O f t h e fi rs t

a n

o r d er is c all e d t he pri n c ip al i fi n ite of t h e fi s t

1
a d
‘

, n a n r

or der .
8 DI FFE R E N TI A L CA L C UL US [ OIL I .

To te s t for t he o de n o f an y g i v e i fi n ite s i m al B with

r r n n

r e fe e c e to t he pr i n c ip l i n fi n ite s i m l o w hi c h it de p e n ds
r n a a a n ,

it is n e c e s s a y to s e l e c t an e x po n e n t n s u c h t ha t
r

3
lim
«w o
n

w he r e i n ki s a fi n it e
ero c on s a n t t , n ot z .

W h e n n is n e gati v e 8 is i n fi n ite of or d e r —n An , , .

i n fi n it e s i m al o r i fi n it e o f or de r e ro is a fi it e n u m ber
, n z , n .

t o fi n d t he o rd e r o f t he v ariab e l 3 x4 4 x3 , w it h f
re e re n ce to a:

as t he pri n l infin it
c ip a e s im a l .

C om p a r in g w it h x
2
, x 3
, E
4
, in s u ccess io n
I 3 4 4 x3 lim
n n a:

x é o
4 x) : 0, n ot finit e ;

lim 3 4 — 4 333
33 lim —4 fi m te ;
x é O
’
3
x

li m 3 x 4 9:8 li m
co , n ot fi n it e ;

hn 3
e ce x
4
4x 3 is an i nfin it e s im a l o f t h e s a m e o rd er o f s m a lln e s s as 333 ;
th t i
a s , of t he t ird h o rd e r .

Th e r de r of l arge e s s of an i n fin ite v ariable c an b e te s t e d

o n

in a s i m il a r w ay For i s t a n c e if x be t ak e n as t h e p i n c ip al
. n , r

i n fi n it e le t it be e q u ire d to fi n d t h e or d er of t he v ari abl e

,
r

3x 4
4x 3
C o m p ari n g with x a d x
.
3 4
n

t
1 m S ca ll m
° '

x é oo f 3 x z oo ( 3 x
x

x .
-cc
4 x = oo
23

he n c e 3 x
4
i n fi n ite of t he s a m e o d e r of l ar gen e s s
4 x
3 is an r

is t h t is O f t h e fo u rt h o rd er
a , .

The p o c e s s f fi n di n g t he li m it o f t h e r ati o O f two in

r o

fin it e s im al s is f a c ili t a t e d by t h e f oll o wi g p i n c iple b as e d n r ,

10 DI FFE RE N TI AL CA L C UL Us [CH . I .

Byd ivi di n g ea ch m e m b e r of t he s e i n e qu aliti e s by s in 9

s ec 9,

bu t s ec 9 1, wh e n 9 5 0,

lim 9 lim S in 9
hen c e Gi o
1, an d
95 0
s in 9 9

S i m il a rl y, by d iIf id in g t h e i n e q u aliti e s by

9
cos 9
t an 9

lim 0 lim t an 9
he n c e 1, an d
ei o
t an 9 9

Cor . 1 . Th e n um be rs 9, s in 9, t a n 9 are in fi n it e s im als of

t he s am e or d e r .

Cor . 2 . T he ex pre s s io n s s in 9 9, t an 9 9 are in fin it es i

m al as to 9 .

Th e orem 2 . ri ght tri an gl e be an

If on e an g e l 9, of a ,

i n fi n it e s i m al of
t he fi s t o d e r t he n t h e hypote n u s e r an d
r r ,

t he a djac e n t s i d e a re e i t h e r bot h a:

fi ite o r the y are in fi n it e s im als O f n ,

t h e s am e o r d e ; a d t he oppo s it e r n

s i d e y is a i n fi n it es im al o f or d e r n

F 2 IGo n e hi h e t h t h t f d x
.

g
.
an a r a r o n .

m
Fo r c os 9
’
w hi ch app o ache s t he v al u e 1 as 9 i 0 ;
, r
7

he c e x are in fi n it e s im als of t h e s am e or d er ; w h i c h m ay
'
n , 7

be t he or d e e ro r z .

Al s o y T s in 9 ,

an d s in 9 is of ord er 1 ; the efo r re

y is of or der on e hi ghe r
t han T , by t heor e m 1 Art 5 , . .
 F UN DAME N TAL PR I N CI PL E S 11

Cor . I n t he s am e c as e , if
be of t he fi s t or d e n d
9 r r, a

if T an d a: be of t h e o d e n th e n t he d iffe e c e b e tw e e
r r , r n n

T an d x is an i fi n it e s i m al O f o d e n + 2
n r r .

— x2 = —
2
7 8m
2
9
T
z
y
2 = 2
T s i11
2
9, T x ;
T a:

or d e s of
bu t t h e r s in
2
9, T + E, a re p e c t ively
re s 2 n , 2, n ;

therefore by t heore m 2, Art . 5, T xi s of o der r

2 n + 2 —n = n + 2

Th e ore m 3 The d i ffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t he le n gth of

. an

i fi n it e s i m al a c of a c ir c l e an d it s c h o d is of at l e as t
n r r t he
thi d or d er wh e t he arc is t he fi s t o d e r
r n r r .

Fo le t CD be t he arc an d CB
r, DB t a n g e n t s at , , ,
it s
e x tre m iti e s T he n by e l e m e n t a y g e o m etry
. r

ch o d CD a c CD DB r B C r .

Le t t h e an g e l B OD 9 be t ak e n as t he p i n c ipal in fi n i
r

t e s im al . Th e n , i
s n c e arc

CD 2 T9, an d T is fi n it e ,

.A urc

i
CD is
i
of or der 1
AD is of
.

g a n , s n ce

or d e r 1 ( T h . an d

an g l e AD B 9 is of or

de r 1 , h e n c e D B is of FI G 3 . .

or d er 1, an d of or der 3 ( T h 2 C o ) th e refor e
DB D A is .
, r .

D B B C c h or d CD is of or d e 3
( ) r .

H e n ce arc CD c ho d CD is of or der a t l e as t three r , , .

Th e ore m 4 The d i ff e r e n ce b e twe e n t he le g th of an y

. n

i n fi n it e s i m al arc ( of fi n ite c u rv at u e ) an d it s c h o d is an r r ,

i n fi ite s i m al of at l e as t t he t hir d o der

n , ,
r .

N OT E Th . t i id t b fin it w h n t h l i m it in g
e c u rv a u re ti
s saf o e e e e ra o o

t h l n gth f
e e m ll h d t
o th
a s t a n gl b t w t h t n g n t t
c or o e ac u e a e e ee n e a e s a

it t m it i
s e x re i fin it des t s e , an no z ero .
12 DI FFE RE N TI AL CA L C UL US [C m I .

If P Q be s u ch a n a rc , t he ch or d P O an d t he an
gl e TS P
ar e , by hypot he s i s , in fi n it e s im als of t he s am e o rd e r fi
'
e

Le t t he g l e T S Pan be t h e
pri n c ip al i n fi n it e s i m al . Th e n ,
s in ce

TS P S QR R PS ,

it foll o ws t hat t h e g e at e O f r r

t h e l atter two a g l e s s ay S QR n , ,

is of t he fi r s t o d e w hil e t h e r r,

othe r m ay be of t h e fi s t o r r

a h i g he r o r d e Al s o t h e r .
,

g r e te a o f t h
r e two s e
g m e n t s

R Q P R s ay t he l att e
, , is o f r,

t h e fi r s t o d e r w h il e R Q m ay
r ,

be O f t he fi s t o h i gh e r o d e
r r r r .

Agai n , by t h e ore m 2 , Q B , OS are o f t he s am e o d er a d r , n

PR P S a re O f t he s am e o rd e r
, .

a rc QP c h o rd QP OS SP QP , [g o m e .

( Q S QR ) ( S P R P) ;

bu t i
s n ce OS QR S
Q ( 1 cos B) 2 QS s z
in -
g
i m ilarly SP RP 2 SP i
g
z-
an d , s , s n ,

i e e ach of t he s e pro d uct s

an d , s n c is , at le as t o f t he thir d,

or d e r he n ce are Q P ch o d OP
,
r is of at l e as t t he thi d
, , r

o r de r .

* If TS P were of h igh e r ord e r t hn

a PQ, the cu rvat u re w o u ld be z e ro ;
if o f lo w e r ord e r, t h e cu rva t u re w ould be infi nit e t he f orm e r is t h e cas e at

an in fi ex ion , t h e lat t er a t a cu s p .
 —J
6 7 . F UN DAME N TA L P RI N CI PL E S 18

EXERC IS ES

1 . Le t AB C be a t ria g e n l h
av i g a rig t n h l C ; d ra
a n g e at w C D per
pe n d ic u lar to AB ,
n
D E p e rp e d ic u ar t o C B l ,
E F pe rpe d ic u n l ar t o D B ,

n l
F G pe rp e d icu ar t o E B ; le t t he a
’
e B A C be n gl an infi n it e s i m al of t he
firs t o rde r, AB re m a i i
g ite n n fin
Pro ve t at . h
C D , CB are o f ord e r 1

DB , D E a re o f or d e r 2

EB ,
E F, ( C B CD ) a re o f o rde r 3;

FB , PC , ( D B DE) are o f o rd e r 4 .

2 . Of wh at orde r is t he a re a o f n th e t ria gle AB C ? B C D ? C D E

3 . A s t raig t li h n e , of c o n t n t l n gt h lid
s a e , s es be t w n ee t wo re c t an
gul ar

ht lin
s t raig es , C AA '
, CB B ’
. Le t AB , AB be t wo po s it ion s
’ ’ of t he i ln e .

Sh w t h t i
o a , n t he lim it wh n t h , e e n
t wo po s it io s c o i c id e , n
A A’ CB
BB CA
’

7 . Con ti n u ity of fun ct ion s . W he n i n d epe n de n t v ari abl e

an

x, in p as s i g f o m to 6 p as s e s
n r a , t hro u gh ev e ry i term e d i ate n

v al u e it is c all e d c t in u ou s
,
on .

A f u c ti o n f( x) o f n i d e p e n d e n t v a i able a: is s ai d to
n a n r

be c o n ti n u o u s at n y v al u e x1 wh e n f( x 1 ) is fi n ite re al an d
a , ,

d eter m i n ate a n d s u ch th a t in w h at e ve way a: appro a ch $1

, r ,

$
3 ,

in whi ch f( a 1 ) is i n depe n de n t o f t he law of appro ach

~
.

Fro m t he d e fi itio n of a li m it it follows t hat c o r e s po n di n g

n r

to a s m all i n c re m e n t of t he vari able t h e i n c re m e n t of t he

f un ctio n is al s o s m all an d t hat c orre s po n di n g to an y n u m ber
,

6, previo u s ly a s s ign e d an other n u m ber 8 c an be d eter m i n e d

, ,

s u ch t h at whe n it re m ai n s n u m e ri c ally le s s than 8 t h e

d ifi ere n ce

is nu m eri cal ly le s s tha n e .

14 D I FFE R E N TI AL CAL C UL US [ OIL I .

E g . .
, t he f nu ct io n f( ) x x
2
3 x 2

is co nt in u o u s at t he l x
va u e 1 .

= ”
f( )
1 6 , f( 1 k) : 6 5k k ,

f( 1 h) 5 11 . 71 2 : lz( 5 h) .

If t he d iffe re n ce f( 1 h) f( )
1 is t o be l es s t hn a , s ay, m ,

o nly n e c e ss a r y t h at
1
h
(5 1 01 000000

If 8 t h nf
e o r e ve r
y va l u e o f k s uc h t h at

h 8,

it is e vide nt t h at f( 1 11 ) 1
f( ) is less t h n ma r .

When a f u c tio is c o n ti n u o u s at e v e y v alue o f a: withi n

n n r

t he in t e r v al fr o m a to b it is s ai d to be c o n ti n u o u s w i t h i
, n

t h a t i n t erv a l .

W he n a va ue r
el l
i t
e x s s at w h i c h an
y o n e o f t h e p e c e di n
g r

c o itio n s
nd is n ot f u l fi ll e d for a gi v e n fu n c ti on M ) t he ( T ,

f u n c tio n is sa id t o be d i s con t i n u ou s at £13 = x

1
.

E g t he f nu c t io nm ay be co m e i nfinit e , as wh n x e 2;
x
. .
, ,
a 2

t he f n u ct io nm ay be im agi n ar
y , as 9 x
2
,
wh n e x
2
9;

1
t he f n
n m y b in d t m in t
u c t io a e e er a e , a s s in
5 ,
wh n e a: i 0;

fin lly t h l f t h f n t i n m
a , e va u e o e u c o ay de pe d n u po n t he m a nn er

w hi h t h
c i bl pp h th l
e v ar a e a ro ac es e va u e a
s
] , as in t he f n u ct io n
I
2 _ 3 z
o

1 3 1

whe n x = + —l
_
; when x — h f( — k) ,
5 2 as k éO .

Ao n ti n u o u s f u c tio n ac t u all y attai n s it s li m it for

c n

v al u e o f t he v ari abl e wit hi n t he r egio n of c on ti n u ity ,

t h e v a ri abl e m ay be s u b s tit u te d d i e c tly r .

7 -s .
] F UN D AM E N TA L PR I N C I PL E S 15

I t m ay be sh own as o n p . 14 t h at an
y p ol
y o m i a l n

ax
”
bx " "
1
[ n a p os itive i n t e ge r .

is con ti n u ou s for e ve y fi it e val u e o f re r n .

The o d i a y f u n c tio n s i n volvi g r a d i c al s an d r a t io s a e

r n r n r

c o t i u o u s o l y fo r ce rt ai n i t e v al s
n n n n r .

The t i g o o m e tri c f u n c tio s s in

r n an d c os x a e c o ti n u o u s n a: r n

for all e al fi n ite v al u es o f x ; t he o the t i g o o m e t ic f u n c

r r r n r

ti o n s a e ati o all y e x p e s s ibl e in t e m s o f s i e a d c o s i e

r r n r r n n n .

Sh w th t to x i d i n t in
a an w h n x Ji m
s sco u o us e

T he e x p o e n ti al f u c ti on a an d t he l o g a it h m i c f u n c tio n
n n
”
r

l og a: are e ach c o n ti u ou s t h e fo m e fo all fi it e v al u es

n , r r r n

of x t he l att e r for all fi n it e po s iti v e v al u e s o f [ D C p

, a: . .
, .

8 . aris on of s imult an eous infi n it e s im al in cre m e n t s of

Com p
t wo rel ate d var iable s T h e l as t fe w a t ic l es w e e c o n c e e d
. r r rn

with t he pr i c ipl e s t o be u s e d in c o m p a i n g an y two in fi i

n r n

t e s im als I n t h e ill u s tr atio s g iv e

. t h e la w by w hi c h e a ch n n,

v a i abl e appr o ach e d e o was as s i g e d o e l s e t he t w o v a i

r z r n , r r

able s w e r e c o n n e c t e d b a fi x ed e l ati o n ; a d t h e o bj e c t w a s r n
y
to fi n d t h e li m it o f the ir r a ti o T he v al u e o f thi s li m it ga v e .

t h e rel ati v e i m po t a c e o f t h e in fi n it e s im al s
r n .

In t h e pr e s e n t a rti c l e t h e p arti c u l a i fi it e s im a ls c om r n n

p a e d a e n o t t he p i cip al va ri abl e s
r r
y
r n t h em s e l v e s but as, ,

s i m u lt an e o u s i c e m e n t s h k o f t h e s e v a ri a bl e s a s t he y s t art
n r , ,

ou t f o m
g
r ive n v a l u e s x
1 91
an d v a
y i n a as s i g n ed m a ne
, r n n r,

a s in t he f a m ili a r i s t a n c e of t h e a b s c i s s a a n d o d i n ate O f a
n r

g ive n c u rv e .

Th e v i abl e s x y a e t h e n t o be r e pl a c e d by t h e ir e q u iv a
ar ,
r

l e n ts 1 + k y1 + k in whi ch t h e i c e m e n ts l k e t he m
93 , , n r l, ar

s e lve s v a i able s a n d c a n if d e s i e d be b o t h m a d e t o a pp o ac h
r , , r ,
r

z ero as a lim it ; fo s i n c e y is s u pp o s e d to be a c o n ti u o u s
r n
16 D IFFE R E N TI A L CA L C UL US (CA . I .

f u n c tio n of 33 it s i n c re m e n t c be m ade as s m all a s d e s i e d

, an r

by t aki g t h e i n c e m e t o f x s u ffi c ie n t l y s m all
n r n .

Th e d e t e m i ti o n o f t he l im it o f t he atio of k t o h as it
r na r ,

a pp o a c h e s
r e o s u bj e c t to an
z s sig ed
r , e l ti o b t we e a n r a n e n a:

a d
n
y is t h,e f un d a m e t l pr o bl e m o f t h e D iff e tni la er n a

C al c u l u s .

E g let t h e rel atio n be

. .
,

2
a x

let x 1 , 91 i m u lt an e o u
be s al u e s o f t h e v a ri abl e s x
s v
y; , an d

wh e n as c ha n g e s to t h e v al u e 23 4- 71
1
l et
y c ha n e to
g 4 t he

v al u e yl
—
l k . T he n

h e n ce k 2 $ 1 72 . R 2
.

T his is rel atio n c o n e c ti g t he i n c re m e n ts k Is

a n n , .

H e e it is t o be o b s e r v e d t h at t he r e l ti on b e t w e e t he
r a n

in fi n it es im als h k is n o t d i e c tl y gi v e n bu t h as fi s t t o be
, r ,
r

d e i v e d f o m t he k n ow
r r e l ati o b e tw e e n an d y n r n T .

L et it n e x t be r e q u i e d to c o m p ar e t he s e s im u lt n e o u s
r a

i c e m e n t s by fi n di g t he li m it o f t he ir r ati o whe n they

n r n

a ppro a c h t h e li m it z e o r .

B y d ivi s io n ,

k
“
2 231 h
i:

%
m
he n c e , li 0
b
2 931 .

T hi s r e s u lt m ay be e xp e s s e d in f am ili a l an g u age by r r

s ayi n g t ha t w h e n x i c e as es t h r o u gh t he v al u e x 1 t h e n y
n r ,

i n c re as e s 2931 ti m e s as m u ch a s x ; an d th u s whe n c o n ti u e s It n
 18 DI FFE R E N TI A L L C U L US
“

CA [ OH . I .

Thu s t h er atio o f c o rre s po n di n g i n c re m e n t s t ak es t he

s u c c es s iv e v a l u e s m
an d c an
,

be b o u gh t a s n e a r to 8 a s
r d es i re d by taki n g it s m all en o u gh .

As a n th o e r e x am
pl e, le t t he l
re at io nb o
e t we en a: a n d
'

y be
2 3
y 33 .

T h en
y]
?
56
1
3
,

(9 1 + ( x
i

he n ce , by e xp an s io n an d s u bt ract io n ,

2 yl le [C2 3 2
$ 11
1
3 $
t E,
lc ( 2 y, k) h (3 x 2
, + 3 x
l
h
2
1c 3 x
l + 3 x
l
h + h 2
.

k 2 y, + Ic

T h fere ore lim

I
f lim M , as
h 2 y, k
an d , by Art 4, t heore m 8 , .

mg Si
a 2
2 —
l 0

h 2 yl

Th e i n iti al v al u e s of x y h ave be e n writte n wi th

“
, ,

s u b s c ript s to S ho w that o n ly t he i n c e m e n t s h It v ary r ,

d u ri n g t h e al ge b a i c pro c e s s a n d al s o t o e m p has i e t h e
r , z

fac t t hat t he li m it of t he r atio of t he s i m u lt a e o u s i c e n n r

m e n t s d epe n d s o n t he p a rti c u l a r v al u e s t hro u gh wh i ch t he

va i able s are p as s i g w he t hey are s u pp o s e d to tak e
r n , n

th e s e i n c e m e n t s W it h thi s u n d e r s tan di g t he s u b s c ipts

r . n r

will he e after be o m itt e d M o e o v e t he i c re m e t s i la

r . r r, n n t,

will fo gre ater d i s ti n c tn e s s be d e n ot e d by t he s ym b ol s

,
r ,

Ax Ay re ad in c e m e n t of i n c re m e n t of y
“ ” “
, ,
r as, .

Ex .

l
1 . If

be de
2
x

n
y
ot ed
2= G

by x, y,
2
, find
ii
l im —
let t he
. Le t t he i it ia

l
n l
t ake t h e
l
va u es Of t he

variab es an d v ariab e s re s p e ct iv e

i n cre m e nt s Ax, Ay, so th at thi e r n ew v a u e s l a Ax, y Ay s h ll

a st i ll
s at is fy t h e give n l re at io n . Th n e

(as A5 2
(y A w a
“ .
s .
) F UN DAME N TAL PR I N CI PL E S 19

B y e xpans io n , a n d s ubt ra ct io n ,

2 -Ax + Ax) + 2 y Ay +
(
2
x o

hn e ce AT ( 2 x Ax) —Ay (2 y Ay) ,

T he re f ore
‘
lim Ay _
lim 2 x
Ax
Ax i OE Ax 5 02 A
y + y

T he n e gat iv e S ign n
i dic at es t h t wh n
a e

Ax an d t he ra t io x z y are p os it ive , Ay is
n e ga t iv e ; t h at is , a n n
i cre as e in p ro d u ce s x
a d e cre a s e in y T is m ay b e . h ill u s t ra t e d

ge o m e t ric a
y yb d ra ll
i g t h e c wn i l
rc e W ho s e
q
e u a t io is x 2 ny
2
a
2
F
( g
i .

Ex 2 . . If x 2
+ y = y
2 —2 x ,

lim Ay 2 x + 2
p ve
ro
Ax é 0 K5} 2 y 1 Fm . 5 .

S i m il a rly, whe n t he r e l atio n betw e e n a: a n d y is give n

t he e x pli c it f u n c tio al for m n

y + Ay ¢< x + Ax) .

AA TO : Ax ) TO )

he n c e
Ax Ax

W he nform of < 1) is g ive n t he li m it of thi s rati o c an be

t he ,

e val u ate d an d e x pre s s e d a s a f u n c tio n of x

, This f u n cti o . n

is t h e n c all e d t h e d e i va t i ve of t h e f u n c tio n with

r

r egar d to t he i n d e p e n de n t v a i abl e x r .

T he for m al d e fi n itio n of t h e d eri v ative o f a f u n c tio n wit h

.

regar d to it s v ar i able is give n in t he n e x t arti c le .

20 DI FFE R E N TI AL C AL C UL US [ OIL I .

9 . e a derivat iv e If to a v ari abl e a s m all

D fi n it ion of .

i n c e m e n t be gi e n a d if t he c o es p on d i g i c re m e n t of
r v , n rr n n

a c o n ti n u o u s f u c ti o n o f t h e v a i a bl e be d e t e r m i n e d
n t he n r ,

t he li m it O f t h e a tio of t h e i n c e m e n t of t h e f u c tio n to
r r n

t h e i c r e m e t o f t h e v a i abl e w h e n t h e l att e
n n r i n c re m e n t
, r

a ppr o a c he s t he l im it z e o is c all e d t h e d e ri v a tive of t h e

r ,

f u n ctio n as to t h e v ari ble a .

If be a fi ite a d c o n ti n u o u s fu n c tio n of x an d Am
n n ,

a s m all i c e m e n t g iv e
n r to th e n t he d e iv at i v e of MT ) as
n a, r (

to x is
lim 9X 3: Are 90
6 6
2 lim
Ax i O
Ace Ax é O
Are

It is i m port an t to d i s ti n gu i s h b e twee n lim an d

lim Ax
in fi n it e s im als an d t he r atio of th ei li m it s r . T he latter is
i n d e ter m i n ate of t he
8
form an d m ay hav e an y val u e ; bu t
t he for m er has u s u ally a d eter m i n a te v al u e , as illu s trate d in
t he e x am ple s of t h e l as t a rti c l e .

EXERC IS ES

Find t h e d e riv at iv e of x
2 2 x as to x .

F in d t h e d eriv at ive of 3 x
2
4 a: 3 as to x.

F in d t h e d eriv at ive of
2 }x as to x.

3
4 . Fi nd t he d erivat ive of x
4
2
3
as to x .

a
:

10 . trical illus trations of a derivativ e S o me con

Geome .

c e pt io n o f t he m e a n i n g an d u s e of a d erivative will be

af f o r d e d by o n e or two g eo m etri cal ill u s tratio n s .

Le t be a fu n c tio n o f a: that re m ai n s fi n ite an d

c o n ti n u o u s for all v al ue s o f a
s b e t we e n ce r t ai n a s s i gn ed c o n
 F UN D AME N TA L PR I N CI PL E S 21
’

s t an t s a an d b; an d let
v ari abl e s x y be t ake n as t he
t he ,

r e cta gu l a c o O d in at e s O f a m o vi n g p o i t The n t h e el a
n r r n . r

tio n b e t we en an d y is r e pre s e n t e d g ap hi c lly wit hi t h e

a: r a , n

as s i n e d bo u n d s of c o n ti n u it b t h u rv e w ho s e eq u a ti o n
g y y e c , s 1

a M ) os

L et ( x1 , yl ) , ( x
2, y2 ) be t he coo r d i n at e s of t w o p o i n ts P
P2 , on thi s cu rve . Th e n it is e vi d e n t t h at t h e a tio r

92 91
x x
2 1

is e qu al to t an whe rei n is t he i n cli n ati on a n gl e of t he

a, a

s e c a n t li n e P P to t h e x ax i s Le t P be m o ve d n e ar e r a n d
-
1 2 2
.

n e a r e r t o c o i n c i d e n c e wit h P s o t ha t x 5 x i Th
I 2 1 y2 y] , e n , .

t he s e ca n t li n e P 1 P2 a ppro ac h e s n e a e r a d n e a e r to c o i c i r n r n

d e n c e wit h t h e t an ge t li n e d raw n at t h e poi n t P I an d

n ,

t h e i n c li n atio n a g le of - n a

t he s e c a n t appr oac he s as
a li m it t he i n c li n a tio n P n m) a a a

an le of h ta n en t
g 4 ) t e g
li n e .

H e n ce ,
“ y” v"

t an a é t an
.

f
c) .

192 yl
Thu s t an
x x
2 l
FI G 6
wh e n x
2
x
1, y2 =
. .

I t m ay be o b s e r v e d t h at if 50
2
b e p u t d ire c tl y e q u a l t o E l ,

an d
yz to 91 , t h e ra ti o o n t h e l e ft w o u l d, in ge n e ral , as s u m e
t he i n d et e m i n ate f o m 9 as in othe c as e s of fi n di n g t he
r r , r
0
li m it o f t h e r atio of t w o in fi n it e s im als ; bu t it has j u s t b e e n
s h ow th at t he atio o f t h e in fi it e s im als yz yl x2 93 1 h as
n r n , ,

n e vert he le s s a d e t e r m i n at e li m it v i
, t an , z .
,
22 DI FFE R E N TI AL CA L C UL US ’
I
OH . 1 .

T he y ar e thu s in fi n it e s im als of t he s am e o r de r exce pt

wh e n
I
‘’ is 0 or I .

‘
2
I f t h e d i ffe re n c e s x
z
— r
r
l , yz 91 be d e n ot e d by AT , Ag ,

the n x
1 + Ax , + Ay ;

bu t , s nci e 9 M)
( ax ,

it follows tha t y1 = M l)
( a , y2 =

he n c e t he ratio of t he s i m u lt an e o u s i n c re m e n ts m ay be
writte n in t h e v ario u s for m s

A9 92 91 (
90 2)5 90
( 5
1
A1”) ( 90 1 )
5

Ace 23 — 93 93 — 33 Ax
2 1 2 1

In t he l as t for m x is r e gar de d as t he i d e p e n de n t v ari bl e n a

a d A
n r
ea s it s i d e pe n d e t i n c r e m e n t ; t h e n u m e a t o r is t h e
n n r

i n c r e m e n t o f t he f u n c tio n (ME ) c u s e d by t he c han g e O f , a a:

f o m t h e v alu e 1 to t he v al u e x, + Ax The li m it of thi s

r 23 .

r ati o as A 0 is t h e v al u e of t he d e ivative of t h e f u n ctio

,
c
e ,
r n

¢( ) x w h e n h a s t h e v al u e
a: 5 1
H e e x
1
s t an d s for a 9
y . r n

a s s i g n e d v al u e o f x Thu s t h e d e riv ativ e of an y c on ti n u o u s

.

f u n ctio n is a oth e r f u n c tio n of x w hi c h m e a s u re s t h e

n

s lop e of t h e t an g e t to t h e c u rve n d a w n at t he r

poi n t wh o s e abs ci s s a is 93 .

Ex . F in d t h l
e s ope of t he t a ge t n n lin e t o t he c u rve y at t he
n
po i t 1
( ,
2
lim ( 96 A9 0
2
t an d) Ax 0 A1 :
 F UN DA ME N TA L PR I N CI PL E S 23

Hn e ce t an f
() 4, wh n e x z 1 an d t he e q
u at io n of t h e n n lin
t a ge t e at

t he po i t n (1 ,
2 ) is y 2 4 (x

As an o the ill u s t ati o

r r n, if t he c oor di n ate s Of P be ( 23 y)
, ,

an d thos e of Q ( , x + Ax , y + Ay) , t h e n Y
M N = PR = Ax, an d P S = R Q = A
y .

If t he are a OAPM be d e n o t e d by
2, t he n 2 is e v i d e n tly s o m e fu n c tio n
of t h e abs c is s a x ; als o if a r e a CA ON
be d e not e d by z Ax the n t h e ,

ar e a M N OP is Ax ; it is t he i n cre
F 7
m e n t t ak e by t he f u n c tio n 2 w h en
IG . .

n ,

x t ak e s t h e i n c r e m e n t Ax B u t M N QP li e s betwee n . t he
re ctan gle s M R M Q ; he ce , n

yAx Az (y Ay) Ax,

Thu s , if
or di n at e an d t h e a e a be e ach e x pr e s s e d as a
t he r

f u n c tio n o f t he ab s c i s s a t he d e ivativ e o f t h e a e a f u n ctio n

, r r

with e ga d t o t h e b s c i s s a is e q u al to t h e o d i n ate f u n ctio

r r a r n .

Ex . If t h e a re a nl
i c u de d be t w n ee a c u rv e , t he ax is of x , an d t he
o rdi n at e wh o se ab sc is s a is x, b e giv e n by t h q e e u at io n
z x3 ,

fi n d t he e q u a t io n o f t he c u rv e .

Ax Ax i O Ax

d2
ir 2 2
[ 3 33 + 3x .
Aa - 0
24 DI FF E R E N TI A L CA L C UL Us ( on . I .

11 . Th e ope ra t ion of differe n t iation I t has b e e n s e e n in . a

n um be r o f e x a m pl e s t h t w h e n t h e o p e ati o n i n d i c a t e d b
a
y r

lim 90
( 17 “

I A33)
“

Ax "

o Ax
is p e rf o r m e d on a g i v e f u n c ti on n t h e r e s u lt of t he
o pe ati on is a o t h e r f u c tio n O f x
r n T he l at t e r f u n c ti o m ay
n . n

h a v e pr o perti e s s i m il a t o t h o s e o f r o it m ay be of an r

e tir e l d i ff e r e n t c l as s
n
y .

The o p e r a tio abo v e i n d i c a t e d is fo

n b e vity d e n Ct e d by r r

d a m)
t h e s ym b o l a n d t h e r es u lti n
g d e iv a tiv e f u c tio n b
y r n
dx
t hu s ,

A 5 Ax>
22
dc )
ii l
a im 11 m IE

l A fi e 3 96 4
A

T he p ro c e s s of p e rfo
i g thi s i n di c ate d op e ratio n is
rm n

c alle d t h e d ifi e e n t ia t i o of d) ( x) with r e gar d to x Th e

’

r n .

s ym b o l
£
w he n s p ok e n of s e p a at e ly is c all e d t h e d ifle '

3 r , r
x

e t i a t i ng
n p e
'

t oo a n d e
ra x p e s s
r, e s t h a t an
y f u n c ti
r o writt e n n

af t e r it is t o be d i f f e re n ti at e d with r egar d to x j u s t s t he , a

s ym bol c o s pre fi x e d to ¢ ( x ) i n d i c a te s t hat t h e l att e r is to

have a c e t ai n oper a tio n perfor m e d u po n it n am e ly tha t

r , ,

o f fi n di n it s cos in e
g .

Th e pr o c e s s o f d i ffere n ti ati n g ¢ ( x ) c o n s i s t s o f t he fol low

in g s tep s

1 . G ive a s m all i n c re m e n t to t h e v a ri able .

2 C o m p u te t he r e s u lti g i n c r e m e n t of t h e fu n c tio n
. n .

3 D i v i d e t h e i n c r e m e n t of t he f u n c tio n by t h e i n c re m e n t
.

o f t h e v a ri able .

4 O bt ai n t h e li m it of t hi s q u otie n t as t h e i n c re m e n t of
.

t he v a i abl e appro a ch e s e o
r z r .

h
T is s ym b ol is s o m et im e s re p lace d by t h e ngl
si e le tt er D .
26 D I FFE R E N TI A L CA L C UL US [ CH I . .

f n
u c t io n wh il i n g t i e xd s e a ve , a n an n
i cre a s i ng f n u c t io n wh ilis pos i e x

t iv e . T h i i w ll h w n by t h l
s s e s o e o cu s o f t he e q u a t io n y x + 4 ( Fig
= 2
.

FI G 8 . .

Agai n ,
t he f orm of t he c u rve
y
5
h w t h t s o s a
x
is a n f n
decre as i g u c

t io n ,
as x p as s es f ro m t 0
co d l o d , -an a so a e c re as in g f n t i n u c o ,
as
'

pa s s e s f ro m 0 to 00 . Wh n p e th xg h 0 as s e s ro u ,
t h f n t i n h ng
e u c o c a es

d is c o t i n n u o u s ly f ro m t he l
va u e t th l co o e va u e 00 Fi
( g .

M os t fu n c tio n s are
i n c r e as i g f u c tion s
n n

fo s o m e v a l u es o f t h e
r

v a i abl e a d d e cre as
r ,
n

in g f u cti o s fo n n r

o the s r .

FI G 10 . .
E g . .
, V2 Tx x
2
is an

in cre a s i ng f n u c t io n f ro m
x 0 to x T, a n d a d e cre as i g n f n u c t io nf ro m x z T to x 2 T Fi
( g .

A f u n c tio n is sa id t o be an in c re as in g or de c r e as i n g fu nc

ti o n in t h e vicin ity of a g iv e n v al u e o f x ac c o d i n g as it r

in c re a s e s or d e c re a s es as x i n c eas e s t hro u gh a s m all i n terval

r

i n c lu d i n g t hi s val u e .
 F UN D A ME N TA L PR I N CI PL E S 27

13 . Algebra ic t es t
terval s of in crea s in g an d de of t h e in
crea s in g Le t y d( )
x b e.a f u c ti o o f x a d le t it b e al n n , n e r ,

c o ti u o u s a d d iffe r e n ti abl e fo
n n ,all v al u e s of x f o m a t o 6
n r r .

T h e n by d e fi n itio n y is i n c r e as i g or d e c re as i n g a t a poi t n n

x x a c c or d i n
1 g as,

90 1
( 5 Ax ) 70 1 )
(9 3

is po s itive o n e gativ e wh e e Ax is a s m all po s itive n u m ber

r , r .

T he s i gn o f t h i s e x pr es s i o is n o t c h a g e d if it be di vi d e d n n

by Ax o m atter h o w s m all Ax m a be h e n c e ¢ x ) is a n
, n
y ; (
i n c e as i n g or a d e c r e as i n g f u n c ti on at t he v alu e as] acc or d
r ,

in g as
d
_
im f( 1
A 9 ( 1
dx Ax é O Ax

is p o s itiv e g tive or n e a .

T h u s t h e i t e r v a l s in whi ch qS( x ) is an i c r e as i n g fu n c tio n

n n

e t h e s am e as t h e i terv al s in w h i c h i po iti e
ar
( )
x s s v n .

Ex . F ind t h e in t e rv a l s in w hi ch t he f n
u c t io n
9 x
2
+ 12 x —6
is i n cre as in g or decre as i g n . The de riv at iv e is

6 x
2
18 x 12 6 (x l) ( x

hn e c e , as x pas se s f ro m co t o 1 , t h e d e riv e d f n
u ct io n q ( )
b'
x , is po s it iv e

an d i n c reas e s f ro m —cc ) to
is . .
, f ro m () I co to —1 ; as x
pas s e s
f ro m 1 t o 2 , qS (x) is e gat ive , ’
n a n d ¢ x)
(
d e c re as es ro m S 1
q( ) t o fi s , ro m . . f
—1 t o 2 ; an d as x pas se s ro m 2 t o + 0 0 , f
p( )
r
’
x is p o s it iv e , an d n
i c re as e s fro m
to ie
. .
,
f ro m 2 to 00 .

The loc u s of t he e q u at io n is
s h wn o in Fig . 11 . At p o i nt whs e re

M
4( x) n qS( ) 0, t he f n
u c t io x i n it h
s e er

in in g
c re asd in g At n or e cre a s . h p int
suc o s

t h t ng nt i p
e ll l t t h
a e s ara e o e ax is o f x.

Th i t h i ill t t i n
us nt s u s ra o , a x 1, x 2,
t h t n g nt i p
e ll l t t h
a e s ara e o e x-ax is .
FI G 1 1
. ,
28 DI FFE R E N TI A L CA L C UL Us [ C IL I .

EXERC IS ES

1 . F in d t h in t e l
e rv a s o f in c re as i ng an d de c re as i g fo r t h e n f n
u c tio n
d( ) 5
3 2
> x x 2 x x 4 .

H e re

T he f n
u c t io n in cre a s e s f ro m x —00 to x 1 ; d e c rease s f ro m x

to x in c re ase s f ro m x to x 00 .

2 . F in d t h in t e l
e rv a s o f i n c re a s i ng an d d e c re a s i g fo r t h e n f n
u ct io n
y = x 3
2 x 2
+ x — 4,

an d s h w wh
o e re t he c u rve is p ara ll l t
e o t he x -ax is .

3 . At ho w m a y p o i t s n n c an t he pl
s o e of t h e n n
t a ge t t o t he c u rv e

x8
2
y 2 3 x 1

be 1 ? 1 F in d t h e p o i nt s .

4 . C o m pu t e t he a n gl e at wh i h t h f ll w in g
c e o o c u rv e s n
i t e rse c t

y = 3 x
2 —1 , y = 2 x
2
+ 3 .

14 . e n tiation of a fun ction of a fun ct ion Su ppo s e

D iffer .

that y i n s te ad O f b e i n g giv e n d ir e c tly as a f u n c ti o n of x

, ,

is e x pr e s s e d as a f u n c tio n of an o th er v ari a bl e a w h i ch is ,

its e lf e x pr e s s e d as a f u n c ti on of x Le t it be r e qu i e d to . r

fi n d t h e d e riv a tive O f y with re ga r d to t h e i n de p e n d e n t

v ari abl e x .

L et in wh i ch a is a f u n c tio n of x W he n x .

c h an ge s t o t h e v al u e x + Ax l e t u a d y u d e t h e g iv e , n ,
n r n

rel atio n s c ha ge to t he v al u e s u -l-Au y + Ay T he n

,
n , .

— Au
A
__ y AA Au f( u + Au ) f( u ) .

,
Ax Au Ax .
Au Ax

he n c e , e q u ati n g li m its ,

dy _
dy da d ffi l ) da
.

dx da dx da dx
13 F UN DAME N TA L PR I N CI PL E S 29

Th i s r e s u lt m ay be s a t t ed as fo llow s
The d eriva tive o f fu n cat io n f u o wit h re
g ar d to
t he p r od u c t o f t he d e riva t ive o f t he fu n cti on wi t h
an d t he d e riva t ive f
o u wi t h re
g a rd to x .

EXERC IS ES

n
Z
1 Giv e = 3 u
2
find y
.
y
x

dy da
"
da 81:

d“ -
(3
35 36 2
_ x “3 + 4
dx du It;
D

2 . Giv e n y = 3 u
2
4 u + 5, u = 2 x3 —5 ; s a n g
1
—
s
— = 5 y
3 . Giv e n y -
, u x
2
2 x + 4; find
u 27

3
1 dy
4 . Gi ve n y _ 3 u
2
+ 2 , u fin d
3 u 3 dx
 C H A PT E R I I

D FF R I E E N T AT ON I I OF TH E E LE M E N T ARY FOR M S

In re c e n t ti cl e s t he m e an i n g of t he s ym bol
ar , w as e x

plai n e d a d illu s tr at e d ; a d a m etho d of e x p e s s i g it s

n n r n

val u e as a f un cti on x w as e x e m pli fi e d in c s e s in whi ch y

, , , a

w as a s i m pl e al ge b a i c f u n c tio n of x by d ire c t us e of t h e
r ,

d e fi n itio n T h i s m eth o d is n o t alw ays t h e m o s t c o v e n i e t

. n n

o n e in t h e d i ffe e n ti a ti o n o f m ore c o m pli c a t e d f u c ti on s

r n .

T he pre s e n t ch apt e will be d e vot e d t o t he e s t abli s h m e n t

r

of s o m e g e n er al u l e s f d i ffe e n ti atio n w hi ch will in m a y

r o r , n

c as es s av e t h e t o u bl e of o i b k to t h e d e fi n itio n
, gr n
g a c .

Th e n e x t fi ve a ti c l e s tr e at of t h e d iffe re n ti atio n of al g e
r

brai e f u n c ti o n s an d of al g e br a i c c o m bi n atio n s of oth er d i ffe r

e n t iable f u c ti o n s n .

15 . D iff eren t iation of t he p roduct of a cons t an t an d a

v ar iabl e .

L et y cx .

Th e n y Ay c
( x Ax) ,

A3] c
( x Ax ) ex c ,

Ar
Ax

t he efo e
r r c .
C H II . . D I FFE R EN TI A TI ON OF E L E ME N TA R Y F OR MS 81

Cor . If y = cu , w he r e u is a f u c ti on of
n x, th e n, by
Art . 1 4,
(1 )
d er; dx

The d eriva tive of t he p r od u c t f

o a c on s t a n t a n d a va ria ble is
ual t o t he con s t an t mu ltip lie d by t he d eri va tive f
o t he va r ia ble
e
q .

Diff eren tiat ion of a s um .

y = f( ) r
we ) .

r Ay = f < x Ax ) ¢< x Ax > + w Ax) .

Ar fe + Ax z—
> f< >
x ¢< x Ax ) 5 G)
Ax Ax Ax

Th er e fore , by e qu ati n g t h e li m its of bot h m e m b e rs ,

l
li
E
’
f( ) 33 3, Th 5 . .

Cor 1 . . If in w hi c h u, v, w are f u n c tio ns

o f x, th e n
d du dv d iv
u v w 2
dx d ac d oe d ae

The d eriva tive of t he s um o f a fi n it e n u m ber o f fu n c t i on s is

e
q u al t o t he s um of t heir d eriva t ives .

Cor 2 . . If y u c, c b ei n
g a c o n s ant t th e n ,

h en c e , Ay Au ,
dy du

l as t e q u ati o as s e rt s t hat all fu n c tio n s wh i ch d i ffe

Th e n r

f o m e a ch o ther o l y by an additive c o n s t an t h ave t h e s am e

r n

d e iv a tive
r .
82 DI FF E R E N TI A L CA L C UL US [Cm II .

it io n of a c o n s t a t h as t he e fi e ct of
Ge o m et ri c all y, t h e add n

m ovi g t h e c u v e y
n
( )
u x p a all e l to t h e y a x is ; t h i s o p e a
r r r

tio n will o bviou s ly n ot c han g e t he s lop e at poi n t s that hav e

t he same x .

F m m C2
dx dx dx

bu t fr om t he fo u rth equ atio n bove a ,

dz da

do
he n c e , it foll o ws th at
dx

The d eriva tive of a con s t a n t is z er o.

If t h e n u m b er of f n
u ct io n s be i nfinit e, t h e o re m 5 of Art 3 m ay n o t
.

a pp ly ; t h at is , t he im it l of t he su m m ay n o t b e e q l ua t o t he s u m of the
lim it s , an d hn e ce t he d e r iv at iv e of t he su m m ay n o t be e q
u al t o t he s um

of t he d e riv a t iv e s . T h us t he d e riv a t ive of an infin it e se rie s c a nn ot a lw ays

be f n d by difi
ou e re n t iat in g it t e rm by t e rm .

17 . Diff ere n t iati on of a product .

L et r
Ar f < fv Ax )
Th e n
Ax Ax

By btr ac ti n g a d ad di n g
su n in t he n u me r
ator t h i s
,
es u lt m ay ber ea an g e d t h u s r rr

Ar + Arv) —
Ax )
f( r f ( w) 50 ) 3

¢< x + f< x >

Ax Ax Ax

N o w le t Ax pp o ac h e o u s i g Art 3 the o e m s 5 6
a r z r , n .
’

,
r , ,

an d n oti n g t h at t h e fi s t f ac t o (1 (
) x A x ) a pp o ac h e s ¢ ( x )
r r r

s i n c e by hypoth e s i s is c o n ti n u o u s ( Art Th e n .

gi
34 DIFFEREN TIAL CALCUL US [cm 11 .

f( x Aw) f ( x)
Av ¢< w Arc ) M ) r

Ax Ax

( x Ax) Ax )
Aw Aw)
By bt ac ti n g an d a d di g ¢ ( x ) f ( x)
su r n in t h e n um e at r o r,

t hi s e x p e s s i o n m ay be w itt e n
r r

x + Ax x

Ag 4 03 )
Ax Ax)
He n ce , by eq u ati n g li m it s ,

’
dy _ ¢ ( x ) f ( )
x
[ Art 3 Tb
. s 6, 7, . .

[ M 01
2
dz 9

Thi s r sue lt m ay be w itt e n

r in t h e b i e fer form
r

du dv
d u d oc d ac
(5)
v

The d eriva tive f

o f
q a
ra c t i f on , t he u ot ien t o two fu n ction s , is
e u a l t o t he d e n om in a t or m u lt i lie d by t he d e riva t i ve of t he
q p
n u m er a t or m in u s t he n u m era t or m u lt i lied by t he d eriva t ive
p
f
o t he d en om in a t or, d ivid e d by t he s qu are o f t he d en om in a t or .

19 .ere n tiation of a commen s urable power of a f un ctio

D iff n .

Le t y u in w h i c h u is a f u n c tio n of x
”
,
Th e n t h ere a . re

th e e c as e s to c o n s i d er
r .

1 n a po s itive i n t e g er
. .

2 n a n e g ativ e in t e ge r
. .

3 n a c o m m e n s u r abl e f ac ti o n
. r .

1 n a po s iti v e i n t e g e
. r .

Thi s is a p rti c u l a c as e o f a t h e fa c t o s u v w
r r , , ,

bei n g e q u al T hu s .

n —l d u

dx
18 DIFFERENTIA TION OF ELEM ENTA R Y FORMS 35

2 . n a n e ga tive i n te ge r .

Le t n m i n whic h m
,
is a po s itive i n t e ger .

Th e n
'
m
u
u

H
”
d“
by an d
dx

-m -l da
mu
dx

he n c e
g
ig Z:
” “
l
nu

3 . n a c o m m e n s u r abl e f ra c ti o n .

2 w h er e
Le t

ither p os
n
5
itiv or
, p, q
ative
a re both i n te ge rs , w hi c h
e e ne
g .

The n y u
"

he n c e y
‘1
u p
,

i p

cl du
y “p d
P
_

dx dx

S ol v i n g for t he r e q u ir e d d e riv ati v e ,

dy
p ug du
-l

’
dx q dx

he n c e d u
n
—l du
(6 )
n
nu
dx dx

The d er iva tive f y o blean

p ow e r f
o a fu n c i
c omm en s u r a
t on is

e u a l t o t he ex on en t of t he owe r m u lt i lie d by t he owe r wit h

q p p p p
it s exp on en t dim in is he d by u n ity, m u ltip lie d by t he d eriva tive
of t he fu n c tion .

If t wo f n u c t io n s n
be id e t ica l, t h e ir d e riva t ive s are n
id e t ical
.
36 D I FFE R E N TI AL CA LCUL US [ c m 11 .

The s e theor e m s will be f o u d s u ffi cie n t for t he d i ffe e n ti a n r

t io n o f a y f u c t io n t hat in o l v e s o n ly t he O p e at io s of
n n v r n

a dd i t io n s u bt ac t i
,
m u l t ipl ic t i o
r d i is i on a d i v o l a
on , a n, v , n n

t i o in w h i c h t h e e x po n e t is a n i n t eg e or c o m m e s u able
n n r n r

f act i o n
r .

T h e f o llowi n g e x am pl es will s erv e to ill u s tr at e t h e th e o

r e m s an d will s ho w t he c o m bi n e d appli catio n of t he ge n er al
,

fo m s ( 1 ) to
r

| LLUS T RAT IVE E AM PLES X

3 x
2 —2 .
dy
x + l dx

( 33 + — 2 ) — ( 3 x2 1)

< 3 x 2 —i (2)
dx

6 x .

$
dx
0 3 1 _ 1 .

3 dz

Sub st it u t e t h e se re s u lt s in t he e xp re s s io nf or
5
73
T hn e

( + 1 )6 — 3 2 —2 2 3 2
4 6 + 2
dy x x
( x x x

dx ( x ( x

Z
u
z . u = (3 8
2
+ fin d —
s

7 d
93! ( 3 3
2
+ by ( 3 )
(i s

( 1 5 Ar -i ( 1
i 5 3 )
2 by ( 6 )
d

5 8

2
5 s

+ 2) = 6
2
( 3 3 8 .
 D IFFEREN TIA TI ON OF EL E M ENTA R Y FOR M S 37

S ub s t it u t e t h l
e se v a u e s in t he e x pre s s io nf or T hn e

d“ ?i L J - 6 s \/ l 5
i 5 3
ds

3 .
y

Fi rs t , a s a q u o t ie nt ,

V 1 2 —x 2) 2
( x

dx dx dx

i m ,
(1
7

2
by ( 2)

S im i l ly f
ar or t he ot h er t e rm s . C om bi ning t h e re s u lt s

Ex 3 m ay a
. lso be w k or ed by fi rs t ra t io n li in g t h
a z e de n n
om i at or
.

E XE RC IS E S

F in d t h e x —
de rivat ives o f t he f ll wing f n
o o u c t io n s

g l
1 .
o
.

2 “ '
8
.
y : 1

x + 3
3 .
y _ c x
.

10 .

V5 3
 38 D IFFERENTIAL CAL C UL U S [Cm II .

3
3 33 + 2

2 2
y 3 (x x

y 3 u
2
7 .

y z 4 u
3
6 14
2
+ 12 u —3 .

—3 2
+6
y u

ux
y z .

2 2 4
y u + 3 xu + x

y
1 1 < a + x r
(m e
m
< + 1
2 3
w
n
a x u x
y .

28 . Give n ( a x 5 ) a
5
5 4
a x 10 a
ar 2 10 a x3
2
5 ax
4
x5 ; fin d
( a x )
4
by d ifi e re n t iat io n .

29 . S h ow t h at t he l
s ope o f t h e n n
t a ge t t o t h e c u rv e y x3 is n ev e r

n h w wh
e gat iv e . S o e re t he l
s ope i n c re a s e s o r d e cre a s e s .

V 3 0 Gi n b
. ve
z
x
2
a
2
y
2
a
2
b 2
, fin d
ji x
'

( ) y
1 b d i ff e re nt i t ing a as to x ;

( ) y
2 b d iff n t i t i n g e re a as to y; ( 3 ) by s o v i g for y l n an d di ff e re n t i t i ng
a

la s t o x . C o m p a re t h e re s u lt s h
o f t h e t re e m e t o d s h .

31 . Sh w th t f m
o a or p 3 1
.
, i s a s pe c ia l c as e o f

.1 32 . At w h t p in t f t h
a o o e c u rv e y
2
ax
a
is t he l
s ope O? 1? 1?

7
~
33 . T rac e t he c u rve y z x3 3 x
2
x 1 .

—1 dy
an d = 5 x 2
34 .
y u ; find
dx

7 35 . At wh at a ngl e do t h e c u rv e s
y
2
12 x an d y
2
x
2
6 x 63 : O
n
i t e rs ec t ?

20 . E le m e n tar y tran s ce nde n t al fun cti on s .

The f o llowi n g f u n c tio s are c all e d t a n s cen d en t a l f u n c

n r

tio ns

S imp le ex
p on en t ia l f u ctio s c o n s i s ti n g of a c on s t an t
n n ,

num be r ra s e di to a powe r w ho s e e x po n e n t is v a i abl e r ,

”
as a ;
1 9- 2 1 ] DIFFERENTIA TION OF ELEMEN TA R Y FORMS 39

g e n e r a l ex
p f u c t io s i v o l v i
on en t a l i g a v a i abl e r a i s e d
n n ,
n n r

t o a p o w e wh o s e e x p o e t is v a i abl e a s x m “
s
r n n r ,

t h e log a it hm i “
fu c ti o n s as l o g x lo g u ;
r c
9
n , a , b

t h e in m m en s u a ble p w s o f a a ri abl e a s x , u ;
co r
” o er v
"
,

t h e t ig on m et i f u c t io s
r o s s in u c o s u ;
r c n n , a ,

t h e in ver s t ig on om t ri f u c t io n s as s in
1 -1
u t an
“

e r e x c n , , .

Th e re till othe r tr an s c e n de n t al fu c ti on s bu t th ey
are s n ,

will ot be c o s i d e r e d in t hi s b o o k
n n .

The n e x t fo u a ti c l e s tre at o f t h e l o g a it h m i c t h e two

r r r ,

e xpo n e n ti al f u n c ti o s an d t h e i c o m m e n s u r abl e pow e

n , n r .

21 . D iff er en tiati on of l oga x an d l og“ ,

u .

Le t y l o g, x .

The n y Ay lo g , ( x Ax ) ,

Ay l o
g a ( x Ax ) log a
x

Ax Ax

1
A
}?

c o n v e n ie n c e writi n
g h fo r Ax , an d r e arr an gi n g ,

Ay 1 x
l o ga 1
Ax x h

dv 1 lim
wh e n c e k i 0
lo g
dx x

Th e m ore ge n eral logarit m ic h f n

u ct io nl og, u is n ot clas s ifi e d s ep arat ely,

logo, u
as it c an be re d u ce d t o t h e q u ot ie t n
40 DIFFERENTIAL CA LCUL US [ OH . 11 .

To e v l u at e
a t he ex pre s s io n 1 w he n h 0, e x p an d it
by t h e bi n o m i al t he o re m , s u pp i os n
g to be a l arge p o s itiv e
77:
i n t e ge r m .

T he ex pa s io n n m ay be w itt e nr

2
1 2 m 1 2 3

w h i ch c an be p u t in t he form

1 2
Now becom e s
as m ver
y l a r
g ,
e t he te rm s ’ ’ b e c om e
m m
m all an d w h e m t he i
s er es a pp roac h e s t h e l im it
ve r y s ,
n 00

1 1 1

The eri c al v al u e o f thi s li m it c an be r e ad ily c al cu lat e d

n um

to a y de s ir e d appr o x i m atio n T hi s n u m b e r is a i m p o t a t
n . n r n

c o s t an t w hi c h is d e n o t e d by t h e l e tt e r
n ,
a d is e q u al to e, n

; t hu s
m

e 2 71 8 2 8 1 8
m i co

T he num ber
k n ow as t he n tu a l or N ap e r i an ba s e ;
e is n a r

a n d lo g a it hm s to t h i s b a s e a e c all e d n at u r al o r N p e ian
r r . a r

l o ga ithm s N at u al l ga ith m s will be w itt e n with o u t a

r . r o r r

it
h
T is m et h o d o f ob t a i n ing e is rat h er t o o b rie ft o be rigo rou s it as s u m e s

in t g th nt ng
f ;
is a p os it ive e er, b ut at is e q u ivale to re s t rict i Ax t o

approac h p art icu lar w ay

z ero in a . It als o applie s t he t h eore m s of lim it s t o
t he s u m an d p rodu c t o f a n i n it e nfi n u m b e r o f t e rm s . T h e p ro o fis c o m p let ed

on p 31 5
. of M c M ah o n an d S n yd er s
’
f
D i fe re n t ial C al c u lu s
”
.
42 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US
f

The d e riva tive o f a n ex

p on en t ia l fu n i
c t on with a c on s t a n t bas e
is q
e ual t o t he p rodu c t f
o t he fu n ction , t he n a t u ra l log arithm f
o

t he ba s e , an d t he d e riva ti ve o f t he ex
p on en t .

23 . Diff ere n tiat ion of t he g e n eral ex pon e n tial fun ction .

”
y u ,

in wh i ch u v are both f u n c ti o s o f x
, n .

T ak e t h e lo ga it h m o f b o t h s i d es an d d i ff e
r , re n ti at e . Then

lo g y : v lo g u,

g
i lo g u by for m s ( )
8

q dv v
10 g
dx dx u d

th er e for e g; 1
3;
” -
it log u cu
r
(1 1)

The d eriva t ive o f an ex

p on en t ia l fu n ction in which the ba s e
is a ls o a var ia ble is bt a in e d by rs t d if
o fi
fer en tia ting , rega rding
t he ba s e as c on s t a n t , a n d a a in , re a r d ing
g g t he ex on en t a s
p
c on s t a n t , an d a dd in g the re s u lt s .

I n t h e d i ff e re n ti a t io n g ive n f u n c ti o of
o f t hi s f o r m it
an y n

is u s u all y b e t t e n o t t o s u b s tit u t e in t h e f o m u l d ire c tl y

r r a

bu t t o appl y t h e m e t h o d j u s t u s e d in d e ri v i g i e to n . .
,

d iffe r e ti a t e t h e lo g a it h m o f t he f u n c tio n by t he pre c e di n g

n r

rules .

Ex .
y :
( 4 x
2 “L 5
, fin d
gi
l og y ( 2 V x2 5 ) lo g ( 4 x 2

1 dy x 8 x
lo g ( 4 x 2
x
2
5) -7
vx 2 _ 5 4x 2

dy VxT- 5 4 x 2

[
.
x
22 DIFFER ENTIA TIO N OF ELEMENTAR Y FORMS 43

24 . D iff ere n tiat ion of an i n comme n s urable pow er .

Le t y M
"
,

in wh i c h n is an i n c o m m e n s u able c o n s tan t r . Th e n

log y lo g u n ,

1 dy n da
’

y dx u dx

d
__y_ y da
n M

dx u dx
d n_ 1 du
°

dx
Thi s h as t h e e fo m s am r as so th at t he q u alifyi n g
c o m m e n s u r a ble of Art . 19 c an n o w be o m itte d .

E XE RC IS E S

F ind t h e x d erivat iv e s o f t he f ll w i
o o n
g f nu ct ion s

1 .
y : lo g ( 33 + a ) .

2
.

3 y = lo g ( 4 x 2 y e

l + ”
’
.
o

1 + x
4 y = lo g 3/ 6
“
( 1 95
3
)
x _ —x
1 2 y e e

1 i
x
5 .
y = IO g
°
e
x
+ e
-
x
2
x

6 .
y = x log x

7 .
y z x n
lo g x
“
m y z x n
a
8 .
y z x n
lo g x

9 .

\ a /
10 y : x/ x
1
.

lo g , )
2
11 .
y ( 3 x x .
lo g x
12 .
y lo g1 0 ( x
2
+ 7 x) .
c =
( loe r )
2

13 .
y l o gz a .
y lo g ( log x ) .

14 .
y 2 e
x“
,
y
"
5L .

15 l og 2
.
y 2/ a .
44 D IFFERENTIAL C AL C UL US ( o n . n .

T he f ll w in g f n
o o u c t io n s c an be e as i ly d iff nt i e re at e d by fi rs t ta i g kn
t he l o
g a rit hm s of bo t h m e m be rs o f t he e q ti n
ua o s .

2
x

( x ( x 32 .
y x 5
(a 3 x 3
) ( a 2 x )
2
.

30 .
y = x 1

Arti c l e s 2 5—31 will t e at of r t he d ifi e re n t iat io n of t he

Tr ig o n o m e t i c F u n c tio n s
r .

25 . Diff ere n tiation of s in i t .

Le t y s in u .

Ay s in (u Au ) s in u Au
T he n
Au Ax
2 cos —
5 ( 2 u Au ) s in —
1— Au
2
Au
Au Ax
s in 1 Au Au
Au )
W
I
cos ( it
2
.

Ax
B ut, w he n Au i 0, c os ( u
% Au) é c os u , an d w 1
1
Au
by Art 6 ; h e n ce , pas s m g
. to t he l imi t ,

d d a
s in u cos i t
5
°
( 1 2)
d oc 3

The deriva tive f o t he s in e o f fu n c t

a i on is e u al
q t o t he p rod

u ct of t he c os in e of t he fu n ction an d t he d eriva tive of t he

fu n ction .

26 . D ff i eren t iation of cos u .

Le t c os u s in
y

c os i t s in u
24 DIFFERENTIA TION OF ELEMENTA R Y FORMS 45
1

T he d e riva tive of t he cos in e of a fu n ct ion is e qu a l to m in u s

the p ro d u c t of t he s in e of t he fu n ction a n d t he d e riva t ive of t he
”

fu n c tion .

27 . Diff ere n tiat ion of t an u .

y t an u

d
—
c os a si n u sin u

T he n 2
cos u

t h at is , t an u s ec
2 it

The d eriva tive o f t he t a ng en t of a fu n ct ion is e qu a l t o t he

t he f t he of t he fun ct ion a n d t he
p ro du c tf o s
q u a re o s eca n t

d er iva tive of t he fu n ction .

28 . D iff eren ti at ion of cot u .

y : co tu

dy 1 d
tan u ( ) ( )
8
O
b ’ 1 4
z
dx t an u dx

2
c ot u cs c it

The deriva tive f

o t he c o t a n g en t o f fu n cat ion is e ua l
q t o m in u s

t he p rod u c t f q o f t he s u a re o t he cos ec a n t o f t he fu n ction an d

t he d eriva tive of t he fu n ction .

46 DIFFERENTIAL CA LCUL US [c a 11 .

29 . D iffer e n tiati on of s e c u .

Le t y s ec u

dy 1 d
T he n cos u = +
dx cos
z
u Et

sec u z t an u s ec u

The d eriva tive f t he s e can t of a fu n ction is

o

p rod u c t o
f t he s e c a n t of t he fu n c t ion t he t a n g en t ,

t ion a n d t he d e riva t ive of t he fu n ction

, .

30 . e e n tiat i on
D iff r of cs c i t .

1
L et y cs c u
sm u
.

l
El 1 d
—
Th e n
2
dx Si n u dx
d“
csc u cs c u co t u .

dx

The deriva t ive f o t he

f fu n c ion i
cos e ca n t o
t s e
qu a l t o m in u s a

t he p r od u ct of t he cos e ca n t of t h fun tion t he cot a ngent of t he

e c ,

fu n ction an d the d eriva tive of the fu n ction

,
.

31 . i erent iation
D ff of ver s it .

Le t y v e rs u =1 c os u .

dy d
f he n co s u .

dx dx
d“
vers u _ s in u .
(1 8 )
dx

The deriva tive of t he vers ed -s n e i f

o a fu n ction is e ual
q to

t he p rodu ct o f t he s in e o f t he fu n ction an d the d eriva tive f

o

t he fu n ction .
2 19 DIFFEREN TIA TION OF ELEMEN TAR Y FORM S 47

E XE RC IS E S

F in d t h e x de rivat ives of t he f o ll o w ing f n u ct ions

1 .
y = s in 7x . 18 . co s
( a

2 .
y ==c o s 5 x .

19 .

3 s in x
2 cos n
mx
.
y :

5
.
y =

=
s in

s in
2 x co s x
3
x
.
20 .
y = x + log co s
( g)x —
.
y .

6 = f5 $
81 1
2 v = b g
.
y .

7 y = s in
2
7 x
s in s in u
( )
. .

y .

8 “
s in e
.
2 “
y .

9 y = s in 3 x c o s x
s in e log x
. . “
y
o
.

10 .
y t au x see x .
v

2
s in 2
(1 )
2
4,
11 .
y 2 x .
s in z
y z x .

12 .
y t an ( 3
= cs c 2
4x
y .

)
2
13 y t an 2
x lo g ( sec x .

4
.

=
y s ec
( x
t 14 .
y lo g t a n( 5 x i ) n . T
y z v ers x3 .

15 y lo g s in V5
s e c x/ xV
.
2
. i

y = c ot x + .
1
} = s in xy
1
4 6 . .
y t an a .
y

W
s in n x s in
”
: x .

32 . D iff ere n tiation of s in

—l
u .

1
Le t s in
“

u
y .

Th e n s in
y u,

an d, by difi e re n t iat in g both m m e be rs of thi s i de n tity ,

i g l
gi b
c os g
dx dx
1 du
dx c os y d x
i / 1 s in
z dx
\ \ y

t i 1
t i .

Th e a mbig ity of ig
u r ds with t he fa c t th at s i n u
s n ac c o
’
l

is a m an y-v al u e d fu c tio n of i t s i n ce for an y val u e of u be

n , ,
48 DIFFERENTIAL C AL C UL U S [ GIL 11 .

twe e n 1 an d 1 , t h e re is a s e ri e s o f a n
g l e s w h o s e s i e is n u

a d
n w he
, n u re c e iv e s an i n c re a s e , s om o f th
e e a g le s es n in
l
d s in
'

u
c re a s e a n d s o m e d e c re as e ; h e n ce , fo r s o m e o f t he m ,
du
is po s itiv e a d fo s o m e n e g tiv e I t will be s e e
,
n r a . n t h at ,

w he n s i u l i s in t he fi s t o r fo u t h q u a t e it i c e as es
n
‘
l
e r r r r, n r

wit h u an d wh e n i t he s e c o d o thi d it d e e as e s a s 11
, ,
n n r r , cr

i n c e a s e s H e n ce fo r t h e a gl e s f t he fi s t n d f o u t h
r .
, n o r a r

qu a rt e s r ,

at .
l a 1 u 1 da
8 1 11 u s in :
(1 9)
d“ 2 dx
u

In t he ot he q u a t e r r rs t he m m us s i n
g is t o be u sed b e fo re
t he r ad i c a l .

33 . D iff ere n tiat ion of t he r e m a in in g in vers e tr igon om et r ic

f or m s .

Th e d e ri va tiv e s of t he othe i v e s e t igo m e t c f u c r n r r no rl n

t io n s c a be n e a s il
y o bt i e d by t h e m e t h o d e m pl o ye d i n t h e
a n

la s t a ti c l e
r . T h e e s l t s a e a s f o ll o w s
r u r

1
; Z; s t a d 2d q u
‘ l n
i l e s) ( 20 )
-

d
c os
VI —
( 2
t n n ar r .

1
a mn
n qu a te s )
—1
it
( in all r r . ( 21 )
d 1 + 15

I1
qu a
lb ( i a ll ) ( 2 2)
1 u r t e rs
t n
“

co .

2
( : 1 0

1 d
qua
i 1 u
( i n 1st an d 3d rt e rs
) (23 )
-
sc o .

d xi x/ “ 2 dx
1
l d
qua
i
u
“
( in 1 st an d 3d rt e rs ) ( 24 )
;
csc u .

d e u v 2 dx
1

m
_

m qu a te
d i vers
“ dx
( in l s t an d 2d r rs
) .
( 25 )

T he r ad i c al s i f o m s n r 25
( ) re
p
e iv e t he

o ppo s it e s i g n s e s pe c tiv e l y w h e r n t he l
a n g e s a re t ak e n in t he
q u arter s oth e r t h a th o s e s t ate d n .
50 D I FF E R E N TI A L CA L C UL US [ OH . 11 .

s in u c os i t

c os i t

t an u

du
s ec u
dx
i t
fl -
(38 0 u cs c u c ot u
dx

VGI S u
‘

l
s in u
‘

-
l n
cos

- 1 u
c ot

l
s ec u
‘

l u 1 du
cs c
‘

“
l it
vers
 DIFFER EN TIA TIO N O F ELEMENTA R Y FORMS 51

E XE RC IS E S ON C H APT ER II
F ind t h e x d e riv at iv e s o f t he f ll win g f t i n
o o un c o s

l y 3 $2
5 x3 7
+15 .
y z( x a
) t an
-I

V E /
\ ax.

3 5 1 a
2 y _
7 + .

x x 7
—3
16 y 00t
1

1 7 t an 4 —2
4 ,
q .
y x

l og s m x l
fi
n
58 o
y 18 — lo g ( 1 — )
.

y x
1 i
. .

19 .
y COS
"
1 M .

5 3 co s x
y
i
( )
1 1
0 °
g _ l og
—
x
-—
t an 1
x
x 2
VZ LU
y e u lo g s in x
—a 2 x
lo g
.
2
( )
,
1 1
x x
“

.
y s ee
a

3/ 2 lo g 22 .
y z e ,
“
u log x . 7
1 f
”

1 —x 2 23 .
y z lo g S
Q -- ’
I e, s = se c x .

\/ 1 + x2 24 . x 3
+ y
3 —3 a xy = 0 .

x
y e c os x 2 2 3 3
.
25 . x y x y 0 .

() l
-1
y = v e rs o
26 . x 3
+ x = y + y3 .

x
27 xy
2
+ x
2
y — x + y
i sl
. .
£
14 3j = t a n
- l

n (2
.

3 + 5 co s x 28 .
y = si u u = lo g x
2
.

29 . For wh at v a u e s o f x l is t he f n
u c t io n an i n c re as i ng f n u c

t io n?

1
31 . S h w th
o at t he x -d e riv at iv e o f t an
“
1
c os x
1 8 n ot a f n u c t io n
1 + co s x
of x .

F ind t w h t p int f t h llip £

32 . a z a o s o e e se
2

5
2
1 t h e t a ge t n n c u t s o ff

e q l int pt
ua th e rce s on e ax e s .
a

33 F in d t h p in t t w h i h t h l p f t h
. e o s a c e s o e o e c u rv e y t an x is t wi ce

t h t f t h lin y
a o e e z: x .

3 4 F in d t h: n gl w h i h t h y i e a e c e c u rv e s s n x an d y co s x ma k e

w it h h th t t h i p int f int
e ac o ti er a e r o o e r se c on .
 C H A PT E R I II

S UCCE S S IV E D I FFER ENTIATION

35 . e
D fi n it ion erivat iv e W he
of n th d . n a
g i v e n f u n c tio n

y ¢ ( x ) is d i ffe e n t ia t erd wi t h r e g a r d t o x by t h e u l e s of
r

C hapter I t h e n t he es u lt
, r

is a n ew fu n c tio n o f x w hich m ay its e lf be d ifi e re n t iat e d by

t he s am e r u le s Th u s
.
,

d d
512 4 ( ) ) x
dx

The left -han d m e m b e is r us ua lly abbrevi ate d to

t he right -han d m e m be t o cl) r
’
( )
x ; t ha t is ,

D ifi e re n t iat in g a
g i
a n an d u s n
g a s i i m ilar n otatio n ,

3 4
c ( ) as ,

an d so on fo r an y n u m b e r of di f
fer e n ti atio n s . Thu s t he
z
du
s m bo l ex pre s s e s t hat y is t o be d iff e re n ti ate d wit h
y dx2

re ga rd t o x, a n d t h at t he r e s u lti n
g d e ri v a t ive is t h e n to be

dy3
d i ff e re n ti ate d S i m il a rl y, d i c a t es t he p e rfo rm an c e of
.

. in
3
011

52
C 11 1 1 1
. . S UC C E S S I VE D I FF E R E N TI A TI ON 53

d
t he op e a tio r n t hr e e t i m e s In g e n er al , t h e
d
,

ag
l
n

s ym b ol t hat y s m e an s 1 t o be d i f e f re n ti at e d n t l m es ln
dx ’'

s u c c e s s io wit h r ega r d to x
n .

Ex 1 . . If y = x 4
+ s in 2 x,

dy
4 x 3
+ 2 co s 2 x,
dx
2

n g
12 x2 4 s in 2 x,

3
d y
24 x 8 co s ,
3
dx
4
d y
24 + l 6 s in 2 x
“
.

dx

If a n im plimt equ a t io n b e t w e e n x n d y be give n an d t he a

d e riv ativ es o f y wit h r e ga d to x a re r e qu i e d it is n o t r r ,

n e c es s a r to s ol v e t he eq u atio n fo e it h e r v a ri able b e for e

y r

p e rfo m i n g t h e d i ffe r e n ti atio n

r .

2
Gi n
i4
3 C
E x 2 +y +4 ve = 0 ; fi
x d4 — 4
a x
2
n
. .
y
( x

)
4 2
( + 9 + 4
4
x a fey 0,
dx
d 4
d 2
d
x + y + 4 62 xy 0’
dx dx dx
dv dv
4 x3 4y 3 '

+ 4a
2
x + 4 a
2
y r: 0
dx dx

T he l as t e q u at io ni s n ow t o be s o lve d fo r
3 f
dy x a y
3 2
dx y a x
D iffe re t iat in g n a gain ,
54 DIFFERENTIAL CA L C UL US [ O H . 1 11 .

T he l
va ue o f 2 f ro m ( 1 ) is now t o be s ub s t it u t e d in t he l ast e q
u a
dx
t io n , an d t he re s u lt in g e x pres s io n s im p lifi ed . The fin l f a or m m ay be
w it t e
r n
“ “
)
2 3 3 4 4
d y 2
2 a xy
fi
10 a x y a ( /
r
c y 3 x
2 2
y (x 4
.+ y )

In i lk e ma nn h igh
er er d e rivat ive s m ay be f ndou .

36 . Ex pre s s wn for t h e
0

n t h d er1 v at1 v e 1 n c
0 0 O

ertai n cas es Fo r .

t i f u c ti n s a g e n e ral e x p e s s m n
c er a n n o ,
r fo r t he n t h d e riv a tive
c an be re a d il y obt a i n e d in ter m s of n .

Ex 1 . . Ify z c
"
, t hn e

wh e re n is an y po s it iv e n
i t e ge r . If y e
“
, We “

Ex 2 If s in x,
. .
y

Zg
— z c os x z s in
( g) -
x -I ,

cos
( x
( s in x

J
dx "
: s in
( 2

( g)
1
51 3
s in s in
"
a x, a a x -I- n
y
:

dx ”

EXE RC IS E S ON C H APT ER III

i
y
=
y 3 x4 + 5 x
2
+3 x 9 ; find s y z c
z
log x ; fi n d 2
( 133

d y a
d ?
y
y : 2 x
2
+ 3 x + 5; fi d
d x3
n y x
2
10 e x
“

,
fln d
dx 2

s
1 d y
.

y s ec
2
1: fin d
d f
! i .

5 ’
dx 3
dx 3

10 g s in ; find
_
find y _ x

ji fin
g 10 s in x c o s x
fin d s
.
y :
;
 35 S U C UE S S I VE D I F F E R E N TI A TI ON

4
d },
fin d “
19 y co s mx ; fi n d
dx

y z (I)
4
lo g x 2 .

,
d y
fi n d — —5
Clx
5
°

12

2
9
y _ sin x ; find 5
3 7
3
d r
= l find —
y og
( c + e
dx3
“ °

3
2z
d y
y = (x
2
3 x + 3) e ; find 3
dx

y : x
4
lo g x ; fi n d

y : fi n d ——
ZZ n
xy ; find

2
01
1 — 31
26 .
y _ xey ; find z dx

d z]! dy
27 sm x 2 +2 y= 0
Z
p ro v e
0
.
y _ e , .
z
dx dx

2
28 a x s in x ro v e x
z
d ?/ h
2x—
! C
y ; p
z _
.

2
dx dx

2
d y
"+ 1 2
( l) y
29 y ax p ro v e x
w n n

2 ’
-1 d y ay
s in ) 1
2 2
30 ( x
( x x
.
ro v e
.
, p
dx

prov e
dy
__

2
7x
1 —y2 33 .
y z x
n —1
lo g x ; fi nd

1
/ 32 .
y = ;
2 _
4 x 1

2
35 .
y x e
3
; p ro v e 2 e
x

; fi nd
36 z
.
y cos x

37 . F ro m th e l
re at io n pro ve t h at
 C H APT E R I V

EXPAN S ION OF F UNCT IONS

It is o m eti m e s n e c e s s a ry to e x p an d a g ive n fu n c tio n in a
s

s e ri e s of pow e r s of t he i d e p e n d e n t v a ri abl e n F or i n s t an c e .
,

in o d er to c o m p u t e an d t ab u l ate t h e s u cc e s s i v e n u m e i c al
r r

v al u e s of s in x fo r d i ff e e n t v al u e s of x it is c o n ve n i e t to
r , n

ha v e s in x d e v elop e d in a s erie s of po we r s of x with c o e ffi

c ie n t s i n d e pe n d e n t of x .

S i m pl e c as e s o f s u ch d e v e lop m e n t ha v e bee n m e t wit h in

al g e br a F or e x am pl e by t he bi n o m i al t he ore m
.
, ,

”( f —l)
i
n- 1
( )
n n n
a x a na x a
z
an d a
g a n, i by or di n ary d ivi s ion ,

2
( )
1 x

It is to be Ob s e rv e d how e v e that t he s erie s is a proper

, r,

r e p e s e n ta tiv e o f t he fu c tio n o n ly fo r v al u e s of x within a

r n

c e t a i n i n t e rv al
r F or i n s t an c e t he i de n tity in ( 1 ) ho l d s
.
,

onl for v al u e s of x be tw e e n a a d w h e n n is n o t a n a
y
po s itive i n te g e r ; a d t he i d e n tity in ( 2) ho l ds o ly fo
n n r

val u e s of x b e tw e e n 1 an d 1 I n e a c h o f t he s e e x .

am ple s if a fi n it e v al u e o u t s i d e o f t he s t a te d li m it s be g ive n
,

to x t he s u m of an i fi it e n u m b e r of t e r m s of t he s e i e s will
, n n r

be i n fi it e w hile t he f u n c tio n in t he fi r s t m e m ber will be

n ,

fin ite .
58 DIFFERENTIA L CA L C UL U S ( on . IV .

w h o s e c o m m o n ati o is 3 x is c o n v e g e n t or di v erg e n t
r , r

ac c o di 3 i m l l l r t t h it
g
r s x n
s n u ea c a
y e s s o
g e a e an u
y rl r . r n .

The c o n d it io fo c n v e g e n c e is n 1 3 x < 1 a d he n c e
r o r , n

t h e i t e v al of c o v e rg e n c e is b e tw e e n a d
n r n
g 4 n .

38 . en eral tes t for int erv al of convergen ce The follow

G .

in g s u m m a y o f al g e b ai c p i n c ipl e s le a ds u p to a t e s t t ha t
r r r

is s u ffi c i e n t to fi n d t he i ter v al of c o n ver g n c e fo a s e i e s o f
n
e r r

t he m o s t u s u al ki d t h at is a s e ie s c o n s i s ti g
n , f po s itiv e , r n o

i n t e g al p o w e s of x in w hi c h t he c oe ffi ci e n t o f x is a k n ow n
r r ,
"

f u n cti o o f n n .

1 . I f s is a v ariable t h at c o n ti n u all y i n c r e as e s wit h n bu t

,, ,

for all v al u e s of n r e m ai s l e s s t han s o m e fi x e d n u m b e h n r ,

t he n 8 appr o a che s s o m e d e fi n it e li m it n o t g e at e tha h

,
r r n .

[ T h i s f o ll o w s f o m t h e d e fi iti o r of a li m it
] n n

2 . If o e s e i es o f p o s iti v e t e r m s is k n ow n t be c o n ver
n r o

n t a n d if t he t e m s o f a o t he r s e rie s be po s iti v e an d l e s s
r n
g e ,

than t he c o rr e s p o n di g t e m s o f t he fi rs t s e i e s the n t he
n r r ,

latt e r s erie s is c o v e rge t [ Us e n n .

3 If a ft e r a g iv e n t e m t h e te m s of a s eri e s for m a
.
,
r ,
r

d e c re a s i n g g e o m e t i c p o g r e s s i o n t h e n
r r ,

a ) Th e s u c c e s s ive t e r m s a pproa ch n e a rer a n d n e a e r to

( r

z e o a s a li m it ;
r

6 Th m o f a ll t he ter m s appro ac h e s s o m e fi x e d c o n
( ) e s u

s t a t a s a li m it U s e m e t h o d of l as t a rti c l e ]
n
[ . .

4 I f t he t e r m s of a s e i e s be p o s itive an d if a ft e a giv e n
. r ,
r

t e m t he r a tio o f e a c h t e r m to t he p e c e d i g be l e s s t h a n a
r r n

fi x e d p o p e f ac ti o t he s e i e s is c o v e rg e t [ Us e 2 an d
r r r n, r n n .

5 I f t h e e be a s e e s A c o s i s ti n g o f a i n fi n it e u m b e r
. r r1 n n n

o f bot h po s itiv e a d e g a t ive t e r m s a n d if a ot h e

n n s e ri e s B ,
n r ,

o bt ai n e d t he e f o m by m ki n g all t h e t e r m s po s iti v e is
r r a ,

k n ow n to be c o n v e ge t t he n t he s eri e s A is c o n v e ge n t
r n ,
r .
37 EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS 59

F or po s iti v e t e m s o f A m u s t f o m a c o n ve ge n t s e i e s
t he r r r r ,

othe rwi s e t he s e i e s B c o u l d o t be c o n v e rge n t ; s i m il a ly

r n r

t he n e gativ e t e m s o f A m u s t f o r m a c o v e g e t s e ie s
r n r n r .

Le t t he s u ms o f t he s e c o n v e g e n t s e i e s be u a n d r Le t r v .

t he fi r s t n t e m s o f s e i e s A c
r t ai m p o s iti v e t e r m s a n d p
r on n

n e g ativ e t e m s rLe t Em . T S d e n o te t h e s u m o f t h e
,
p, ,

po s itive te m s t he s u m o f t he n e g at iv e te m s an d t he s u m
r , r ,

of all n t e m s r e s p e c tiv e ly The S = 2 m T

r . Now n n p
.

whe n n app oache s i fi ity m a n d p al s o app o ac h i n fi ity

r n n , r n

an d h e c e n

lim lim —v
Sn 5
Tp , .
7
1 00

T he r e fo re t he seri e s A is c o n v e rg e n t .

D E FIN ITI O N S . T he of a e al n u m b e r x is
a bs ol u te v a lu e r

it s n u m e i c l v al u e t ak e p o s itiv e l y a d is writt e n Ix I The

r a n , n .

e q u ati o n |x | a l i d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f x is
n

e q u al t o t he a b s o l u t e v al u e of a W he n h o w e ve x an d a .
, r,

a e repl a ce d by l o n g e
r e x p e s s io n s it is c o v e n i e n t to w ite
r r , n r

t he rel a t io n in t he f o r m x l a in w hi c h t he s m bol i
y , s

r ead e q u al s in ab s ol u t e v al u e
“
In like m n e t h e s ym .
”
a n r,

b ol s will be u s e d to i di c at e t hat t he e x pr e s s io n o nn

t he l e ft ha s r e s pe c tiv l y a s m aller o l a rge r n u m e r ic al v al u e

e , r ,

than t he o n e o n t h e righ t .

An y s e r ie s o f t e r m s is s ai d t o be a bs olu t e ly a n co or n

d i t i o a l ly c o n v e ge n t w h e n t h e s eri e s for m e d by t h e i a b o
n r r s

l u te v al u e s is c o n v e r ge t W he n a s e ri e s is c o n v e ge n t bu t
n . r ,

t h e s e ri e s for m e d by m aki n g e ach term p os iti e i ot . v s n

con ve r e n t t h fi r t erie i ai d to b e c on d i t io a l ly
g , e s s s s s n

c o n v e rge t n .

Th e app ro priat e n es s o f t his t erm i n ol ogy is du e t o th e f ac t t h at t h e t erm s Of

an a bs olu t e ly c o n ve rge nt s e rie s c an be ng d i
re arra e n a n y w ay, w it h ou t alt e ri ng
t h e lim it o f t he s u m o f t h e s e ries ; an d t h t t hi i a s s n ot t ru e of a co n d it i n o ally
60 D IFFERENTIA L C AL C UL US [ CH . Iv .

E g . .
,
t he s e rie s is abs o l u t e ly co n v e rge nt ; bu t t he

s e rie s
} 5 1 n4 di t i n lly n g nt is co o a co ve r e .

6 I f t h e e be
.
y s e ri e sr o f t e r m s i w h i
an
c h a f t e s o m e fi xed n r

t e m t he at i o o f e a ch t e rm t o t he p e c e d i g is n u m e i c ally
r r r n r

l e s s t ha a fi x e d p o p e r f ac ti o n ; th en
n r r ,

( )
a t h e s u c c e s s i v e t e m s of t he s e i es app o ach e ar e r r r r n

a d ne
n er t o e o a s a li m it ;
ar z r

b
( ) t he s um o f a ll t h e t e rm s
’
f
a p p o ac h e s s o m e fix e d c on

s ant t as a li m it ; an d t he s er es i is a b s ol u t e l y c o n v e rge n t .

[ Us e 3, 4,

Ex 1 . . F in d t h i n t e e rv a l o f co n ve rge n ce o f t h e s e rie s

1 + 2 o 2 x + 3 -4 x2 + 4 -8 x
3
+ 5 -l6 x
4
+

H e re t he n t h t e rm an is n 2 n —1
x
n ‘
4
,
an d t he (n + 1 ) s t te rm an .
“ is
(n 1) 2 n x ", hn e ce
.

( n 1) 2 7‘
x
"
( n 11:

t he re f o re wh en n 00 ,

It f llo o ws by ( 6 ) t a t t he s e rie s is h l ly
ab s o u t e c o nve rge n t wh n e

1 < 2 x < h
1 , a n d t at t he i t e rv a o f c o n l n gn i
ve r e ce s be t w n
ee 5 an d

5 . T he se ries is e v ide nt ly n ot co n ve r g n t
e w h en x ha s e it h e r of t he
e x t re m e v a u e s l .

Ex 2 . . F in d t h int e e rv a l o f co n ve rge n c e o f t h e s e ries

x x3 x 5
x7
2n - 1
( 2 n _ 1) 3

2
un + 1 2 n l x
2"+ 1
2 n 1 a
n

un

2
x
hn e ce
u

un 3 2
wh n e n

co n nt
v e rge s e r1es T h us th e n u m e ri c al valu e o f th e s e r1 es
1 — 1 --
I
1
E fi g
.

I é

is in d p n d n t e e e of the o rd e r
gr ou pi g b u t t h e valu e o f t h e s erie s
or n
1 4 i can b e m a d e e q u al t o an y u m b e r w at e ve r by s u it able n h
re arra ng em e nt .
[ F o r a s im p le pro o ,
s ee O s go o d , p p 4 3 ,f .
3 8 -3 9 . EXPANS ION OF FUNCTIONS 61

2
h l ly n nt w h wh n
g
t us t he s e rie s is ab s o u t e co ve rge en —< 1, i e . .
,
e 3 x 3,
2

an d n
t he i t e rv a l o f co n gnve r e ce is f ro m 3 to 3 . The e x t re m e v a u e s l
o f x, in t he pre s e t n nd
c a s e , re er t he s e rie s c o n d it i n lly n
o a co ve r
g n t e .

Ah
1 x 1 x
3
1 x 5
l x 7
Ex 3 . S h ow t ha t t he s e r1 e s +
32 3 52 37 3 2

h as t he s am e n
i t e rva l o f co n v e rge n ce as t he la s t ; bu t t a t t h e e x t re m e
l
v a u e s o f x re nd er t he s e rie s ab s o u t e l ly n co ver
ge nt .

39 e a er aft er t er m s The l as t arti cle t e at e d

. R m in d n . r

of t h e i t e v l o f c o v e g e c e o f a iv eri wi t h ou t
n r a
g e s n e s r n n

re fe e c e t o t h e q u e s t o
r n w het he o o t it w as t he d e v e lop
1 n r r n

m e t o f a y k n o w n f u c ti o n
n n O t h e o t h e r h an d t he s e ri e s
n . n ,

that pr e s e t t he m s e l v e s in th i s c hapt e r are t he d e ve lop m e t s

n n

of
g i v en f u c t io s a d t he fi s t
n q u e s ti o n
n , t h at
n a ri s e s i s r

c on c e n i n t h o v l u es o f x fo w h i c h t he f u n c ti o i
g r s e a s r n

e qu iv al e n t t o it s d e v e lop m en t .

W he n a s e i e s h s s uch a g e e ati g f u n c ti o n t he d i ffe r

r a n r n ,

e e b e tw e e
nc t h e v l u e Of t h e f u c ti o n a n d t h e s u m o f t he
n a n

fi s t n t e m s o f it s d e e l o pm e t is c all e d t he m i d
r r v n re a n er

a ft ert m n T hu s if f ( x ) b e t he f u n c ti o
er s . S ( x) t h n, n
e

su m o f t he fi st t e rm s of t h e s e i e s an d R ( x ) t he
r n r , n

r e m ai n de r o b t i e d by s u btr ac ti n g S ( x) fr o m f ( x) t he n
a n n ,

in w hi ch S ( x ) n , R n ( x) a re f u c ti o n s
n o f n as well as o f x .

“m m
$ 00
R, ( ) x 0, t he n
” 1m S n ( x)

thu s t he li m it of t he s e ri e s S ( x) is t he g e e ati n g f u n c tio n n

n r

w he n t he li m it o f t h e r e m ai de s z e r o F r e q u e n t ly t his n r 1 .

1m
is a s u ffi c i e t t e s t fo r t he c o n e r ge n c e of a s i e s 1
n S ( )
x v er
m
.
n

If a s e i e s p o c e e d in in t e gr al powe s o f x
r r t he p re r a,

c e di n c o d iti to b m o d i fi d b u b s tit u t i
g s a en e on e y s r
g x a n

fo r x ; o t he rw 1 e e a ch c rit e rio n is t o b e ppli e d a s b e f o

’

s a re .
62 D IFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US [ C m I V .

40 . M aclaurin a a fun ct ion in a

’
s ex p n s ion of po wer-s eries .
"
e

I t will n o w be s h o w n t ha t ll t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s of f u n c t i o n s
a

in pow e r -s erie s g ive n in a l g e br a an d t ig o n o m e try are bu t r

s p e c i al c as e s of o n e e er al f o r m u l a of e x p a n s io n
g n .

I t is p opo s e d to fi n d a fo r m u la fo t he e x pan s io n in
r r ,

as ce d i p o s itive i n t e g r al pow e s o f x of a i e d
n
gn a a n
y s s g n r ,

f u n ctio n whi c h with it s s u cc e s s ive d eriv ative s is c o n ti n u o u s

, ,

in t he vi c i n it y of t he v al u e x a .

T h e p eli m i n a ry i n v es ti g ati on will p o c e e d o n t he hypot he

r r

s is t h a t t he as s i gn e d f u n c tio n f( x h as s u c h a d evel o p m e n t
) ,

an d t h a t t h e l att e r c a n be tr e a t e d a s i de n ti cal with t he

for m er for all v al u e s of x withi n a c e tai n i n te rv al of e qu iv a r

le n c e th at i n cl u d e s t he v al u e x a Fro m thi s hyp o thes i s .

t h e c oe ffi c i e n t s of t h e d iffer e n t pow e r s of x a w ill be d e

t e rm in e d .It will t h e n r e m ai n to t e s t t he v ali d ityo f t h e

r e s u lt by fi n din g t he c o n diti o n s that m u s t be fu l fille d in
.
,

or d e r t hat t he s erie s s o obt ai n e d m ay be a proper rep e s e n t a r

tio n of t he ge n era ti n g f u n c tio n .

L et t he as s u m e d i de n tity be
f( ) x -
3 A E (x a
) + 0 (x a )
2
D (x a)
3

E ( x a)
4 m
,
1
( )
in wh i c h A B 0 a re u n de ter m i n e d c oe f
, , fi c ie n t s in de pe n
den t o f x .

S u cc e s s ive difi e re n t iat io n with re ga r d to x s u pplie s t he

foll o wi n g a dd iti o n al i de n t iti e s o n t he hypothe s i s that t he ,

d eriv ati v e of e a c h s e i e s c a n be obt ai n e d by d ifi e re n t iat in g

r

it t e m by te r m an d that it has s o m e i n terv al of equ iv ale n c e

r ,

with it s c orr e s po n di n g f u n c ti on
* N am ed a ft er C oli n M aclau ri n ( 1 6 9 8 wh o pu blis ed it in his h
“
Tre at is e on Flu x io n s
”
n
b u t h e d is t i c t ly s ays it wa s o by k n wn
n
S t irli g ( 1 6 9 0—1 7 7 wh o als o p u b lis h
e d it in h is M e t h o d u s D if
f e re n t ialis

an d by Taylor ( s ee Art .
 EXP ANSION OF FUNCTION S 63

—a + 3 D (x 7 2
4 E (x
) a ) +
”
20 3 -2D — 43 3 —
E (x a) +
f ( ) x + ( x a )
z m

3 2D 4 -3 -2 E —
.
+ ( x a
)

I f, n o w, t he pe c i al val u e
s a be g i v e n t o x, the followi n g
eq u ati o ns will be obt ai n e d :

f< > a = A, B . 2 0, 3

He n ce ,

0
f
Th u s t h e o e ffi c ie ts
c n in 1
( ) a re d e t e rm i n ed , an d t he re

q u ire d d e v e l o p m e t is n

3
f < w> (w (w a >
(n )
f (a ) w ”

n !
( a )

T hi s i is k o w n as M a c l a u ri n s i
s e r e s , an d t he t h e o
’
s er es n

re m e x p re s s e d in t h e f o r m u l a is ca lle d M a clau rin

’
s t he o re m .

Ex 1 . . n
Expa d lo g x in po we rs of x a .

H e re f< > x lo g x , f( )
’
x
i ,
”
f ( ) x

H e n ce ,
”
f (a ) f (a )

an d , by t he re q u ire d d e ve lo pm e t is n
1 —a
lo g x : lo g a + --
( x
) ( x
3 a 3
a
64 DIFFERENTIAL CAL CUL U s [ C m I V .

The co n dit i n f o or t he co n v e rge n ce o f t his s e rie s is

1) “ 1
(
n
n (x na

9” a
|< 1.

O< x < 2a .

T is h s e rie s m ay b e ca ll ed t h e d e ve lop men t of log x in t he vic in it

y 1 0
”

x z a . I t s d e ve lo p m e t i n t he n v ic i n it y of x z 1 h a s t he s im p e r l f o rm

lo g x : x —1

w h i h h ld
c o s fo r l
v a u es of x be t w n ee 0 an d 2 .

Ex 2 . . S h w tho at t he d e v e lo pm e t n of
i in po w e rs o f x a is

1 1 — 1 1 —a) 2- 1 —
)
3
(x ( x a +
x a p a
an d t h at t he se rie s is co n v e rge nt f ro m x z 0 to x z2 a .

Ex . 3 . D ev e op l e
m
in po w e rs o f x 2

Ex 4 . . D ev e l op x3 2 x
2
5 x 7 in p o w er s o f x 1 .

Ex 5 . . D ev e l op 3y ?
14 y 7 in po w e rs o f y 3 .

The ex p an s io n of
f u n c ti o n f( x ) i a s e ri e s of as c e n di n g
a n

pow e s o f x c an be o bt i n e d a t o n c e f o m for m u l a ( 2) by
r a r

g ivi n
g a t he p a rti c u l r v al u e z e r o T h e s e ie s t h e n be c o m e s
a . r

(n ) n
f
H
0
23
9”
-+
7
(3 )

Ex 6 . . E x pa d n s in x in po we rs o f x, a n d fi n d t he i t e rv a n l o f co n ver

ge n ce o f t he s e rie s .

H e re f( x)
f ( x)
’
co s x ,
66 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL Us ( On IV . .

As a s pe c ia l c as e , p u t a e .

T hn
e lo g a lo g e 1,

x 1
x 2
i
3

i
n

f
e : . 0 0 0 0 0 .

T h e s e s e rie s are co n ve rge nt f o r e ve r

y fin it e v al u e o f x.

41 . T y a lor
erie s If a f u c ti o n of t h e s u m of two n u m
’
s s . n

b e s a a d x be give n f( a x ) it is frequ e n tly d e s ir abl e t o

r n , ,

e x p an d t he f u n c tio n in powe s of o e of t he m s ay x r n , .

I n t h e f u n c tio n f( a x ) a is to be e g a r d e d a s c o n s t an t , r ,

s o t h at c o s i d e r e d a s a f u n c tio n of x it m ay be e x p an d e d by
, n ,

fo m u l a ( 3 ) of t he pre c e di g arti c le In t hat f o m u l a t he

r n . r ,

c o n s t a n t t e m in t h e e x p an s io n is t h e v a l u e w hi c h t h e f u c
r n

ti o has w he x is m ad e e q u al to e ro he c e t he fi s t t e m
n n z , n r r

in t he e x p an s io n of f( a x) m ay be w itt e n f( a ) I n t he r .

s a m e m a n n er t h e c o e f fi c i e n t s of t he s u c c e s s i v e p o w e s of x r

are t h e c o rre s po n di n g d e iv ativ e s of f( a + x ) a s to x i r , n

whi ch x is pu t e q u al to e ro aft e r t he d iffe r e n ti ati o n h as z

be e n perfo m e d The e x p an s io n m ay t h e e fo e be writte n

r . r r

u (n )

T hi s se ri e s f , ro m t he n am e of i s c v e r e is k n o w n as
it s d o r,

Ta ylor
’
s s e r i es , a n d th eor e m t he e xp e s s e d b
yrt h e for m u la i s

k n own as T ayl o r s t h eore m

’
.

Ex . E xpa d n s in
( a x ) in p o w e rs o f x .

H e re
f( a x ) s in (a x) ,

hn
e ce f( ) a

f( )
’
an d a c os a ,

H e n c e s in s in a -x si n a 2 cos a 3
( a + x ) + c os a
2!
x
3 ,
x +
 EXP AN SION OF FUNCTIONS
”

“M 67
y
3
1

y
J
“
E X E RC IS ES

1 . Ex pa d t an n x in p o we rs of x .

2 Co m p are t h e e xp a s io
. n n of t an x w it h t he q u o t ie nt d e rive d
n
d iv id i g t he s e ries fo r s in x by t h at fo r cos x .

S ee E x s 6 . an d 7 , Ar t 40 . .

x2 x4
fi
siu x
3 . Pro ve lo g
x 6 1 80

4 . Prove —x $8 3
2 -4 5
2
2 x“ 6
-7 2 x8
O

V 5 . Prove lo g co s x
4 ! 81

n n kn n nt i l
6 . E x pa d
1 :
f x
by d ivis io , ma i g u s e o f t he e x o
p e a s e r ie s .

7 F in d t h p n i n f l g ( 1
. e ex a s o o e
x
o x ) to t h e te r m in v o v i l n
g x , by
5

mu lt iplyin g t g t h ffi i nt n m b
o e er a su c e u e r o f t e rm s o f t h e ri
s e e s fo e a n d
r
ac

for log ( 1 x ) .

V 8 . E x pa d n x
2
in po w e rs o f x.

nd
i w
x
V 9 . E x pa in po e rs o f x .

10 . Arra ge ( 3 n x )
4 x 3 ) x ) 2
( 3 x ) 2 in po w ers

of x .

42 . e c e s s ary re s tri c tio n i m po s e d u po n t he s erie s s o

A n

t hat it m ay be a c o e c t r e pr e s e n t ative of t he ge n e ati n g rr r

f u n c t i o n i s t hat t he re m ai n d er a fte n t e rm s m ay be m ad e
,
“

s m all e r t h an an y g i v e n n u m b e r by t aki n g it l a r e e n o u h
g g .

B e f o e d e i v i n g t h e g e n er al for m for t hi s re m a i n d er it is
r r

n e ce s s a
y t o pr
r o e t h e f o ll o wi
g t hve o re m n .

R ol l e s t h e o e m I f f( x ) an d it s fi r s t d e iv ati v e a re c o n
’
r . r

t i u o u s fo all v al u e s of x b e tw e e n a a d b a n d if
n r n ,

both v an i s h the n f ( x ) will van is h fo s o m e v al u e of x be

,
’
r

twe e a an d 6 n .

B y s u ppo s iti o f( x) c an n ot be c o m e i n fi n it e fo r a n y v al u e
n

of x s u ch that a x b If f ( x ) d o e s n o t a i s h it m u s t
, .
’
v n ,

al wa s be p os itive o lw be t e t
y a a
y s n e
g a v ; h e c erf( )
x m u s i n ,
68 DIFFERENTIAL CAL CUL Us [ CE W .

co n ti nua lly i c re as e or c o n ti n u ally

n d e c re as e as x i n c r e as e s
fro m a to 6 ( Art .

Th is is im p o s s ibl e
i e by hypothe s e s f ( a ) 0 an d
, s nc

f( )b = 0 ; h e n c e t s o m e poi n t
, x betw
a e e n a a d 6 f( ) u s t
x m n ,

c e a s e t o i n c r e a s e an d be gi n to d e c r e as e or c eas e to d e c rea s e ,

an d b e i n to i n c r e as e
g .

T hi s p o i t x is d e fi n e d by t he e qu atio n f ( x)
n 0 .

T o p ove t h e s am e t hi g g e o m e t i c all y le t y = f( x) be
r n r ,

t he e q u atio n o f a c o n ti n u o u s

c u rv e w hi c h c ro s s e s t h e x a x i s ,
-

at di s t an c e s x = x x = b fro m t h e ,

o ri i n T h t m p i t P
g e n a s o e o n .

b e tw e e n a an d b t he t an ge n t to
t h e c u rve is p a r all e l to t h e
F 12 I G. .

x ax i s
- s in ce by s u pp o s itio n ,

there is n o di s c o ti n u ity in t h e s lope of t he t an ge n t He n c e

n .

a t t h e poi t P n

QL — fr( rv) — 0
.

dx

43 . Fo m r e m a in der in M aclaurin s s erie s

of r L et t he ’
.

r e m ai d n ft e it t e m s be d e n ot e d by R ( x a ) whi c h is
er a r r n , ,

a f u n c ti o n of x a d a a s well as of n n S i c e e a ch of t he . n

s u c c e e d i n g t e r m s is d ivi s ibl e by ( x R m ay be c on n

v e n ie n t ly writte n in t h e for m

R m . a ) w , a ) .

Th e p oble m
r is n ow to d et e r m i n e gb( x , a ) so that t he

re al ti o n

fo ) e =
f< > a a ) ( a: a
?
) 3
42 EXPANSION OF FUN C TION S 69

m ay be lg ebrai c i de n tity in whi c h t he

an a ,
r i g t h an d m e m
h -

be r c o t ai n s o n l y t h e fi s t it t er m s o f t he
n r s e ri e s , wit h t h e

re m ai n der a f t e n t e r m s Thu s by t an s po s i n g
r .
, r ,

—
f< > f< >
x a a > a )

{ i
Z j i z
( ”
f — a) ( 93 — 4
”
5 0

L et a n ew fu n c tio n, F ( z ) , be d e fi n e d as foll o w s

F e) fl ) —f < z > >

2
E x z
) ( x z

M ( x z )
95 0“ a )
( x 3
( )
( ii

Th i s f u n c tio n F ( ) v an i s he s z a s is s e e n b
y
i s p e c tio n a d it al s o van i s h es
n ,
n s i c e it t h e n n

b e c o m es i de n ti c al with t he l e ft -ban be r o f he c e n ,

by R o ll e s t heore m it s d e i v a tive F ( z ) v a n i s h e s for s o m e ’

’
, r

v al u e of 2: b e tw e e n x a d s y z l B u t n a, a .

we z
) z )
n —1 ¢( x, a ) —z
z
) +
r >
(
The s e te rm s c an c e l e a ch othe r in p airs e x c e pt t he l as t
two ; he n c e

f ;
(
F < z
> =
j } [w a >

Sin ce I ( z ) "
v an is he s w he z n z
l , it follows t hat
w . a )
Inth i s e x p e s s i o n
r 2
1
lie s be tw e e n x an d a , a n d

be r e pre s e n te d by
a 9 (x a
) ,
70 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL Us [ C m I V .

w he re 0 is a p o s it iv e p op e f r r ra c t io n . H en ce f ro m 4
( )
w , a
) 9c a
n ,

M
M
n )
R n ( x, a ) ( 3: a >
n
j e

Th e c o m pl e t e f o rm of t h e e x pan s io n of f ( x ) is th en
a ) £ 2
1 (a: a )
2
21

—
<w a>
”

W (a:

in w hi ch n is a y pos iti v e i t e ge n T he s e i e s m ay be c ar n r. r

ri e d to an y d e s i e d u m b e r o f t e r m s by i c e as i g n an d t he
r n n r n ,

las t te m in ( 5 ) giv e s t he r e m ai n d e ( o e o r ) aft e r t he fi s t

r r r rr r

i t t e r m s of t h e s e i e s Th e s ym b o l r 9 (x
. a ) ) i n di

c at e s t h a t f ( x ) is to be d iffe e n ti at e d n t im e s wit h re gar d to r

x a d t h at x is t h e n t o be r e pl a c e d b 9
, n
y a
( x a )

44 . An ot h er ex p re s s ion for t he re m a in der . I n s tead o f pu t

ti n g R n ( x, a ) in t h e for m

it !

it is,
s o m eti m e s con v e n i e n t to write it
R , ( x, a
) ( x a ) I( «f x, a ) .

Pro c e e d i n g as befo re , t he e x pre s s io n fo r E "

( )zwill be
E ’
( )
x M ( x l(
« r x, a ) .

x —z
in wh i ch a + 0 (x — a ) ( x — d ) ( l — 9 )
, 1

h f m f th
T is or o e re m ai nd er was f ndou by L agra ge ( 1 7 3 6 n wh o
pu bli h d it i t h M é
s e n e n oires
x d e l Acad émie
’
n
d e s S cie c es a B erli n ,
1 772 .
 EXPA NSION OF FUNC TIONS 71

“) 9 013
H en ce f ( a a
1 9)
—
l —1
) ( ( o
i n n
a x d
( n 1) l ,

—1 M 0
n

Z
“
an d R ,, ( x , a
) ( 1 0) n

( x a )
—
(
An e x am pl e
of thi s f o r m of r e m ai n d e
of t he u se r is fu r
h is he d b t h e s e i e s fo r l o i pow r f w h
y g x e s o r
x a e n , n x a

is n e gative an d al s o in t h e e x p an s io n o f ( a
, x)
“

1 . F in d t he i t e rva n l of e q u iv a e ln ce for t he d e v e l o pm e nt of lo g x in
p o w e rs o f x a, wh n e a is a po s it i nve u m be r.

H e re , f ro m Art 40, E x 1 ,
. .

n
n—
——
—L
l i
x ’
xn

hen ce 9 07
fi
")
fl ( a “ Db l ’

£ —a
x
:
i
n
x
a,n d, by Art 43 , Rn ( ’ a )l 2 _ _ .

x a )
Fi rst le t x a be p o s it iv e . T h n wh
e en it li es be t w n ee 0 an d a it i s
n m i lly l
u er c a e ss t h n a a 0 (x a) in
, s ce 0 is a p os it ive p p
r o e r f ra c t io n;
h n wh n
e ce e n i 00

Agai n wh n
, e x a is n e gat iv e an d n u m e ric a ll
y le s s t ha n a, t he s ec o nd
f o rm o f t he re m a i nd er m u s t be e mp o ed
y l . As bef ore,

f (M a G ag —a

hn e ce Rn ( x, a )| K1 0) n_

—1
l

m x a

e) u

— 0 (a
[ a

M A M0 “ l

f a — 0 a —x
( )
°

a - t9 a
( —av)

h f
T is orm o f th e re m ai nd er was f n d by C
ou au c hy ( 1 789 an d fi rs t

pu bli h d i
s e n h is L e co n s s ur le c alc u l in fin it és im al ,
”
1 82 6 .
72 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US [C m IV .

The f ac t o r w it h in
n m t he bra c k ets is u e rica lly l es s t h n
a 1, hn e ce t he

( n 1 ) t p w s b mo d l t h n
e r c an e a e es s a an
y give n n u m be r, by t a i g kn
n l g ar n g h T h i i t f ll l
e e ou . s s ru e or a va ue s o f x be t w n0ee an d a .

Th f lg
e re o re , d it d l pm nt i
o x an s ev e o e n po w e rs of x a a re e qu iva

l n t w it h in t h in t l f n g n
e e e rv a o co ve r e ce of t he se rie s , t h at is, fo r all

l
va u e s o f b tw n 0 x d 2 e ee an a .

E Sh w t h t t h d l pm n t f i in po s it iv e po w e rs of x
'

2x . . o a e eve o e o x a

h ld f ll l
o s or a f th t m k th
v a ue s o x a a e e se rie s co n ve r
ge nt ; t h at is , wh n e

x li b t w n 0 d 2
es e ee an a .

If t h e f u n c ti on is e x pan d e d in powers o f x, t he c o m plete

fo rm will be
M O)
a
s
?

0” 9x
f
+
” g
t he fi r s t f o r m of r e m ai n d e r , an d

f( rv)

for t he s econ d form of r e m ai n d er .

S i m il a rl y, t h e c o m pl e t e for m of T aylor ri es ( Art 41 )

’
s se .

be co m es
fl “ 50
)

fo r t he fi rs t for m of re m ai n d e r , an d

f “ ) x2
f( a 93
) =
f( i a

( 1 w ”
< 4)

fo r t h e s e co n d for m of r e m ai n d er .
74 DIFFERENTIA L CALCUL US [ C I-
I IV . .

T he f
)
act or

n ly nity
n
h n n ity b t i 1 is e q l ua to or
gre a t er t a u , u n

t h l tt
e a b m m
e r c as e d m ec o es in o re a n o re ea r u as n c re ase s .

Th f t m i lly l th n 1 f l w
n
e
i9 ac o r
a
y
x
IS n u f h e r ca ess a or an va ue o n en

x i gi n
s y ve l b t w n an d T h
va u e p d t ie t h fee z e ro an a . e ro uc s e re o re

g t t h
re a e rn n it y f l a f l
u t h n m fi it n m b
o r v a ues o N b t it es s a so e n e u er , u

l th n
e ss n ity f l
a u f g t t h n N T h n i
or va u es o t h m w y n re a e r a . e , n e sa e a

as f th por d in g e re ce cas e ,

B N+ I k R N,

RN+ 2 k RN+ l 2
k R N9

w hi h c R N is a fin it n e u m be r a n d k a pro pe r f ract io n . H e n ce

“m
n i ce
R m , (1
) 0

fo r e ve ry v a ue o f m , l p ro v id e d x li es be t w n0 ee an d a .

Si n ce n
t he i t e r v a l of c o n ve r
ge n ce is , by Art 3 8 , . f ro m x a to x a,

it re m ai n s to ex am i n e t he v a ue l of R n ( x, a ) wh n e x li es bet w n ee 0
an d a . h
Fo r t is p u rpo s e it is n e ces s ary to u se t he s e co nd f m or of

n
re m a i de r , ic m ay be wh h
rit t e , w n
fi —
W
" t
R n ( x, a
) x a (

1 e
wh n x i n l h n n “

B ut e __ s e gat iv e an d e ss t a 1 , t he e xpres s io is a
a x
1+0
a

o
p p
r e r f rac t io n hn , e ce it s ( n l ) s t po w e r appro aches z e ro as a lim it .

M
-1

nM
(y i f
c
Th e e x pre s s io is m ad e u p of n 1 a ct o rs

( n 1) l a

m— k
of t he f o rm
x
e ac h f w h i h i fin it d wh n k i
o c s e an ,
e s su f
fi cie n tly
k a
l a rge , is n u m e ric a y e s s ll l th n 1 ; h n
a t h l im it f th nt i
e ce e o e e re p ro du ct

is z e ro . h f
T e re o re
R n ( x, a ) i 0, wh n e n i 00 ,

if x lie s be t w n ee a an d a .

T h f f
e re o re , or va u es ofxl w it h in t h i int s e rv a l th f n e u ct io n( a x)
“
an d

it s ex p n i n a s o a re e q u iv a e l nt .
 EXP ANSIO N OF FUNCTIONS 75

45 e ore m of m ea n val ue Le t f( x) be a c o n ti n u o u s
. Th .

f u c tio f x w hi ch has a d e i v ative It can t he n be re pre

n n o r .

s e t e d by t h e or d i n at es of a c u rve
n

w h o s e e q u atio is y n

I n Fig 1 3 , le t .

x GIV, x h OR ,

f( ) x = N fl lv -
l B K

T he n k — MK an d
f( x + ) f( )
x

t an M H If ,
FI G 1 3
. .

h HM

B o m e p o i t S b e tw e e H a d K t he t a ge n t to t he
u t at s n n n n

c u rv e is p a r allel to t h e s e c an t H K S i e t he ab s c i s s a of S nc

is g r e at e t han x an d l e s s th an x
r b it m ay be epr e s e n t e d r

by x 9 k m w hi c h 9 is a po s itive n u m b e r l e s s t han u n it y
,
.

The s lope of t he ta n ge n t at S is t h e n e x pre s s e d by

he n ce

from whi ch
fo r
: h) = f< > x hf '
( fv on

T he theor e m e xpre s s e d by t hi s for m u la is k n ow n as t he

t h e or e m o f m e a n v a lu e .

T he t h e o re m of mea n va u e l c an a sol be e s t ab li h s ed f ro m l
Tay or
’
s

t h e o re m by pu t t in g it 1 in e q u at io n (3 ) of Art 44 . .

X
E ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER IV

1 . E xp a d n (
cos x h) in po w e rs o f k .

2 . E x pa nd t ( an x h) in po w e rs o fx .

P 3 . By ex p n d in g
a co s x
( + h) in po e rs o f o n e w of it s v a riab e s , l p ve
ro

t he t h e o re m co s
(x h) co s x c os b s in x s in h .

4 . n
E xp a d lo g ( x h) by T ay o r l ’
s t h eore m in p o w e rs o f h .

5 . E x pa nd ( x y)
5
in po w e rs o f
y .
 DIFFER ENTIAL CA L C UL US [Cm IV 4 5
. .

x x2 x
4
6 . Pro ve log ( 1 ”
e ) log 2
2 3 -4 1

l l 1
I 7 Pro ve lo g
x

x —l
.

x - l 2 (x -l
)
2
3 (x

2 4

{2
8 . Pro ve 1 +R .

9 . If )
x , h
p ro v e t at t he e x pa s io n n of f( x) in p o we rs o f x
w ill n t in nly
co a o e ve n p o w e rs o f x, as c o s x V 1 , x ; if
2
f ( x) —f ( —x ) ,

t he e x pa nin
s o of f( )
x w ill in l vo v e o nly odd po w e rs o f x , as s in x, t an x,

x
2
1 x

10 . S h w th
o at in t h e e x pa n i nf
s o o r s in x in po w e rs o f x,

lirn
0 .
 C H A PT E R V

I ND ETER M INATE F OR M S
46 . H it he rto t h e
l of a gi v e n fu n c ti o f( x) c o rre
va ues n ,

s p o d in g to a s s i g n e d v a l u e s of t h e v a ri abl e x
n have bee n ,

obta i e d by d ir e ct s u b s tit u ti o n T he f u n c tio n m ay h ow l

n .
,

e ve r,i n v ol v e t he v a iabl e in s u c h a w ay that fo r c e rta i n

r

val u e s of t he l att e r t he c o r e s po n di n g v al u e s of t he f u n c tio n

r

c an n ot be f o u n d by m e e s u b s tit u tio nr .

Fo r e x am pl e t he f un c tio n
,

x -x
e e

s in x

fo r t he v al u e x= 0, as s u m e s t he form
8
, an d t he c orre s po n d
in g v al u e of t he f u n c ti on is t hu s n ot d ire c tl y d et e r m i n e d
‘

In suc h a c as e t h e e x p e s s i o n
r for t he fu n c t io n is s ai d to
as s u m e an i n d e t e rm in a t e form fo t he a s s ig n e d val u e of t h e
r

v a ri abl e .

T he e x a m pl e j u s t g i v e n ill u s tr ate s t he i n d e ter m i n ate n e s s

of m o s t fre qu e n t o c c u rr e n c e ; n a m ely that in w h i ch t he ,

g iv e n f u n c t io n is t he q u otie n t of two ot h er f u n c tio n s th at

v a n i s h for t he s am e v al u e of t he v a ri able .

Thu s if f( ) x

an d if w he n x t ake s t he s pe ci al
, va u l e a, t he fu n c tio n s ¢ ( x )
an d both va n i s h t he n ,

M ) a 0
f( a
M a) 0

isi n de term i n at e in form an d c an n o t be re n d er e d d et e r m i n ate

,

witho u t f u rther tra n s f r m ati o o n .

77
78 DIFFE RENTIAL CALCUL Us [Cm v .

47 . eter m in at e for m s may h ave determin ate val ue s

In d .

A c as e h s alr e ad y b e e n o ti c e d ( A t 9 ) in w hi ch an e x
a n r .

0
p e s s i on that as s u m e s t he f rm fo a c e rtai v alu e o f it s
r o r n
0
var i abl e t ak e s a d e fi it e v alu e d e pe n de n t u p on t he l w of
n , a

v ri a t io
a o f t h e f u n c ti o n
n in t h e vi c i n ity of t h e as s i gn e d
v al u e of t h e v a i a ble r .

As an o th e r e x am ple c o s i d e r t h e f u n c tio n , n

2 2
x a

x — a

I f th i s r e l atio n b e twe en x an d y be w itt e n

r in t h e form s
— a> z — 2 — a> —x
i < x = z a , < x <y
it will be s e en t ha t it c an be pr e s e n t e d
re
g ra p hi cally , as in
t he fi gu r e ( Fig . by t h e p ai of li n e s
r

x —a z 0,
—x —a = 0
y .

w he x has t h e v al u e o f a t here
H e n ce n

is a n i n d e fi it e u m b e of c o e s p o n d i n g n n r rr

poi n t s o t h e l o cu s all s it u at e d o n t he
n ,

li e x a ; a d ac c or di gl y fo t hi s
n n n r

val u e of x t h e f u n c tio y m ay h av e an y v al u e w hatever an d

n ,

is th e efo e i d e t e m i a t e
r r n r n .

W he n x has a y v al u e d i ff e r e n t f o m a t he c o re s po n di g
n r ,
r n

v a l u e of y is d e t e m i e d f o m t h e e q u ati o n y
r n x
r N ow a .
,

of t h e i n fi it e n u m b e r of d i ffe r e n t v al u e s o f y c o r e s p on di g
n r n

to x = a,t her e is o n e p arti cu l a v al u e AP w hi c h is c o r n

t in u o u s wit h t h e s erie s o f v al u e s t ak e n by y w h e n x t ak e s

s c
u c e s s iv e v a l u e s i n t h e v i c i n it y of x a T h i s m a y be .

ll of w
.

ca e d t h d t m i t l h e x = a I t i s ob n
e e e r n a e a u e y v .

t ain e d by p u t t i g x = a in t he e q u atio n y
n x + a an d is ,

the refor e y 2 a .
 INDETERMINA TE FORMS 79

i s e s u lt m ay be s t at e d wit ho u t refere n c e to a lo c u s
Th r as

follows W hen x a t he f u c tio n

: , n

x
2 — a2

x — a

is i n de e t r m i n at e i n fi ite n u m be O f d iffe e t
, an d h as an n r r n

v al u e s ; bu t am o n g t h es e v alu e s th e r e is o e de te m i at e n r n

v al u e whi ch is c o tin u u s wit h t he s e i e s o f l u e s t ak e by

n o r va n

t h e f u c tio n a s x i c r e a s es t h o u gh t h e v a l u e
n n; t h i s d et e r r a

m i n at e o r s i g u l a r v a l u e m ay t h e be d e fi n e d by
n n

lim x
z — a
z

In ev alu ati g t hi s li m it t he i fi it e s i m al facto x a m ay be

n n n r

re m o ve d f om u m er t o
r a d d e o m i at o
n s i c e t hi s f c t o
a r n n n r, n a r

is o t e o w h il e x is d i ffe e n t f o m a ; h e n c e t h e d e t e rm i
n z r ,
r r

n a t e v a l u e o f t h e f u c ti o n is n

lim x + a
_ 2 a
x i
‘

a
1

Ex 1 . . F ind t h e d e t e rm i n at e v a u e , l wh n e x l, of t he f n
u c t io n
2
x 3
2 x 3 x

3 x 3 — 3 x2 — x + 1
’

w hi h
c , at t he lim it , ta k es t he f o rm
8
T ish e x pre s s io nm ay be w rit t e ni n the f o rm

)(
2
( x + 3 x x 1)

2
x + 3 x
w hi h W he n h
x

c re d u ce s to . x 1, t is beco m e s
2
3 x 1

Ex 2 . . Eva l u at e t he e x pre s s io n
8 2 2 8
x ax a x a
3 2 2 2
x x6 ax ab
wh n e x a .
80 DIFFE REN TIA L CALC UL US [ on v .

Ex 3 . . D e te rm i n e t he va ue ofl
x 3 —7 x 2
+ 3 x + 14
x 3
+ 3 x
2 — 17 x + 14
w he n x _
-2 .

Ex 4 . . E va l u at e wh en x i 0.

( M l l
u t ip y bo t hn u m e ra t o r a n d de n om i n at o r by a /
\ a 2 ‘

x
2
.
)

48 val uation by devel opme n t I n s o m e c s es t h e c o m

. E . a

m o v n i s hi n g fac t or c an be b e s t r e m ove d a f t e e x p an s i o n
n a r

in s erie s .

Ex 1 . . Co n s ide r t he f n
u ct io n m nt i n e o ed in Art 4 6 , .

*
x
e

s in x

Wh n n m e u e ra t o r an d d e n om i n at o r a re d e ve l o pe d in p o w e rs o f x, the
ex i n b
re s s o
p e c o m es

2 3
1 —x +
2! 3!

c) 2
2x + l r
3
+ ~
2 4
.
1 +
-
31 s
3 ‘
x x
+
31 6

w hi hc has t he d e t e rm i n at e valu e 2, wh n e x ta k es t he v alue z e ro .

Ex 2 . . As a n th
o l
e r e x am p e , e v alu at e , wh n x ie O, t he f n u c t io n
- 1
x s in x

s in x
3

B y deve l o pm e nt it b e c o m es

t
3
1 x
+
5 5
3 3
x

Re m o v i g t he n co m m o nf act o r, a n d t h npe u t ti ng x 0, t he re s u lt is 3 .
82 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US [ Ca V .

By d ivi di n g by x a an d t he n l e tti n
g x é a, it follows
that
f( x ) f at ) l
lim
xfi a
fl )fv
PT “)

Th e f u n c ti o ns
q ( )
b a
’
will in g e n e ra l both be fi n it e .

fl ) “
If f( I
a ) 0, I ( )
()
1
a 0, the n
(
M ) a
0 .

’
If f ( ) a a = 0,
(
M
If f ’
( ) a an d c
t( )
’
a are bot h ze ro , t he li m iti n g v alu e of

g
ig to be O bt ai n e d by c a yi n g T aylor s de v e lop m e n t ’
is rr

o n e ter m f art h er r e m ovi n g t he c o m m o n f ac tor ( x

2
, a) an d ,
n

t he n l e tti g x app o ac h a T he r e s u lt is
S i m il arl y,
n r

if f ( a ) f ( a ) f ( a ) ; ’
.

”
£ 63
2
, , 4 ( )
) a all

v an i s h it , is prove d i t h e s am e m an n er that
n

lim f( ) f
v

x a
5
906)

an d s o o n , u n til a r es ul t is obt ai n e d th at is n ot i n determ i n ate

in for m .

H e ce n t he rule
To e va lu a t e an ex
p re s s on i f
o t he form
8
, d ifieren tia t e n u m er

a t or a n d d en omin a t or p
se a ra t e l
y; s u bs t itu t e t he crit c a l va lu e
i

f
o x in t heir d eriva tive s , an d e
q u a te t he u otien t o
q f t he d eriva
t ive s t o t he in d e term in a t e form .

1 0
Ex 1. . Ev a lu at e
c os
wh n e 0 0.

9 2

f ( 9) = 1 — cos 0 ,

f ( 0)
’
s in 0, qt
’
0
( ) 2 0,

f ’
(0) 0, m e) 0 .
 IN D ETERMINA TE FORMS 83

00 3 0, 2,

1, 2:

lim 1 0 1
he n ce
9 5 0
cos

9 2
2
.

11 “
2 4
F in d
”
co s x
30
‘

6 e
Ex . 2 .

$
x4

lim x —4 lim x _ —x
Q S in
e + e e e x
-
(t i O x 4

lim e
”
+ e
x 5 0

1 s m x cos x
Ex 3 . . Find 5 0 96
11
-
x

x3

lim 5 —2 x3 —4 x 2 + 9 —4
Ex 4 . . n
Fi d
x
4 —2 x3 + —1
x

x 2 x

I n this e x am p e , sl hw o t hat x 1 is a f act o r n u m e rato r

de n om i n at o r .

lim 3 t au x — 3x —a s
EX 5 Fin d
[
L x i o
. .

5
x

In applyi n g th is p o c e s s to p a ti c u l ar proble m s t he work

r r ,

c an o fte n be s h o t e n e d by e v a l u ati n g a n o n -v a n i s h i n g f ac tor

r

in e ith er n u m e a t o o d e n o m i n ator before perfor m i n g t h e

r r r

d i ffere n ti atio n .

a: i 0

The give n ex pre s s io nm ay be w rit t e n

lim t au x lim lim t an x

x x
84 D IFFERENTIAL CALCUL US
In ge n e r al , if f( ) x = an d if 0,
q( )
S a 0 , t h e n

11 11 1 f( z )
X( )a
10 )
x a
( 3 13

lim ll m
_
= x x
)
¢( )
x x a
x
..

li n s in x c o s z
Ex 7 F nd i
x
i fl
x

3
( 2 x

x z 1
8 1 11 ( x 1)

E X ERC IS ES

Ev a l u at e t he f ll w ing
o o e x pre ss io n s

1
wh n wh n
_ COS x
,
e x 0 . e x 0.

s 1n x

W h en x o t au x s
p
x co s x
wh n
;
.

s iu x e x = 0 .

3 _
1
x
wh en 1 .

I 1 S in
-1
17
h O
1
wh
z _
a a
en x : 0 .

ba
c
1
2
s iu x
“
s in a x
wh n e x 0
e

2
x x

—x)
wh n x e : 0.

+ log ( 1
.
x x
Sin bx
1

1
( + ) 1 t au — s iu
wh n
n _
x x x

x
wh n e x = 0 .

x3
e x 0

0
Th ere are oth e r i n d eterm i n at e for m s than T hey a re

0
0
co 00 , 00

50 . E va luati on of t h e in det ermin at e form

Le t t he fu n c t i o n f( Z
be c o m e
00
w he n x a . It is re
0°

u re d to fin d
hm f < 2:
q i
x_
86 D IFFERENTIAL CALCUL Us (Ca . V

(X)
whi ch has t he form w he n x = a an d has t he d e t er m i n ate
5 ,

v al u e 0 whi ch is n ot z ero H e n c e
, . by 2
( )
lim f( ) a? P( )
G in f( )
’
a f
Therefore , by su btrac ti n g c,

'
f ee) f o) ,

lim fC ) B
en lim 46 06 )
0, whi ch
If r e
00 , th
“
can be t reate d
a
c he ) s a
f( )
w

as t he previo u s c as e .

51 . Eval u t a i on of t he form 00 0 .

L et t he f u n c tio n be ¢ ( x) s u ch t hat ¢ ( a )
1( )
1 r a 0 .

0
Th i s m ay be writte n whi c h t a k e s t he for m wh e n
0
( ) 93

a is su b s tit u te d for x, an d therefore c o m e s un der t he abo v e

r ule .
( Art .

52 a ation of t he form
. Ev lu co 00 .

The for m m ay be fi n ite

00 ero or i n fi n ite
co , z , .

Fo r i n s t an c e c o n s i d e \ x
/ 2
ax , x for t he v al u e x r 00 .

I t is of t h e fo m bu t by m u ltipl yi n g an d d ivi d i n g by
r 00 00 ,

ax
s ax x it be c o m e s w hi ch has t he for m
00
w he n x
Agai n by d ivi d i n g bot h ter m s by x it t ake s t he for m
, ,

w hi ch be c o m e s whe n x 00 .

9 1
x

The re is h er e no
g e n e r al r u l e of p o c e d u re as in t h e r

pre vio u s c as s ,e bu t by m e an s of tra n s fo m atio n s an d proper r

ic
s INDETERMINA TE FORMS 87

gr o u pi
g of te m s it is ofte n po s s ible to bri n
n r
g it i n to o ne

of t he form s 9 99 F re q u e n tly a f u n c tio n whi c h be c o m e s

, .

0 co

0 for a c riti c al v a l u e of x c an be u t in t h f r m
co 0
p e o

u t
v w

in w h i ch v , w be c om e ze ro . T hi s c an be re d u ce d t o
uw vt

whi c h is the n of t he form

3
Ex 1 . . F ind x 2, ( 1 “
sec x t an )
x .

This e xpres s io n a ss u m e s t he form 00 00 , bu t c an be writ ten

1 s in x 1 s in x

co s x c os x cos x

whi c h is of t he f o rm
8 , an d giv e s z e ro wh e n e valu at e d.

H e n ce
i
i
x -gg (
i
se c x t an x) 0 .

11m
Ex 2 Prove ( s ee x
n
t an n
x) 00 , 1 , 0, acc o rd in g as
g
. .

n > 2, 2, < 2 .

X
E ERC IS ES

Ev a l
u ate t he foll win g
o e xp res s io n s

lo g s in x
5 .
( a
5 l)x wh en x 00 .

l—
O
g—
x se a
2 . when x =0 . 6 . whe n x
co t x s ec 5 x 2
n
3 .
i wh n e x 00 . 7 .
( a
2 x
2
) t an L
x
wh ne x a .

e
x
2a

t an
4
x
wh ne x 8 .
( 1 t an x) s ec 2x wh n e x
ta n 5 x
88 DIFFERENTIA L C AL CUL Us [ O n v .

9 .
—fl
l
wh n e x z 0 . wh n e x 1 .

e
}

lo g x
wh n e x 00 .
\I 1 3 . c sc
2
x wh n e x 0 .

7l
x

log x
1
x 1
wh n e x z1 .
wh en 3? 1 °

53 . E val u at i on of t he form

Le t t he f u c t i o nu n as s u m e t he fo rm w he n
x a .

o d e r to e v al u at e t hi s
In r ex pre s s io n t ak e , t he l o garit hm of
both s i d e s T he
&
. n

I
i i—
lo g u W e ) lo g er ) e
1
W ) e

0
Thl S ex p es s1 ou
r as s u m es t he form w he n x = a , an d c an
0
be e v al u a te d by t he m e tho d o f Art 4 9 . .

I f t he re d u c e d v al u e of t hi s fr ac tio n be d e n ot e d by m,
th e n l g u m a n d u e o
m

N E Th f m 1 i t ind t m in t b t i q l t 1
OT . e or
° s n
o e er a e, u s e ua o .

F l to r, m th f m 1 w h n
e as s u e e or
° e x (1 .

Pu t it

T hn e log u
d4 ) x 10 s

w hi h q l c e u a s z e ro wh n e x a ;

hn
e ce lo g u 0, u e
° 1 .

54 . E val uation of t h e form s

Le t be com e cc
° w he n x a .

Pu t u

T he n lo g u TC ) ” lo g 9°C)
”
 90 DIFFERENTIA L CA LCUL Us ( o n . v . 54 .

8 .
( cot x
)
8 m 3°
wh n e x O .

c o I} x wh e n x 0
whe n x =0 .

2 1
W he n x =1
—1
o
0
2
x x _ 1

I
se c x wh ne x
12 . 2
”
s in wh n e x 00 .
 C H A PT E R V I

-
M ODE OF VAR IATION OF
_
F UNCTIONS OF ONE VARI AB LE

55 . I n t hi s
pt e r m e tho ds of e x hibiti n g t he m ar ch o
c ha r

m o d e of v a riatio n of f u c ti o s a s t he v a i a bl e t ak e s all
n n , r

v al u e s in s u cc e s s o n f o
i m — to + will be d i s c u s s e d
r oo 00 , .

S i m pl e e x am pl e s hav e b e e n g iv e i Art 1 3 of t he u s e n n .

t hat c an be m a d e of t he derivative fu n c tio n ( x) for thi s

p u rpo s e .

T he f u n d am e n t al pri n c iple e m plo ye d is th at w h e n x in

c re as e s t h ro u g h t he v al u e a i n c r e as e s t h ou gh t h e
, r

v a l u e ¢ ( ) if is po s iti v e an d t h a t
a d e c e as e s , r

th o u gh t he v al u e
r if d) ( a ) is n e gati v e Thu s t he ’
.

qu e s tio n o f fi n di n g w hethe r d ( x) i n c e as e s or d e c r e as e s r

t hro u gh an as s i gn e d v al u e is re d u c e d to d eterm i n i n g
t he s i gn of ( )
a .

1 F i d wh t h t h f n t i
. n
-

e er e u c on

¢ (x)
2
x

i n crea se s or d e c reas es t h ro u g h t he va u e sl q ( )
5 2 = 1,
qt 1) 1 0, a n d s t at e a t wh l
at v a u e o f x t he f n u c t io n ce as e s n
t o i cre ase
an d b e gi n s t o de cre ase , or co nv e rs e ly .

56 . Turn in g v alue s of a fun cti on

follow s that t he . It
v al u e s o f x at w hic h ¢ ( x) c e as e s t o i n c e as e an d b e g i n s to r

d e c r e as e are t h o s e at w h i c h gb ( x) c han g e s s i g n f o m p o s itive

’
r

to n e gative ; an d th at t he v alu e s o f x at wh i ch gb ( x ) c e as e s
to d e c r eas e an d be gi s to i n c re as e are t ho s e at w hic h ( x)
n

c ha
g esn it s s ig f o m n e g a tiv ento p o r
s iti v e I n t h e for m er .

c as e (I ( x ) is s ai d t o p as s t h o u h a m a x i m u m
) i n t h e l a tt e r
, g r , ,

a m in im u m v al u e .
92 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US ( o n v 1
. .

Ex 1 . . F ind t he t u r i g nn l
v a u e s o f t he f n u c t io n
12 + 4,
3
2 x 3 x2 x

an d e x h ibit t h e m o d e o fv ariat io n o ft h e f n
u ctio n by k t h s e c

i n g t he c u rve y o( )
S x .

H e re 6 x
2
6 x 12 6 ( x + 1) ( x

hn e ce qt
’
( )
x is n e gat iv e w h n li e x es be t w n ee 1 an d + 2,
an d p o s it ive fo r a ll o t h l
e r va u e s o fx . T h us
g( )
b x i n c re as e s

f ro m x co to x 1 , d e c re a s e s f ro m x 1 to x z 2,
an d i n c re ase s f ro m x : 2 to x : 00 . Hn e ce 1 ) is a

m a x im u m l
va u e of < ) 1( ) x an d < )
1 (2 ) a n
m i im u m
FI G
, .

T h e ge e ra o rm n lf of t he c u rv e ( g
Fi 1 5 m
) ay .

be i nf e rre d f ro m t he a s t s t at e m e t , l n an d f ro m t he f ll w n
o o i g s im u t a eous l n
v a lu e s o f x a n d y
x — oo — 2 , , l, 2, 3,

y
— cc 0 , ,
- 9, —1 6 ,

Ex . 2 . h
E x ibit t he v ariat io n of t he
f n
u c t io n
ev) e :
( x l)
‘

i+ 9.

e s p ec ia lly it s tur i g nn va u e s l .

2 1
Si n ce
( )
x ’

5 1

( 96
hn e ce
( ) h n g ig n t x 1 b i
cn g a es s a x , e

ng e ti
a wh n vel infin it w h e l x ,
e en x ,

an d p it i wh n
os 1 Thve 2 e x . us

m in im m t n in g l F IG 16
i f
. .

s a u ur va u e o

Th g p h f t h f n t i n i
e ra h w n i Fig 1 6 w it h
o e u c o s as s o n .
, a v e rt ic a l t ng
a e nt
a t t h p in t ( 1
e o ,

E 3 x E .m in f m. im d m in im t he f n t i n
xa e or ax a an a u c o

— 1) i + 1 .

H e re qS
’
( )
x 1
3
1
i

(x
hn e ce n h ng ign b t i e ve r c a es s , u s

a lw y p it i
a s Th ios d i n gly
ve . e re s ac co r no

t n in g l
ur Th va u e
y ] ( ) h . e c u rv e c; x as a

ve rt i l t ng nt
ca t t h p in t ( 1
a e in a e o ,
s ce

Fm , 17 .
fi
( g i infin it w h n = 1 ( Fig s e e x . .
94 D F I FERENTIAL CA L C UL Us [ C m vi .

val u e a an d , p as s e s thro u gh a m ax i m u m valu e

S i m il arl y if (t ( a h) is n e g ative an d
,
’
( a h ) p o s itive ,

the n p as s e s thro u gh a m i n i m u m v al u e
If ( a h) a n d h ) h a ve t h e s am e s i g n h o w e v e r ,

s m all h m a be t h a ) is n o t a t u r n i n v al u e of q
y en
¢( , g b ( )
x .

Ex F in d t h t u i g l
. f t he f n ti
e rn n v a ue s o u c on

M ) e :
(as We l) a

2a l ) (x so 1 m 1) a

( x 1 ) (x 1) 2
( 5 x

H e n ce ( I( )
f
x beco m e s z e ro at x 1, fi , an d 1 ; it d oe s n ot be c dme
infinit e fo r an y finit l e v a u e of x.

Thus , t he cr it i l lca v a u es are 1, g, 1 .

FI G 1 8 . .

Wh en x 1 h, t he t h ree f act o rs o f ta k e t he s ign s

an d wh n e h yb m
x 1 h, t e eco e

th us d t h n g ig oes no c a e s n as x i n creases t h ro u gh l ;
S
o( 0 i t t n in g ls no a ur v a ue of

Wh n g e h t hx t h f t , e re e a c ors o f h ave s ig n s

an d wh n e h th y bx m , e eco e

th us h n g ign f m t c a es s ro o as x i n c reas es t hrou g h

1 1 1 0 52 i m im m l s a ax u va u e of
58 VA RIA TION OF FUN CTION S 95

F in lly w h n l h t h t h f t
a ,
e f qS ( ) h
x: t h ign , e re e ac o rs o
’
x av e e s s

an d wh n 1
e h th y b
x m e e co e

th us h n g ign f m t c a in
es ths g h ro o as x c rease s ro u 1, an d

0 i m in im ms a l f qS( ) u va ue o x .

Th d p t m n t f t h f n t i n
e e or d it fi t d i t i
e o i th e u c o an s rs er va ve n e v ic i n it y
of th it i l
e cr l m y b t b l t d f ll w m w h i h i d
ca va ue s a e a u a e as o o s, c nc .
, ec . t nd
s a

f in
or in g d
c re as in g p t i
, ly e cre as , re s ec ve

x — 1 —h — 1 —1 + h s —h
s + h 1 ‘
_ h 1
d ( )
)
’
x 0 0 0 -
I
¢( )
x in c . in c . m ax . dec . dec . m in . in c .

The ge e ra m arc n l h of t he f n u ct io n m ay b e ex h ibit ed gh i lly by

rap ca

n
t rac i g t h e c u rv e y ¢ ( ) ( Fig x . us i ng t he f o re go in g lt d re s u an

o bs erv in g t he f ll wing im lt n
o o s u a l
e o us v a u es o f x a n d y :

x z — oo , _ 2,

00 , 9,

59 e con d method of det erm inin g whet h er

S ch a n ge s

s ign in pa s s in g t h rou gh z e ro Th e followi g m et h o d m ay be . n

e m plo y e d w h e n t h e f u n c t io a n d it s d e i a tiv es a e c o n ti n u n r v r

ous i t h e v i ci n it y o f t he c i t i c al v a l u e x
n a r .

S u pp o s e w h e n x i c r e as e s t h o u gh t h e v al u e a t h at gb ( x)
, n r ,
’

c h an g es s ig n f o m po s i t i v e t h o u g h r e o to n e ati v e
g I t s r z r .

c h an g e fr o m po s iti e t o e o is a d e c e as e a n d s o is t h e
v z r r ,

ch an g e f o m e o t o n e g ati v e ; th u s qS ( x) is a d e c e as i g ’
r z r r n

f u n c tio n at x = a a d he c e it s d e i v ative 4"( x) is n e ga

, n n r

ti v e at x a .

O t h e oth e h an d if d ( x ) c h a g e s s i gn f o m n e g ati e
n r , )
’
n r v

th ro u gh e o t o po s iti e it is a i n c e as i n g f u n c tio n a d
z r v , n r n

( )
x i s p o s itiv e at x ; h e c e a n

The fu n c tion ¢( ) x ha s a m axim u m va u e l when d( ))

’
a 0
”
an d c t ( a ) is ne
g a t ive ha s a min im u m va lu e when
0 an d gb
’’
( ) a is p os it ive .
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL Us ( O n v1 .

I t m ay h app e n , h o w e v e r, t h at ( )
a i s a l s o z e ro .

In t hi s c as e , to d e t e rm i n e w h e t he r ¢ ( x ) h as a t u rn i n g
v al u e it is n e c e s s a y to p o c e e d to t he highe r d e i v ati v e s
, r r r .

I f qb( x) is a m ax i m u m gb ( x) is n e g a ti v e Ju s t b e f o e v a i s h ,
’
r n

i g a n d n e g a tive j u s t aft e
n , for t h e eas o g i v e n ab o v e ; bu t r, r n

t the c ha g e f o m n e gativ e t o e r o is an i c e as e a d t h e
n r z n r ,
n

n e f om e o t o n e a tiv e is a d e c e as e ; t ”
g r
g z r h u s f( ) x r c)

c h a g e s f o m i c r e a s i n g t o d e c re as i a s x p as s es t h ro u h a
n r
g n
g n .

He c e n
( )
x c h an e s S
g g fr o m po s itiv e t h ro u
g h e o t
i o n z r

n e ativ e a d it follow s as b e for e t h a t it s d e ri v ati v e c

t ( )
W
g , n , x ,

is n e gati v e .

Th u s gS( a ) is a m ax i m u m v al u e o f ¢ ( x) if
0 0 e a ti v e S m il l i
, g i a y ¢( )
, s n . r , a

a m i n i m u m v a l u e o f ¢ ( x ) if

an d po s itive .

I f it h ap p e n t hat it is n e c e s s a y to pr o c e e d to r

s till h i gh e r d eriv a tiv e s t o t e s t for t u i n g v al u e s The rn .

r e s u lt m ay t h e n be g e n e ali e d as follows r z

The fu n tion ¢ ( x) h s cm ximu m ( or m in im u m ) v lu e a t a a a a

t he d e r iva tive s
’ ” m
x a if on e or m or e of d( ) d ( ) p ( )
) a , ) a , ( a

van s i h an d if t he fi r s t on e t ha t d oe s n ot van is h i s of e ven o rd er ,

os itive
a n d n eg a tive ( or
p ) .

Ex . Fi nd t he c rit ic a l l v a u es in t he e x am p e o fl Art 5 8 by t he
. s ec o nd
m et h od .

( x 1) 2
( 5 x 1 ) + 2 (x 1) ( x 1 ) (5 x 5 (x 1 ) (x
x°
2
4 (5 + 3 x 3x

h
c
” l
( ) 16, hn e ce is a m i im u m n l
v a u e o f qb x , ( )
qt 0 h n
, e ce it i s n ece s s ary t o fin d
2
x 2x

qS 24, hn e ce 1 ) is n e it h er a m ax im u m n or a n
m i im u m
l
v a u e of

Agai n , (i ) 5g is ne
gat iv e, .
he n c e ( pg ) is a m ax im u m
l
va ue o f
98 DIFFERENTIA L CALCUL US [ C H v1 . .

In c as e ’
g ( )
b a 0 t he p re c e d n i g e qu ation s b e c o m e

fl— fi
é
g A gat
‘
r a
.

$ ) h3 +
0
¢< h) Pa ) h 2 1
_
a ( l

an d h t ak e n s o s m all t hat t he fi s t t e m o t he i gh t
c an be r r n r

is u m e i c ll y l a g e th a n e it h e O f t h e s e c o d t e m s h e c e
n r a r r r n r , n

¢( a h) ¢( ) a d j(
> h) ¢( )
a a n e b o t h e
<
g a t i
av e w h e a r n n

a ) is n e g a tiv e a d b o t h po s i t ive w h e p tiv

(I
(
) , ( )
n is o s i e n a .

T h u s ¢ ( ) is a m a x i m u m ( o m i n i m u m ) v l u e o f qb( x)
a r a

wh e ( )
n is e oaa d q ( )
b i
zs e
g r
ati e
( o po
n s itive )
’
a n v r .

I f it s h o u l d h app e n t h at ( )
a is a l s o e o t h e n z r ,

—M —L—l m
f
fi
V

a —h
a
3
¢< > h +

an d by t h e s am e r e a s o n i n g a s b e fo re , it follows t hat for a

m ax i m u m ( o r m i n i m u m ) t h e re are t h e f u the c o d it io r r n ns

t hat ( ) e q u al s ae o a n d z r , that ¢ ( a) is n e gati v e (

W
or

po s itiv e ) .

P o c e e d i n g in t h i s way t he
r , g e n e ra l c on cl u s i o n t
s at e d in
t h e l as t a rti cl e is e vi d e n t .

Ex 1 . . W h ic h o f t h e p rec e d in g l
e x am p e s c a n be s o vedl by t he ge n l e ra

ru e l h e re re e rre d f to ?

Ex 2 . . W hy w as the re s t ric t io n im p o s e d n
u po
( ) x t h at it h lds ou

ch ng a e s ig n by p a s s i g t n h rou
g h z ero , ra th th n
er a by pas s in g t h gh ro u

infi it y n

61 . a x im a an d m in im a of
Th e m an y con tin uou s fun ction
occu r a lt er n ate l y I t h as b e e n s e e . n t h at t h e m ax i m u m a d n
60 VA R IA TI ON OF FUNCTION S 99

m i i m u m val u es of a r ation al polyn o m i al o c c u r alter n atel y

n

w he n t he v i abl e is c o n ti n u ally i n c r e as e d o d i m i n i s he d
ar ,
r .

T hi s p i n ciple is al s o t u e in t h e c as e o f e ve y c o n t in u o u s
r r r

f u n c tio n o f a s i gl e v a 1 able F or l e t n
¢( )
r b be t w o .
,

m ax i m u m v al u e s o f in w h i c h a is s u pp o s e d l e s s t h a n

6. The whe x n, h t h e f u n c tio n is d e c r eas i g ; w h e n

n a ,
n

x z b — h t h e fu c t o n s 1 n c e a s i g h b e i g t ake n s u ffi
,
n l 1 r n , n

c i e n t ly s m all an d po s itive B u t i p as s i n g fr o m a d e c e as . n r

i g to an i n c r e as i g s t at e a c o n ti n u o u s f u n c ti on m u s t a t
n n , ,

s o m e i n t e m e d i at e v a l u e of x
r c h an e fr o m d e c e as i n g to
g ,
r

i n c e as i g t hat is m u s t p as s t h o u gh a m i n i m u m He c e
r n , , r . n ,

b e tw e e n two m ax i m a the re m u s t be at l e as t o e m i n i m u m n .

It c n be s i m il arl y prov e d t h at betwe e n two m i i m a t he e

a n r

m u s t be a t l e as t o n e m ax i m u m .

62 . li ati on s th at do n ot alter cr it i cal valu e s T h e

S im p fi c .

w o k of fi d i g t he c ri t i c al v al u e s o f t he v ari abl e i t he
r n n , n

c a s e of an y g iv e n f u n c tio n m a oft e n be s i m pli fi e d b m e

y , y a n s

O f t h e f o llowi n lf vi d n t p i n c ipl e s -
g s e e e r .

1 W he n is in de p e de n t of x an y v al u e O f x that giv e s
. 0 n ,

a tu i g v al u e t o 0 4 ( x ) giv e s al s o a t u n i g v al u e t o
rn n > r n

an d c on v e s e l Th s e two t u r i n v l u of
y e r .
g a e s a e n r

t h e s am e o O ppo s ite ki n d a c c o r d i i po itiv

r
g as s s e o n c r

n e a tiv e
g .

2 A y v al u e o f x t ha t g iv e s a t u n i g v al u e to
. n
q( )
S x r n c

g i v e s a l s o a t ur l
g v al u e o f t h e
n n s a m e ki n d t o a n d
c o n ve r s e l
y .

3 W h e n n is i n d ep e n d e n t of x an y v al u e o f x t hat g ive s
.
,

a tu i g val u e t o [ 95
rn n iv e s al s o a t u n i a l u e to
g g v r n

a d c on v e s el
n W h t h e t h s e tu n in v a l u e s a re
y e r e .
g r r

of t h e s am e o opp o s it e ki n d d epe n ds o n t h e s i gn of n an d
r ,

al s o on t he s i gn o f [ qt
1 00 D IFFERENTIAL CALCUL US

X
E ERC IS ES

F in d t h e c rit ica l l va u es of x in t he f ll w ing f n

o o u c t io n s, de te rm i n e t he
n at u re o f t h e f n ti n
u c o at e ac h , a n d Ob ta i n th e
g ra
p h o f t he f n
u c t ion .

—5
J
x ( x2 6 . .

2 . u = 2 x3 — 1 5 x2 + 36 x —4 . 7 . a z 5 + 12 x —3x -
2
2 3
x .

—1
( ) (
3 = 3
. u x x

J 4 . u s iu x + cos x .

? 8
9 . u s in x c s x.
o
3

a —2 x

10 . S h w th
o at al f n t i n lw y h
q u ad rat ic int egra u c o a a s as on e m ax i
m um, or o n em in im m b t n b th u , u ev er o .

11 . Sh w t h t
o bi in t g l f n t i n h
a a cu i g n l b th
c e ra u c o as n e e ra o a m ax i
mum and m in im m
a l b t m yh u it h va u e , u a av e n e er .

12 . S h w th t t h f
o ti n (
a b) % h e it h m im m
un c o x as ne er a ax u n or a

n
m i im u m l
va ue .

63 . Geom etric proble ms in m ax im a an d min ima . Th e

th e ory o f t he t u r n i n g v alu e s O f a f u n c tio n has i mpo tan t r

appli c atio n s in s olvi n g proble m s c o n c e r n i n g ge o m etri c

m a x i m a or m i n i m a i e t h e d eter m i n atio n of t he l a g es t
, . .
, r

or t he s m alle s t v al u e a m agn itu de m ay have while s ati s fyi n g

c ertai n s t a te d g eo m et i c c o n d itio n s r .

T he fi rs t s tep is to e x pre s s th e m ag n it u d e in q u e s tio n

al gebrai c ally If t he re s u lti n g e x pr e s s io n c o n t ai n s m ore
.
»

than on e v ariable t he s tate d c o n ditio n s will f ur n i s h e n o u gh

,

r e l atio n s betwee n t he s e v ari able s s o t hat all t he ot hers ,

m ay be e x pre s s e d in t e m s of o n e T he e x pre s s io n t o r e

be m a xi m i z e d or m i n i m i z e d bei n g thu s m ad e a f u n c ,

tio n of a s i n gle variable c an be tre ate d by t he pre c e d ,

in g r ule s .
1 02 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US [ On v1 .

Ex . 3 . F in d t he are a of t he greate s t rec t a n gl t h e at c a n be i n s cribe d

in give n e lips e
a l .

n
An i s cribe d re c t a g e n l
w ll i e v ide t
y be nl
s m
y
m et ric w it h re gard to
t h e p rinc ip l a ax e s of t he
ll
e i se
p .

Le t a, 6 de n o te t he
l n gt h
e s of t he s e m i-ax e s

0 A, OB F
( gi . le t 2 x,
2 31 be t he d im e nin s o s of

an in sc ribe d t n gl
rec a e .

T hn e t he a re a is
FI G 20
u
. .

4 x9 ) 1
( )
in w hi h c t he l
v ariab es x ,y m ay be re ard e d
g as the co o rdi n at es of t he
v e rt e x P, an d a re th f
e re ore s u b e c t j t o t he e q u at io n of t h e e l lip se

2 2
x 2 1 ( )
2
5 5
.

2
5

ll
It is ge o m e t ric a y e vid e t t at t e re is n h h s om e p o s it io n of P for whi h c

n
t he i s c ribe d re ct a g e is a m ax im u m n l .

The e lim in at io n fy f m
o ro by m ea n s of give s t he f nu c t io n of

x t o b e m ax im iz e d,

B y Art 6 2 , t he . c rit ica l v a ue sl o f x are n ot a lt e re d if t his f n u c t io nb e

divid e d by t h e co n t nt
s a 419
a
, an d t hn qe s u a re d . Hn e ce , t he l
v a u e s of x

w hi h n d
c re er u a m ax im u m , give l m
a so a ax im u m v a u e l to t h e f n u ct io n
I( ) (
2 2 2 2 4
( ) x x a x a x x .

2 2
q ( )
S x ’
2a 2
x 4x 3
2x ( a 2x ) ,

2 a
2
12 x ; 2

h n by t h lt l nd
e ce , e u sua e s ts , the c rit ica
2
v alu es x i
f : re er an d

th f th
e re o re e area u, a m ax im u m The co rre s po d i g v alu es Of y are
. n n
gi n by
ve an d t he ve rte x P m ay be a t an y o f t he o ur poin t s f
d n t d by
e o e
 VAR I A TI O N OF FUNC TIONS 1 03

g iv i g inn e ac h c ase t he s ame m ax im u m i n s c ribe d re ct a n gl w h e, os e

d im e s io n n s a re a \/ 2 , b \/2 , an d wh os e a re a is 2 a h, or h lf t h t f t h
a a o e

c irc u m s c ribe d re c t a ngl e .

Ex 4 F in d th g t t ylin d t h t
. . e re a es c er a can be cu t f ro m a i
g ve n rig ht
con w h h igh t i h d th d i f w h
e, os e e s , an e ra us o os e bas e is a .

L t th en b g n t d by t h e co e e e e ra e e

l t i n f t h t i n gl OAB
re v o u o o e r a e

F
( gi d t.h in ib d yl in d an e s cr e c er

b g n
e t d by t h
e l ti n f th
e ra e e revo u o o e

t n gl AP
re c a e .

L et 0 A h, AB a, an d le t t he
c o Ord in at es O f P be y) (x , . T h n th
e e

f n u c t io nt o be m ax im iz e d is 71
-2
y (h
-x
)
s ub e ct j t o t he l
re at io n y_
x
a

h
Thi s e xp re s s io nb e c o m es
2

Th e crit ic a l l
v a u e of x is h
s , an d V

X
H APT ER VI
E ERC IS ES O N C

1 Th .
g h g i n p i
rou n t w i t h ian n
veg l d w ot i g h t l i n w h i h an a e ra a s ra e c

sh ll a t ff m in im m t i n gl
cu o a S l t h i p bl m by t h m t h d f
u r a e . o ve s ro e e e o o

th l l d l
e ca cu u s , an by g m t y a so eo e r .

[T k g i n l in d in t
a e ] ve e s a s c oo r a e ax e s

2 Th . l m f ylin d b in g
e vo u e o t nt fi d it f m w h n t h
a c er e co n s a , n s or e e

enti f i m in im m
re s u r ac e s a u .

3 A t.
g l t i
re c a n t b b il t
u a r, c o u r t n t in gi n s o e u so a s o co a a ve ar e a 0
2
,

an d w ll l dy n t t d i
a a a re a il bl fco s ru c ef it id F in d it
s av a a e or o n e o s s es . s

dim n i n e t h t ths o p n
s so in a d m y b
e ex t h l t pe iblse c u r re a e e e as os s e .

4 Th . m f th f
e su f o p h d b
e s u r ace s o i g i n H w d a s e re an a cu e s ve . o o

th i lm
e r vo u mp wh n t h m f t h i l m i m in im m
es c o are e e su O e r vo u es s a u

5 Wh t i t h l n gt h f t h i f t h m im m p b l w h i h
. a s e e o e ax s o e ax u a ra o a c

c an b t f m e
g i
cu n i g h t
ro i l a n veg n t h t r t h f c rc u ar co e, ive a e a re a o a

p b
ara l i q l t
o a t w t h i
s e d f
ua t h op d u t fo it b r d lt
s it od e ro c o s ase an a u e

6 D t m in t h g
. e er t t t n gl w h i h
e e b in
re a e s ib d i gi
re c a e c c an e s cr e n a ve n

t i n gl w h se b a i 2 b n d wh
r a e o alt it d i a
se s a os e u e s .
1 04 DIFFE RENTIA L CALCUL US ( On . v1 63 . .

7 . The fl am e o f a ca n dlis d ire c t y o v e r t he

e l ce nt e r o f a c irc e l wh os e

rad iu s is 5 i nh c es . Wh h
at o u g t t o b e t h e e ig t h h of t he fla m e ab o v e t he

p l na e of t he l
c irc e s o as to i ll um i n at e t he c i rc u m e re f n ce a s m uc h as po s
sibl ng t h in t n it y f t h ligh t t
e , s u ppo s i e e y d i
s t ly o t h in e f o v ar rec as e s e o

th e a n gl n d w hi h it t ik t h ill m in t d f
e u er c s r d in
es ly
e u a e s u r ac e , a n ve rse

as th qe s f it d i t n
u a re o f m t h ill m in t d p in t
s s a ce ro e u a e o

8 A. t ng l re c a
p f p t
u arb d 3 0 i n h
1 ece l og d 1 4
as ei n h o ar c es on an c es

w id h e q as a s t t t u a re h n cu F in d t h id f t h i q
ou a e ac cor er . e s e o s s u are

so th t th a m in d m yf m
e re a b fmer im m a n t nt
or a ox o ax u co e s .

9 F i d t h lt it d f t h igh t ylin d f g t t l m i
. n e a u e o e r c er o re a es vo u e n

s cr ib d i e ph wh
n a s di i
e re o se ra us s r .

10 Th
.
g h t h p in t
ro u
( b) l in i
e d wo n h t h
a, t t h p a t in t e s ra su c a e ar er

ce p t d
e b t w n t h e t n ee
g l b d i t
e re c a i m i n i m
u a r co m F in’

d r i t n a e axe s s a u . s

l n gt h
e .

11 Gi n t h
. l n t h igh t f igh t n ; fi d it lt it d w h n
ve e s a e a o a r co e n s a u e e

th l m i m im m
e vo u e s a ax u .

I 1 2 Th . di f i
e ra l pi us o fp p i
a c rc u ar F in d t h f th
e ce o a er s r . e arc o e

t
s ec o r w hi h m t b t f m it t h t t h m in in g t m y f m
c us e cu ro so a e re a s ec or a or

th e co n f f p n
v e x s u r ace o fm im m l m
a o e o ax u vo u e .

13 F in d l t i n b t w n l ngt h f i l
. re a o e ee d die i d o c rc u ar a rc an ra us n or er

th t th
a f i
e are a o l t f gi n p im t
a c rc u a r s ec o r o h ld b m im m ve er e er s ou e a ax u .

14 O t h l in j m m g t h
. n e nt e f tw
o p h f d
e ce R fi d e rs o o s e res o ra 1 1 r, , n

t h di t n
e f t h p in t f m t h
s a ce o e nt f t h fi t p h f m w h i h
o ro e ce er o e rs s e re ro c

th me im m f ph i l
ax u f i i ibl
o s e r ca s u r ace s v s e .

15 D . ib i l w it h it
e s cr e a nt c rc e g i n i l tsh t t
ce h er o n a ve c rc e so a e

l gt h f t h
en o in t e p t d w
e a rc it h in t h g irc e i l e h ll b m i m m e v e n c rc e s a e a ax u .
1 06 DIFFERENTIA L CA LCUL US [ on v n .

or an y o t he fu n c tio n o f t h e ti m e Fo ri n s t an ce le t t he
r .
,

qu an tity o f an el e c t i c c u e t be 0 t t he ti m e t a d 0 + A 0
r rr n a ,
n

a t t he ti m e t At T he n t h e a e age r t of han g e o f ou
. v r a e c r

A0
e t i
r n n t h e i n t e v al At is
r ; t hi s is t he av e r ag e i c r e s e n a
27
in c u e t -u n it s p e r s e c o n d
rr n An d t h e a tu a l r te of chang e at
. c a

t he i n s t an t d e n ote d by t is

At é O At di

Thi s is t he b e r o f c u rre n t -u n its t hat wou l d be gai n e d

n um

in t h e n e x t s e c on d if t he at e of g ai n wer e u n ifor m fro m t he

r

ti m e t to t he ti m e t + 1 S i c e by Art 1 4 . n , .
,

dx dt IE
h e n ce m ea s u re s t he r atio of t he r ate s of a
ch n g e of g an d

Of x .

It follows that t he re s u lt of d ifi e re n t iat in g

m ay be writte n in e ith er of t he form s

f< > 2
x3 9
.

dt dt

Th e latt e r for m is O ft e n c on ve n ie n t an d m ay al s o be ,

O bt ai n e d d ire c tl y fro m 1
( ) y b d i ffere n ti ati n
g bot h s i de s

with e gar d to t It m ay be re ad t he r ate of chan ge of

r . :

s f ( x) ti m e s t h e r at e of c ha n g e o f x
’
g i .

R e t u r n i n g to t h e ill u s t atio n of a m ovi n g poi n t P le t it s

r ,

dx
c o Ordi at e s a t ti m e t be x a n d g
n The n m e as u re s t h e
.

dt
rat e of chan g e of t h e x c oo dm at e - r .

Si n c e velo c it y has bee n d e fi n e d as t he rate at w hi ch a poi t n

 R A TE S AN D DIFFEREN TI AL S 1 07

is m ovi n g , t he r ate 1 3 m ay be
2
ca lle d t he velo c i t y w hi ch t he
dt
poi n t P has in t he d ire c tio n of t h e x ax i s o m o e bri efly -
,
r, r ,

t he x c o m po n e n t of t h e velo c it y of P
- .

I t w a s s how n o n p 1 05 t h a t t h e a c t u al v e lo c ity at an y
.

i n s tan t t is equ al to t h e s p ac e t hat wo u l d be p as s e d over in

a u it of ti m e
n prov ide d t h e vel o c ity w e r e u n ifor m d u i g
,
r n

that u n it Ac c or di n gly t he x -c o m p o n e n t o f v e lo c ity

.
,
i: f
m ay be r e pre s e n te d by t h e d i s t an c e PA ( Fig 2 2) w h i ch P .

wo u l d p as s over in t h e dire c tio n of t h e x ax i s d u ri n g a u n it -

O f ti m e if t h e v e lo c it r e m a i n e d u n if o r m
y .

dv
S i m ila l y is t h e g c o m po n e n t of t h e v e lo c ity of P a n d
r ,
dt
m ay be repre s e n t e d by t h e d i s t an c e PB .

l
fi;
Th e velo c ity l o f P alo n g t h e c u v e c an be r e pr e s e n t e d r

by t h e d i s t an c e P 0 m e as u e d o n t he ta n ge n t li n e to t he
, r

c u rv e a t P It is evi d e n t t h a t
.

P C is t h e d i ag o n al O f t h e rec
t an g l e P A P B ,

S i n ce P 0 2
PA 2
PB 2
,

it follows that
4
( ) FI G . 22 .

Ex 1 . . If a n
poi t de s cribe t h e s t raig t i e 3 x h ln 4g 5 , an d
n
i cre as e h u n n
it s per s e co d , fi n d t he rat e s o f i cre ase n o f g an d of s .

y 2 i x:
3 dx
he n ce
dt 4 di

dx
Wh en
dl
1 08 D I F F E R E N TI A L CA L C UL US [CH . V II .

Ex 2 . . n
A p o i t d e s c ribe s t h e p arab o l a
y
2
z1 2 x in su c h a wa y t h at

wh n e x 3 t he a bs c is s a is i n c re as i ng at t he ra t e o f 2 f eet p e r s e co nd ; at

wh t a ra t e is y t h n in
e c re a s in g F ind a ls o t he rat e o f i n cre a se of 3 .

Si n ce 12 x,

dy dx
t hn e 2g 12 ,
dt di

1g
(
6 dx 6 dx ,

vm d t
’
dt g dt

hn e ce, wh n e x z: 3,
Z?
an d 2 , it f ll w t h
o o s at
tll
i :
j: 2 .

( Y( Y
E i
,
C
hn -
I
i/
, e ce 9- 3
f e et p e r s e co nd .

dt dl dl dt

Ex 3 n i w lkin g t w d t h f t f
. . A p e rs o s a o ar e oo o a t o we r on a h o riz o nt la

pl n ta t h t
e a f 5 m il p h ; t wh t t
e ra e o es er ou r a a ra e is h e a ppro a c hin g t h e

t p w h i h i 6 0 f t h igh w h n h i 8 0 f t f m
o , c s ee ,
e e s ee ro t he bot t om ?
L t b t h di t n
e x f m th f t f th t w
e e s a ce ro e oo o e o e r at t im e t, an d y th e ,

di t n f m th t p t t h m t im e T h n
s a ce ro e o a e sa e . e

2 2 2
27 60 y ,

an d
dx
g
gg
dl
d
W he n x is 8 0 f e et , g is 1 00 f eet ; hn e ce if
x
_ _ is 5 m i les p e r h o u r,
dt Ch
is 4 m ile s pe r h ou r .

65 . Abbreviate d
tation for rate s W he n as in t he above no .
,

e x a m ple s a ti m e d e iv a ti v e is a f a c to
,
o f e ac h m e m b e o f an
r r r

e q u atio n it is u s u ally c o n v e n i t t o w it e in s t e ad o f t h e
,
en r ,

dx g—
ly
s ym bol s t h e abbr e v i a ti o s dx a n d dg fo
,
t h e r at e s n ,
r
dt dt
of c h an g e o f t he v ari abl e s x an d
g . Th u s t he r es u lt of

d iffe re n t iat in g
1
( )
m ay be writte n in e ith e r o f th e fo rm s

4g f (x) 1
.
A. »

dy ’
x é
— x
-s
 110 D I FF E R E N TI A L CA L C UL US ( On . VII .

Ex 2 . . A ve rt ic a l wh l ee o f radiu s 1 0 ft is m a i g 5 rev o u t io s pe r
. kn l n
nd
s e co abo u t a fi x e d a x is . F ind t h h e n l
o riz o t a a n d ve rt ic a ve lo c it ie s O f l
a p in t
o on t he c irc u m f e re n ce s it u at e d 30 °
f ro m t he h oriz o nt al .

S in ce x 10 cos 0, g 1 0 s in 9,

th ne dx 1 0 s in 0d 9, dg 1 0 c o s Od o .

B ut dd 1 0 7; rad ia n s pe r s eco nd ,

hn e ce dx s in 0 f ee t pe r se c o nd ,

an d dg cos 0 f eet p e r se c o nd .

Ex 3 . . Trace t he c h nga es in t he h o riz on t a l an d ve rt ic al ve o c ity in l a

l
c o m p e t e re v o u t io l n .

66 ere n t ial s oft e n s ubs titut ed for rat es The s ym bol s

. D iff .

d x dg h av e b e e n d e fi n e d a bove as t h e rate s of c han g e of x

,

an d
g p e r s e c o nd .

S o m e ti m e s h owever the y m ay c o n ve n ie n tl y be allowe d

, ,

to s t an d fo r an y two n u m b e s l a ge o s m all t hat are pro r , r r ,

p o tio n al t o th e s e ate s ; t he e q u atio n s b e i n g ho m o ge n e o u s

r r ,

in t h e m will n o t be a ffe c te d,
I t is u s u al in s u ch c as e s t o .

s p e a k of t h e n u m ber s dx an d dg by t he m ore ge n eral n am e

‘

o f d ifi e e n i a l s ;
t t
‘
h e y rm a y t h e n b e e it h er t h e r a te s t h e m ;

s elves o an
y t
, wo n u m ber s in t h e s am e r atio
r .

T hi s will be e s p e c i a lly c o n v e n i e n t in p oble m s in w hi ch r

t h e ti m e v a riable is o t e x pli c itl y m e n tio n e d n .

Ex 1 . . Wh n e nx i f m 4 5 t 45
c re as e s ro
°
o
°
fi n d t he i n cre as e of

lo g1 0 s in x , as s u m in g t h t t h ti f th a t e ra o o e ra e s O f c h ng a e o f t he f n
u c t io n
an d t he v ar ia bl m in
e re n ibly n t nt t h
a s se s co s a rou g h ou t t he s h o rt in t erv a l
.

H e re dg lo gwe c ot xdx . 4343 co t xd x . 43 43 dx .

Let dx 15 '
. 00436 3 radia n s.

T hn e ( lg . 00 189 5,

wh i ch i s t he approx im at e i n cre m e nt o f lo g 0 s in x
1
.

B ut lo g1 0 s in 45 °
5 lo g 2 . 1 505 1 5 ,

t here f ore log10 s in 45 1 5 ’

°
. 1 486 20 .
 65 R A TE S A N D D I F F E R E N TI A L S 111

Ex 2 n n . . h) f h by T yl
E x pa d i g lo g1 0 s in ( x as ar a s
2
a or s
’
t h e o re m ,

and th n n e 004 3 6 3 h ww h t i t h
p u tt i g x 7 8 5 3 9 8, h . .
, S o a s e e rro r m ad e
by n gl t ing t h t h i d t m
e ec w d n i E 1 e r er , as as o e n x . .

E 3 Wh n
x . i f m 60 t 60
. fi d t h in
e x va r e s ro
°
o
°
n e c rea se in s in x .

Ex 4 . . S h w th
o at loglox i n cre a se s m ore s ol wly t h n w h n a x, e x lo g 1 0 e ,
t h at is, x . 4 343 .

Ex 5 . . Two s id e s a, b of a n l
t ria g e a re m e as u re d , an d a sol t he iii
c l ud e d a ngl 0 ; fi n d t he e rror
e i n t h e c o m p u t e d e gt ln h of t he t ird h s ide

c du e t o a sm a ll
e rro r in t he o bs e rv e d n gl
a e 0 .

[ D iffe r e t iat e t h e n e qu at io n c
2
O
2
b 2
2 a b co s 0, re gardi ng a, b as

co n t nt ]
s a

Ex 6 . . v e ss e li
lin g t hw t t t h t f 1 0 m il p h
A s s ai n or es a e ra e o es er o u r.

At w h t t i h m k ing n t h l t it d ?
a ra e s s e a or a u e

E 7 xI th p. b l y
. n 12 fi d t h p in t t w h i h t h
e ara o a
2
din t x, n e o a c e or a e

an d b i a in in g q lly
sc s s a are crea s e ua .

E 8 x At w h t p t f t h fi t q d n t d
. . a arth ngl in
o e rs ua ra o es e a e c re as e

tw i f t it in ?
ce as as as s s e

E 9 x F in d t h t f h n g i t h
. . f
e ra e o q w h n t h id
c a e n e are a o a s u are e e s e

6 i in s in g t
c re asft p nd a a . e r s ec o .

E 10 x I t h f n ti n y
. . 2n + 6 w h t i th
e u c l f t th
o x
3
, a s e va u e o x a e

p in
o t w h g in 2 4 t i
e rem f t ?
cre a se s es as as as x

/
0 E 1 1 x A .i l pl t . f m t l p
c rc u arn d b y h t t h t i
a e ot d i m t e a ex a s ea so a s a e er

in cre a s e sn if m ly t th t f 2 in h p
u or a nd ; t wh t t i
e ra e o c es er s e c o a a ra e s

th f in
e s u r ac e in g w h t h di m t c re as i 5 in h ? en e a e er s c es

E 12 x Wh t i t h l f t t h p int t w h i h
. . a s e va ue o 5 17 x a e o a c x
8
x
2
x

an d 3
x h ng t t h m t ?
8 x c a e a e sa e ra e

E 13 x F ind t h p int t w h i h t h t f h g f t h din t

. . e o s a c e ra e o c an e o e or a e

g 6x 3 3 5 i q x l2
t t h t x f h n g f t h
s e l p
ua f t h o e ra e o c a e o e s o e o e

t g nt t t h
an e o e c u rv e .

E 14 x Th . l t i n b tw n
. the re ap t h g h
o w h i h e b d y feell 3, e s ace ro u c a o a s,

an d t t h t im , f f llin g i
e 16 I ; h w th t th
e o a l it y i
, s s q l 2
s o a e ve o c s e ua

to 32 t .

The r at e h ng f l it y i ll d
of c a e o ve o c s ca e a cc elera tion ; s h w
o t hat t h e
l
ac c e e ra t io n f t h f lling b dy i
o en t nt a o s a co s a .
112 D I FFE R E N TI A L CAL C UL US [ on V II 6 6 . .

4
’
Ex 1 5 . . A b o d y m o ve s ac co rd i ng t o t h e la w 3 co s
( nt e
) . S hw o

t h at it s l
a cce e rat io n is propo rt io nlta o t he s p ac e t h ro u g h whi h c it h as
m o ve d .

V
Ex 1 6 . . If a b o dy be pro j t d pwa
ec e u rd s in a v ac u u m w it h an n
i it ia l
l
v e o c it y v0, to wh at h
e ig t h w ill it ise r , an d wh at w ill be t he t im e of

as c e nt ?
/
‘
Ex 1 7 A bo dy is pro e c t ed j up w ard s w it h l
a v e o c it y o f a f ee t
. .
per
se co nd . A t er f
at t im e wh
i l it wl re t u r n
Ex 1 8 . . I f A b e t he area o f a c irc le o f ra diu s x, s h w th
o at t he c ircu m

f e re n ce is 5
? x
n
I t e rpret t is h f act ge o m e t ric a lly .

Ex 1 9 . . n
A po i t de sc ribi g t h e n c irc e l yx
2
25 p th
2
gh as s e s rou

( 3 ,
4 ) w it h l
a ve o c it y o f 20 f e et p er s e co nd F i d it m p n n t l i
. n s co o e v e oc

t ie s p ara ll l t
e o t he a x es .
1 14 D I FF E R E N TI A L C AL C UL US [ On v rn .

68 . Pa rti al differe n tiation . I f in t he fu n ctio n

z = f( x , y)

a fi x e d val u e 21 be g ive n to g the n ,

f( x ’ 9 1)

is fu n c tio n o f x o n ly an d t he rat e
a , o f c han
g e in z c au s ed
by a c h an ge in x is e x pr e s s e d by

dz
1
( )
dz
dz
in w hi c h is obtai n e d o n t he su ppo s itio n t hat g is c o n s t an t
dx
.

To i n d i c ate thi s f ac t wit ho u t t he q u alifyi n g ve rb al s t at e

m e n t e q u atio n ( 1 ) will be writte n in t h e for m
,

2
( )
dx

3
?
The s
ym b ol r e p e s e n ts
r the r e s u lt O btai n e d by d i ffe r
x

e n t iat in g x with e ga d to x t he v a i abl e y b e i g t e ate d as

r r ,
r n r

a c o n s t an t ; it is c alle d t he p a rt i a l d eriva t i ve o f z with

re gar d to x .

F o m t h e d e fi n itio n of d i ffe r e n ti atio

r A t 1 1 t he parti al n, r .
,

d eriv a tive is t h e r e s u lt O f t he i n d i cat e d oper atio n

—
Ax é o A23
ex
9
S i m il a rl y, t he s ym bol 3 rep re s e ts
n t he re s u lt O btai n e d
by d ifi e re n t iat in g 2 wit h r e g a r d to g , t h e v a ri ab le x b e i n g
tr e ate d as a c o n s ta n t ; it is c alle d t he p arti al d e riv a ti v e o f 2
with r e gar d to g .

Th e p a ti al d e riv ative of 2: wit h r e ga

r rd to g is ac c or di n gly
t he r es ul t o f t h e i n d i c ate d operatio n
 F UN C TI ON S OF T WO VA R I A B LE S 115

I AQ ) —
dz lim f( 93 z
s
“ “

f( x 3 ) 9

By M O
Ar

fi dx '

1s c alle d t he p a r t i a l x d ifi e re n t i a l
-
'

of z , an d
6x

z
dg ll e d t he of
'

1 s ca
p a rt i a l y d i
-
fi e r e
‘
n t i a l z
53;
.

Geo m etri c all y, t h e two eq u ation s

K ile
y) , y= y1

d e fi n e t he ve of s e c tio n of t he s u rf ac e z f( x g) m ad e
cu r ,

z
by t h e pl an e g gl Th e d e riv a tiv e d e fi n e s t h e s lop e O f
.

6x
t he t an g e n t li e t o t hi s c u v e n r .

S i mil arl y wh e n x has a g i v e n c o n s ta n t v al u e x

, x
1
t h e , ,

9
p arti al deriv ati ve 5—2
is t he e x pre s s io n for t he m pe of t he
39
t an g e n t to t he c u rve cu t fro m t he s u rfac e z f( x g) by ,

t h e p lan e x = x 1 .

Th e e q u atio n s of t he s e two t a n ge n t li n e s at t he poi n t

( x
1 , 2 1,
2
1 ) are

v =
vp z —z —l ( w —x )
z
1 l .
8x 1

— z — —l az
$ = x
1,
Z
1 { y 9 1)
a9 1

an d h e n c e t he e qu atio n of t he pl an e c o n tai n i n g
i n ter s e c ti n g li n e s is

—a 6
fi —
O v1 )
e
;
z
i
1

Th e pl an e is call e d t he t an ge n t pl an e to t he su rface
z f( x,
g) at t he poi t ( x1 gl z l )
n , , .
 116 DIFFERENTIAL CA L CUL Us [ C a v nr .

E XE RC IS E S
/
N
1 Giv e nu 4
3 2 2
7 3
t hat x fi + y —
Q au
. x x xy , p ove
r 4a .

6x dy
2 Giv e nu t an
-1
3, h w th Q2 a
—u
. s o at x y O
.

x 6x By

3 u )
ey ; find i t
-
i
Bu
6 27 By

u s in xy ;
6 u 6“
4 . find _
_
+
am By

5 . u log ( x + V x
2
find n +y
§fi .

6 90 By

u lo g (t an x t an y t an z ) ; s h w th
o at

s in 2x §fl
+ s in 2 y 523 s in ? z s
ax 831 dz

Q 1 23 2
u lo g ( x y) ; s ho w th at
9

6 27 6 31 6
“

J r

69 . a
Tot l diff ere n tial y be allowe d to v ary
. I f bot h x an d

in t he f u n c ti on 2 f( x y) t h e fi r s t q u e s ti o n t hat n at u rally
, ,

a ri s e s is to d eter m i n e t he m e a n i n of t h d i ffere ti l of
g e n a z .

L et f( x
1,

an d 2
1
A2 f( x
1
Ax, y, Ag)

be two val u e s o f t he f u n c tio n c o r e s p o r n d in g to t he two p airs

of v al u e s o f t he v a i abl e s x 1 9 1 an d x 1 r , Ax , 9 1 Ay .

The d i ffe e n ce r

A Z =
f( x
1
A 5”,
3h Ay) —f( x 1 , 591 )

m ay be re gar d e d as c o m po s e d of two p a rts t he fi rs t p art ,

b e in g t h e i n c r e m e n t whi c h z take s whe n x c han ge s fro m x1

to x1 Ax while y re m ai n s c o n s t an t ( y yl ) an d t he s e c
, ,

o n d p a r t bei n g t h e a d d itio n al i n c re m e n t w hi c h 2 ta k e s w he n
118 DIFFERENTIA L CA LCUL US ( on . V III .

E q u atio n 1
( ) m a
y b e writte n in t h e form
6
— 2 az
d2 dx + — dy’
6x ay

f o m w hi ch
r t he followi n g t h e o r e m c an be s t at e d the t ota l :

d ifiereu tia l of a fu n ti n f two varia bles is equ a l t o t he s u m

c o o

f t he
o
p a rtia l d ifieren tia l
The s am e m e tho d be d ire c tly applie d to fu n c tion s of
c an

t hr e e o m or e v a riable s Thu s if z be a f un c tio n of t h e

'

r .
,

v a i able s
r x, y , u,

¢( x, u ) ,

a
i b ’
a x -i —fi dy + Qédu c
.

dx ay au

EX 1 . . Giv e n z a xy
2
bx y 2
0x
3
ey,

t hn
e dz ( up
/
2
2 bxy 3 cx
2
) dx ( 2 a xy 6x 2
e ) y
d .

—l
Ex 2 . . Giv e nz xy , t hn e dz z y xy dx, an d dyz x!’ log x dy .

Hn e ce dz y xy
- l
dx x?! log x dy .

d d
EX 3 . . Give n u t an
- 1 g , s h w th
o at da
x
z
y
2
x

x x y

Ex 4 . . As su m i g t h e n c h arac t e ris t ic e q u a t io n of a pe r f e ct
ga s ,
v
p R t,
in w hi h c v is l
vo u m e , l
p p res s u re , t abs o u t e t e m pe rat u re , an d R a co n t nt s a ,

e x p re s s eac h o f t h e ff n l
d i e re t ia s d v, dp , d l, in t e rm s o f t he o t h er t wo .

Ex 5 . l m .
ph i l
A p art ic f e y o ve s o n t he s er c a s u r ace x
2 ?
z
2

t i l m id i n pl n in l in d t n gl f 6 0 t t h n
°
a ver ca er a a e c e a an a e o o e zx pla e .

If t h m p n n t f it
e x -c ol it y b po nd w h n
e o s v e oc e 1 16 a e r s e co e x % a, find
th y e m p n nt
-c o d th m p n nt
o e l it y an e z -c o o e v e oc .

S in ce

th n e

B ut si n ce dx 1 a an d
1 6 ,
t he e q u at io n of t h e giv e nm e rid ia n pl n a e is

y x t an hn e ce dy d am/5 V5, an d y T h f e re ore

d ”; £3 gfi f nd
'

n eet p e r s e c o .

2 15
69 FUN C TIONS OF T W O VA RIA B LES 119

70 . an gu a ge of differen tials T he re s u lt s of t h e pre c e d

L .

in g arti c l es m ay be s t at e d t hu s
The p a rti al z di ffer e n ti al d u e to a c h an g e in x is e q u al to
-

t e x d i ffe e ti al m u ltipli e d by t h e p a ti al x d e ri v ativ e

h - r n r - .

Th e p a ti a l z d i ff e e ti al d u e to a c h a g e i y is e q u al t o
r - r n n n

t h e y d iffe re ti al m u ltipli e d by t he p a rti al y d e i v ativ e

- n - r .

Th e tot a l z d iffere n tial is e q u al to t he s u m of t he p arti al

-

z d i ffer e n ti al s
- .

O n e a d v an t ag e of writi n g t h e eq u atio n in t he d i ffe e n ti al r

fo m is that it m ay be d ivi d e d w he n n e c e s s a y by t he d if
r r

fe re n t ial of an y oth e r v ari able 8 to w hi c h x a d y m ay be

, n

rela te d an d th e r em e m b e ri n g that t he r atio of two d i ff e r

,
n,

e n t ials ( or r a te s ) m ay be e x pre s s e d as a d erivative t h e ,

eq u atio n wo u l d be c o m e
dz az d x az dg
+
ds 6x ds 6g ds

Inp arti c u l ar if y be n o t i n depe n d e n t bu t is a f u n c tio n of

, ,

x t he n 3 m a be c h o s e n a s x it s e lf an d t he pre c e d i n e ua
, y , g q
tio n be co m e s
dz 6z
Q z
__ dg .

dx 6x ay dx

If t he f u n ctio n al rel atio n b e twee n x an d y be g ive n ,

a M ) e ,

dz
th e n t he s am e re s u lt wo u l d be obtai n e d wh ether be
dx
,

d e t e m i n e d by t he pr e s e n t m et h o d or y be fi r s t eli m i n at e d
r ,

f o m t he rel atio n
r

f( f
v,
y) ,
an d res u lti n g e qu ation be d i ffere n ti ate d as to x Th e
t he .

m e tho d of t hi s a rti c le f equ e n tl y s h ort e n s t h e pro c e s s

r .

6z dz
It is he re w e ll to n ote t h e d i ffer e n c e b e twe e n a _ _ n .

dx dx
The for m er is t h e parti al d erivativ e of t h e f u n c tio n al e x
1 20 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL U S [ C r] . V I II .

pr e s s io n fo r z with egar d to x on t he s u ppo s ition that y

r ,

is c o n s t an t Th e l att e r I S t he tota l d e riv ati v e o f z w it h

.

r eg ar d to x whe n a c c o u n t is tak e of t he f ac t that y is

, n

it s e lf a f u n c tio n of x

Gi n y lg ; fi d
Z
z
E x 1. .
+ 31
ve z x 2 2
, o x n
x

( lz

hn
e ce

Ex 2 . . If z 1, s ho w th at

71 . eren tiation of im plicit fun ction s If in

D iff . t he r e l ati o n
f ( x y) z be as s u m e d t o be c o s t an t the n
, , n ,

dz

he n c e

Qf .

8x
fro m Wt h

69

all s u ch c as e s eith er v ari able is a n i m pli cit f un ction of

In
t he oth er an d t hu s t h e l as t eq u atio n f u r n i s hes a u l e for
,
r

fi di n g t he d erivative of an i m pli cit fu n c tio n

n .

da
Ex 1 . . Give n x3 3
+ y + 3 a xy z e, find
dx
.

2
dy
gZ —x ay
Sin ce ( 3 x
2
3 ay
) + (3 g
2
3 ax) — 0’
dx
_
2
ax
y
t
Ex 2 . .
—
x Z
-

—y
EX 3 . . If ax
2
+ 2 hxy + by
2 fi nd
dx

Ex 4 . . Giv e n x 4
y
4
0, fin d is .

dx
1 22 DIFFERENTIAL CA LCUL US [ O H.V III .

c o s tan t The n by t he t h e o e m o f m e an v al u e ( Art

n . r .

t h e i c e m e n t of t h e f u n c ti on is e q u al to t he i n c re m e n t o f
n r

t h e v ari able m u ltipli e d by t h e d e ri v ative t ake n for s o m e

v al u e i te m e di at e betw e en x an d x h ; that is
n r ,

f( x h
+ , y) —f( , y)
x :

e i
li — f( x + 0h, y) .

N e x t le t y c han ge to y k x re m ai n in g c o n s t an t an d , ,

t ak e t he i n c re m e n t of t he f u n c tio n on t he left The n by .

t h e t he ore m o f m e an v a l u e a ppli e d to — f( x 9h y) as a ,

f u n c tio n of y with t he i n c r e m e n t k ,

h y — [f( h fee 2 0]
[f k ) f( y
, w f
v y)
, ,

a a
Mh —f( w + 0h y + 0 k
ay 5x

N ow let th e s e i n c re m e t s be give n in rever s e d or d er

n . T he n
-
f( rv + h y) ]
—f( x w]
M
k
i i f< x + e i y + 037c) ,
dx d y
h e n ce

%
8 6
h, y + 0 k) =
f + 02h, y + 03 h:
g;

T hi s l tio n is tr u e for an y v al u e s of h an d k for whi ch

re a

all t h e f u n c ti on s m e n tio n e d are c o n ti n u o u s .

W hen h 79 ppro ac h ero

,
a z ,

x 9h y 91 k an d x,
02 h y ,
0370 ,

a ppro ach x y an d , ,

f( all y 9
93 k
1 ) f< x ,
92
k 3/ , ,

appro ach f( x y ; a n d s i m il a rl y for t h e d er ivative s ; h e n c e

) ,

d 6
“
f( x,
y) f( $ y) ,
T 5
9

y
( ; a ay

or s i n c e f( x y)
, ,
: z,
z z
az az
dy dx dx 6 g
 FUNC TIONS OF TWO VA RIA B LES 1 23

Cor follows d i e c t ly th at u d er c or es po n di n g c on
. It r n r

d it io n s t he or de r of d i ffer e n ti atio n in t h e h i gh e parti al r

d erivative s is i n di ff e re n t .

3 3 sz
8 2 6 z a
dx dy dx sas sy By 6x2

X
E ERC IS ES

23;
2
f
Ve ri y t h at wh n e u x
2
y
3

6
g
V 8 3
d
2 . Ve ri fy t h at
u u
, w hn e u x
2
y
a
xy .
dx 2
6 9 dx

Va d z
f
Ve ri y t h at
( u
wh n e u y log ( 1 xy
) .

dx 6 3; dy 6 3:

p 4 . I n Ex 3 . are t h ere a n y e x cept io n l

al v a u e s o f x, y fo r w hi hc the
l
re at io ni s n ot t ru e ?

5 . Giv e n u
( x
2
. +y
fi
fi , v e ri fy t h f e orm u a l
d 2
8 2
y Wu
x 2
a
+ 2”
u (

6 93 2
6 95 0 e dy 2

6 . Give n u
( x 3 s h w th
o at t he ex
pre s s io ni n t he l ft m
e e m be r

of t he d ifi e re n t ial e q u at io n in E x 5 is . e q l
ua to £ 1
4

ig g
jn
2 2 2
i , prove h é — —
l
7 t at
Z l -

8 2
26
2
8 . Give n u se c
(y +
'

ax
) t an (y p ro v e t h at
“
a
“

dx dy 2

4 4
V 6 8 d 4
9 . Gw e n s 1 n x CO S y v e rI fy t h at
a 21 a

6x 3
dx By 6 96 9x
c
2
(99
2

i £d
2
10 . Give n u
( 4 a b prov e t h at
t

( 1
 C H APT E R IX

CH ANGE OF VAR I AB LE

74 .ercha n ge of depe n de n t an d in depe nde n t v ariables

In t .

I f y be a c o n ti n u o u s f u n c ti o n of x d e fi n e d by t he eq u atio n ,

3
bol 3 epre e t erivative of y
f( y)
x , 0 t h e: s ym , s n s t h e d r
x

with re gar d to x w he n o n e e x i s t s I f x be r e garde d as a

, .

dx
fu n c ti o n of y de fi n e d by t he s am e eq u atio n t he s ym bol
, ,
dv
r e pre s e n ts t he d erivative of x with rega rd to y whe n on e ,

e xi s t s I t is requ ire d to
. fi n d t he rel atio n betwee n 13 6

dx dx

L et x, y e fro m t he i n iti al val u e s x 1 y, to t he val u e s

c han g ,

x
1
Ax, y, Ay s u bj e c t to t he relatio n f( x y)
, 0 ,
: .

The n , s nci e
Ag 1
Ev
,
Ax
Av

It follows , by taki n g t he li m it , t ha t
do 1
dx dx
dy

He n ce if y a n d x be on n e t ed by a fu n tion a l ela tion t he

,
c c c r

de r iva t ive f y wit h reg arod t o x is t h r e cip roca l f

o t he d r i va t ive e e

f
o x wit h reg a rd to y .

Thi s
pro c e s s is k n ow n as chan gi n g t he i d e p e n de n t v ar ia n

ble from x to y The c orre s p o n di n g rel atio n s fo r t he hi gh e r

.

1 24
1 26 D IFFERENTIAL CALCUL US [ C m Ix .

i s

He n c e £ 3 : c
u
t ( ) z + 4( )
)
r
z
Q} 2

z
dx dx2

Th e h i gh e r x -d e riv ativ e s o f y can be s i m ilarly

in t e r m s of x-d e riv a tive s o f z .

76 .an ge of t he in depen den t variable L et y be a

Ch .

f u c tio n of x a d let both x an d y be fu n c tio n s of a n e w

n ,
n

1 g 2 f
(
v ari abl e t It is re qu i e d to e x pr e s s in ter m s of
i
. r

2
61 , d
a n d 913
3 y 1
an d in ter m s of .
z
dx z
dt di
B y Art 1 4, .

h e n ce

In prac ti c al e x am ple s it is u s u ally better to work by t he

m e th o ds he e ill u s t a t e d t ha n to u s e t he re s u lti n g for m u l as
r r .

E XE RC IS E S
1 . C h ng
a e n
t he i de pe de t n n v ariab e l f ro m x to z in t he equ at ion

—
i
d v dy
x
2
dx 2 + m
dx
H , 0, wh n e x e z
.

dv
d z
dx dz

di
y 513 8 2
4 — ,
8
dy
8
—
2 8
2 2 dz
dx dz
z 2
d y
H en ce x
d u
dx 2
x
dy
dx
y 0 be co m e s
dz ? y 0
75 .
CH A N C E OF VA RIA B LE 1 27

n
I t e rc h ng
a e t he f nu c t io n an d t he v ariab e l in t he e q u at io n

22
dx 2 + 2 2
y x
d ( )
n
I t e rc h an ge x a n d y in t h e e q u at io n

i (ft) I
i
u

4 . C h nga e n
t he i de pe d e t n n v ariab e l f ro m x to yi n the e q u at io n

( y
dy (fly

3 2
fl
( 11: dx dx dx

C h nga e t he d e pe d e t n n variab e l f ro m
y t o z in t h e e q u at io n

2
dx

6 . C h nga e n
t h e i d e pe d e t n n v ariab e l f ro m x to yi n t he e q u at io n
x
2 — + x u : 0, wh n e y z lo g x;

7 . I f y is a f n
u ct io n o f x , an d x a f n u c t io n of t he t im e t, e x pres s

y l
-acc e e rat o i ni n t e rm s of t he x -a cce e ra t io l n , an d t he x-v e oc it yl .

Si n ce
dv _
_ fl,
(
’
dl ax dl

éfi
i 433
( ) fl
d d
hn e ce
ll

2
fl
2
. .

di dx d t di d z dx

c)
i
p a d dx d
_
z/
_
: _

2
d r dx dx dx dt dx dl

239
2
1 . Q 41 3
2 2 2
dl dx d i dx dt

I n t he abbre v iat e d n ot at io nf or t-d e riv a t ive s ,

2
d3/ d r/
x)
2 2
_
d x + 2 (
d
7
.

dx (1

A
, 8 . C h an ge n
t he i d e pe d e t n n v a riab e l f ro m x to u in t he e q u at io n
2 9
d v dy
0, wh n e x z t an u .
1 28 DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US ( on I.X; 76 .

L 9 . C h ng
a e n
t h e i d e pe d e t n n variab e l f ro m x t o t in t he e q u at ion

—x
2
—
( 1 x
2
) gZ —3/
x % 0, wh en x = co s t.

10 . S h w th
o at t he e q u at io n

re m ai n n h ng
s u c a ed in f o rm by t he s u b s t it u t io n x 1 .

11 . n
I t e rc h ng
a e t he v ariab e an d l t he f n
u c ti o ni n t he e q u at io n
2

( ) ( )
3
..
2
2 2
2
dx dx dx

12 . C han ge t h e d epe de t n n variab e l f ro m y to z in t he e q u at io n

ig
d d
d
-
I ( 1 wagH - f : 0, w he n y = z
2
.
1 30 DIFFERENTIA L CALCUL US [Cm x .

79 . Le n g ht an gen t n orm al s ubtan ge n t s ubn or m al

of t , , , .

T he s e gm e n t s o f t he t an g e t an d n m l i t e c e pt e d be
n or a n r

t we e n t h e poi n t of t ge n c y a d t he ax i s 0 X a e c all e d
an n r ,

r e s p e c tiv e ly t h e t a ge t le ng t h d t h e o m l le g t h
, n n an n r a n ,

a n d t he i p oje c tio n s o n 0 X a e c all e d t he s u bt a ng en t a d ’

r r r n

t he su bn orm al .

t M V N
N V M

FI G 23 . a. FI G 2 3 .

Th u s , in Fig 2 3 , le t t h e t an ge n t an d n o rm al t o t h e c u rve
.

P 0 at P m e e t t h e ax i s OK in T an d IV, an d le t M P be t he
or d i n ate of P . Th e n

TP is t h e ta
g nt l en th
en g ,

PN t he n m al l e g th
or n ,

TM t h e s u bt a n g e t n ,

MN t h e s u b n orm al .

T he s e will be d e n o t e d , p e c ti v e l y by t n
re s , , , 7 , v .

Le t t h e an
g l e X TP be d e n ote d by f a d w ite t an d () ,
n r )

The n I
()
\/ 1
2
+ 7n

1
9>

dx d
i 2
] —
i ¢
= t =
T =
91 00 t ¢ =
y1 d
-

n
; v
y1 an 9 1 61
y
 TAN G E N TS AN D NORMALS 1 31

The btan ge n t is m e as u re d fr o m t he i n ters e c tio n o f t h e

su

tan gen t to t he fo o t of t he or d i n at e ; it is th e e f o re po s itiv e r

w h e n t he foot of t he o d i n ate is t o t h e ri ght o f t h e in t e rs e c r

tio n o f ta ge n t T he s u b n o m al is m e as u e d f o m t he f o ot
n . r r r

of t he o di at e to t he i t e s e c ti o n of n or m al a d is po s itive
r n n r , n

w he n t he n o rm al c u t s OK t o t he ri gh t of t h e f o ot o f t he
o di n at e B o th a e t he efo e p os itiv e or n e gativ e a cc o d i n g
r . r r r , r

as g ! is ac u t e o obt u s e
) r .

Th e e x p es s i o s fo r rm ay al s o be obt ai n e d by fi n di g
n 7 ,
v n

from e q u ati on s A t 7 8 t h e i n t e c ept s m a d e by t h e r .

, r

t a ge n t an d o m al o t h e ax is 0 X T he i n t e r c e pt of t h e
n n r n .

t an ge t s u bt ac t e d f o m x 1 g i v e s an d x1 s u btr ac t e d fro m
n r r 7 ,

t h e i n t e r c e pt o f t h e n or m al g i v e s v.

Ex . F in d n
t h e i t e rc e pt s
m ade up o n th e ax e s n n
by t he t a ge t at t he
p noi
t ( x
l,
on t he c u rv e x x/ + V? an d s hw h h
o t at t e ir s u m i s
con t nt s a .

f
D if e re t iat i g th e n n e q u at io n of t h e c u rv e ,

1 Cl
—y
_
- : O .

\ x / Vy dx

Hn e ce t he e q u at io n o ft h e n n
t a ge t is

y ( x ml ) .

Th e x n
i t erce pt 1s x
l
\/ x
l 1,
an d t he y in t e rc ept is y, V xl , 1 , hn e ce

t h e ir s u m is

If a s e rie s of lin es be d ra wn suc h t h t t h m f t h int pt

a e su o e e rce s of

e ac h is t he s am e con t nt s a ,
a cc o u nt b ing t k n f t h ign t h f
e a e o e s s, e o rm

o f t he p a rab o a l to w hi h t h c e
y are a ll t n g n t
a b dily
e n c an e re a se e .

E XE RC IS E S
1 . F in d t h q e e u at io n s of t he t a ge t n n an d t he n orm a lt o t he llip e se
2

2
1 at t he p o i t n ( x
1, yl ) . C o m p are t he pro ce s s w it h th at e m pl y d o e
a

in a n lyti
a c ge o m e t r t
y o o bt a i n th e sa m e re s u lt s.
 1 32 DIFFERE N TIA L CALCUL US [Cm x
J
2 . Fn i d t he e q u at io n of n n
t he t a ge t t o t he c u rve x
2
(x+y ) z a
2
( x —y)
at t he o rigi n .

J 3 . F ind t h q e e u a t io n s of t h e t a ge t n n an d n o rm a l at t he poi t n ( 1 ,
3 )
2
on t he c u rv e y z 9 x 3 .

F in d
4 . t he e q u a t io n s t he t a ge t
of n n an d n o rm a l to e ac h of t he
f ll w in g
o o c u rv es at t he n n
p o i t i dic at e d
3
8
( )a v
a
at t he p o i t for n whi ch x 2a
T
.

, ,
x

y
2
2 x
2 3
x , at t he p o i t s fo r n w hi h c x 1 .

(y) y
2 z: 4 p x, at t he p o i t n (p p )
2 , .

5 . F in d t he va ue l of t he s u bt a ng nt e of y
2 z 3 x
2
12 at x =4 .

C o m p are t h e pro c es s w it h t h at l
a re a dy giv e n in a n alyt ic ge o m e t r
y .

6 . F in d t h l n gt h f t h t g n t t t h
e e o e an e o e c u r ve y
2
z2 x at x 8 .

—
L
, 7 . F in d t h p i t t w h i h t h t ng nt i p
e
‘

o n s a c e a e s a ra ll l e t o t he ax is o f x,

an d a t w h i h it i p p n d i l
c t th i f s er e c u ar o e x ax s or e ac h of t he f ll win g
o o

C II I V CS
‘

( )
2
a ax 2 hxy by2 1 .

3
“8
(B) y ”
3

ax

( r) )
2
(
3
51 x 2 a x .

q 8 .n dit i F in d
n t h t t h t he co o a e co n Ics ax
2
+ by = 1 ,
2
a x
‘
2
+ by = 1
’ 2

h ll t t igh t n gl
s a cu a r a es .

F in d t h ngl t w h i h 5 in t
7 C m p w it h E 8
2 2 2 2
9 .
y e t 8 a e a c x e rs e c s x 18 y 1 44 .

o a re x . .

10 Sh w th t i th. q il t l h yp b l 2 v
o a th n e e u a era er o a x a
2
e are a o f t he
t i n gl f m d by
r a i bl t n g n t
e or e d th o d in t a v ar a e a e an e co r a e ax e s is co n t nt
s a

d q l t
an e ua o C
2
.

11 At w h t n gl d
.
y 8 in ta t 4 a 2y 48 ? e oe s
2
x e rs e c x 2 2

V 1 2 D t m in t h bn m l t th
. e er y e e su or a o e c u rv e
"
a
n "
1
x .

13 F in d t h l . f f whi h t h t n g nt t t he va u e s o x or c e a e o e c urv e

) ( )
2
(
s x x
a a 0

is para ll l t t h
e o e a x is o f x .

14 . Sh w tho at n g nt t he s u bt a e of t he hype rbo l a xy = a

2
is e q l ua to
t he ab s c is s a o f t h p in t f t n g n
e o o a e cy, bu t opp os it e in s ig n .

15 . Prov e th t t h p a b l y e ara o a
2
4 ax has a c on s t an t s ubn o rm a l .
1 34 DIFFE R ENTIA L CAL C UL U S [ C IL x .

B ut
p( 1 c os A0) 2 p s in 2
A0
5 ,

he n c e t an i
« f
A g? 0
8 1 11
1
AO
p 2 —AO AO
1 O

gfi —
Sl
Sin ce
l? 0 — pre c e din g e q u atio n re d u c e s t o
.

l
l , t he
A z
t a n xr
j A p d
i
f
dp p
as
Ex . 1 . A p o i t d es c rib e s n a c ircle of ra di u s
p .

Prov e t h at at any in t nt
s a t he l
a rc v e oc it y is
p t i m es

t he a ngl l
e ve o c it ,
y
ds d0
i . e .
, p
cit dt

Ex . 2 . W he n a po i nt d e s crib e s a i
g ve n
t h at at an y n t nt t h l
i e v e o c it y
u pro ve
c rv e , s a

d
hS
as a ra d iu s c o m po n nte — p nd a a c om
dt dt

p n nt
o e pe rpen di l c u ar t o t he ra d iu s ve ct or

p
g , an d h n th t
e ce a

d
i d0
¢ =
g in =
co s
d
¢ p
FI G 26 . .

dy ”d o
81 elation between d x
. R an d
dp
I f t he i n iti al li n e be t ak e n as t h e ax i s
of x t he t an ge n t li e at P m ake s an
,
n

an l e d ) with th i s li n e
g .

He n c e 0 + 3b = b
q ;

FI G 27 1 1
i 0 t an t an
" "
‘ °
. e .
,
80 TANGE N TS AN D NORMA LS 1 35

82 . en gth of tan gen t n or m al polar s ubtan gen t an d polar

L , , ,

s ubn or m al Th e p o ti o s o f t h e t g e t a n d n o m al i n t e r
. r n an n r

c e t e d b e tw e e n t h e p o i n t of t a P d t h li t h ro h
p g e nc
y a e nn e u
g n

t h e p o l e p e p e n d i c u l a t o t h e a di u s v e c to OP a e c all e d
r r r r , r

t h e p o l a r t a ng e n t l e ng t h an d t h e p ol a r n or m al l e ng t h ;
th e i p o j e c ti o
r r ns on t h is p e rp e n d i c u l ar are c all e d t h e p ol a r

su bt a n g en t an d p o l a r s u bn orm a l .

FI G 28
. a. FI G 28 b
. .

T h u s , le t t h e t a ge t
n n an d n o rm a l at P m e et t he pe rpe n
d ic u lar t o OP in t h e po rn t s N an d M T he n

p o l a t a g e n t le n gth
P N is t h e r n ,

PM is t h e p ol a n o m al le n gth r r ,

ON is t h e p o l a s u bt an g e n t r ,

OM is t he pol ar s u b n o r m al .

T he y a e all s e e n to be i d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d ire c tio n

r n of

t h e i iti al li n e
n The le n gth s o f t he s e li es will n o w
. n be
det e m i n e d
r .

S i n c e PN = OP s e c OP N p s e c !
X : ”

he n c e pol ar t an ge n t l e n gth p
1 36 DIFFERENTIA L C AL C UL US [ c a x .

‘7 l9
Aga i n ON ,
: OP t a n OPN _
p t a n 1 ,
1 =
p
2

clp

d0
he n ce pol a r su bt an g e n t _
p
dp

PM : OP cs c

he n c e pola r n or m al le n gt h

0M : OP c ot OPN = i ii
,
d0

dP
he n ce polar su b n or m al _ °

d0

T he ign s of t he pol a r ta n ge n t le n gth an d pol ar n orm al

s

le n gt h a re a m bi g u o u s o n ac c o u n t of t he r adi c al The d ire c .

f
ti o n of t he s u btan ge n t is d eterm i n e d by t he s ign of p
i
2

ig P
W he n
gP
is po s itive t he d i s t an c e ON s h o u l d be m e as u r e d
,

to t he ri ght an d whe n n e gative to t he left of an ob s erver

, ,

pla c e d at O a d looki n g alo n g OP ; for when 0 i n c re as e s

n

wit h p
P
,
g
is po s itiv e ( Art a d is an a c u t e an gle ( a s . n

ig
l
—
in Fig 2 8 b) w he n 0 d e c re as e s
an d xr is obt u s e Fi
( g
.

2 8 )
as p i n c re as e s ,
f l
1s n egative ,

j a . .

EXERC IS ES

1 . In t he c u rve p a s in 0, fi n d a .

2 . I n t he s p ira l of h
Arc im e de s p 0
a , s how t h t au gh
at 0 an d fin d
t he po l ar s u bt a ng nt e , p o al
r n orm a l , an d po a l
r n
s u b orm a l . Trac e t he
c u rve .

3 F in d f
. o r t he c u rve
2
p a
2
00 8 2 0 t he l
v a u e s o f all t he e xpre s s io n s

t t d i t hi
rea e n s a rt ic le .

4 Sh w t h
. o at i n t he c u rve
p0 a t he po l ar s u bt a ng nt e is of co n st an t

l n gt h
e T . race t he c u rve .
 C H A PT E R XI

DER IV ATIVE OF AN AR C, AR EA, V OLUM E, AND S UR ACE F

OF R EV OLUTION

83 . e rivative of an arc The le n gth 8 of t he a c AP o f

D . r

a g i v e n c u rve y f( )
x m e a s u re d fro
, m a fi x e d poi n t A t o a y n

poi n t P is a f u cti o n of t he ab s ci s s a x of t he l att e poi n t

,
n r ,

an d m ay be e x pr e s s e d by a r e l at io of t he form 8 qS( x) n .

The d eter m i atio of t he f u c tio n I) wh e n t he fo m of

n n n ( r

f is k ow
n n is a n, i m po t a n t a n d s o m eti m e s d i f
r fi c u lt p o bl e m r

in t h e In te g r al C al c u l u s The fi r s t s t e p in it s s o l u ti o n is
.

t o d eter m i n e t h e for m of t h e d e rivative f u n c tio n i

9 ’
o ( )
S x ,
dx
w hi ch is e as ily d o n e by t he m eth o ds of t he D i ffe re n ti al
C al c u l u s .

L et P O be two poi n t s on t he cu r v e ( Fig . le t x, y

be t he c o Or din a t e s o f P; x Ax,
y Ay t h o s e l e n g th
of O ; s t h e

of t h e a c AP ; 8 r As t hat of
t he a c A O
r D a w t he or di at es
. r n

M P N O ; a d d a w P R p a all e l
, n r r

to M N T he n P R = Ax R O= Ay;
.
,

mg , 29 ,
a e PO
r As He n c e
: .

C hor d P O ( Ay)
PQ
1
Ax

éfi AS PQ AS
Th e ref o re '

Ax R O Ax PO
1 38
on . x1 . 83 DE RI VA TIVES OF A R C, A R E A , E TC . 1 39

Ta ki g n t he li m it of b o t h m m e be rs as Ax a ppro ac he s z e ro

4 20 235
21 4
an d p u tt i n
g 1 , by A rt . 6 , Th . an d A rt . 4,

T h 8, C or
. .
, it fo llows t ha t

ds
dx

ds
S i m il arl y
do

M o re ov e r , fro m Art 6 5 .

or in t h e d f i fe e n ti al
r no a t ti o n

2 2 2
ds dx dy .

as a—
84 . Tri gon om et rl c m ea n i n g of d x ' ”
s

( zy
"

Ax Ax PO
S "1 0 8 c os RP 2
As P O As
it follows by t aki n g t he li m it that
dx
c os
ds

whe ei n I) bei n g t h e li m it of t h e an gl e RP O is t he an gle

r ( , ,

whi ch t he t a ge n t at t h e poi t ( x y) m ak e s wit h t he x axi s

n n ,
- .

$
3 l
f
E i
ii
S i m il a l y s in p; w h e n c e
r ,s ec cs c c
8 dx dy
U s i n g t he i d e a of a r ate or dif
fe re t ial a ll t h e s e rel atio n s m ay
n ,

be c o n v e n i e n tl y e x hibit e d by Fig .

80 .

e re s u lt s m ay al s o be d e
T he s
ive d fro m e q u ati on s
r
( )
2 of 0

1
Art 8 3 by p u tti n g 33
.
, t an
dx
1 40 D I FFE RE N TI A L CA L C UL US [ Cm x1 .

85 . D er iva t iv e v olu m e of a s oli d of rev ol ution Le t

of t he .

t h e c u v e AP O e v o lv e ab o u t t h e x a x i s a n d t hu s
r r e e at e -
g , n r

a s u fa c e o f e v o l u tio n ; l e t V r r

be t he v o l u m e i n c l u d e d b e tw e e n
thi s s u fac e t he pl an e ge e at e d r , n r

by t he fi x e d o d i at e a t A a d r n , n

t h e pl an e g e n e r at e d by a n y or d i
n at e M P .

Le t A V be t h e v o l u m e g e er n
F 30
a te d by t h e a e a P M N O
IG . a.
The n r .

A V li e s b e tw e e n t h e v ol u m e s o f t h e c yl in d e s g e n e r ate d r

by t h e re c ta n g l e s PM N R a d S M N O ; t hat is n ,

wy 2
Ax AV < u
(y Ap ) Ax 2
.

D ivi d i n g by Ax an d t aki n g li m it s ,

dV
dx

86 . vative of a s urfa ce of rev ol ut ion Le t S

De ri . be t h e
a re a o f t he s u fac e g e n e at e d by t he a c AP ( Fig
r r r . an d

AS t hat g e n e at e d by t h e a c P O w h o s e le n gt h is As
r r .

D r a w P O OP p a all e l t o OX
'
,
’
r

an d e q u al i l e g t h t o t he a c P O
n n r .

Th e n it m ay be a s s u m e d a s an
a x io m th a t t h e a r e a g e n e a t e d by r

P O lie s b e tw e e n t h e a e as g e n r

e ra t e d by P O ’
an d P O; i
’
. e .
,

2 n yAs AS 2 7r( y Ay) As . FI G 3 1

. .

D ivi din g by As an d p as s i n g t o t he li m i t ,

dS
2 Try,
ds
dS dS cls
_ __

dx ds dx
1 42 D I F FE R E N TI A L C AL C UL U S [Cm x 1 88 . .

88 . D erivat ive of area in po lar rdin at e s Le t A be

coo .

t h e a e a of OK P m e as u e d
r r

fro m a fi x e d ad iu s v e cto OK r r

to an y o th e r adi u s v e c to OP r r

N le t AA be t he a e a of OP O r .

D r a w a c s P M ON , wi t h O s
r a

a center Th e t h e a re a P O O
'

. n ,

I
lie s b e tw e e t he a e s of t he n r a
FI G 33
s e c t o s OPM a n d ON O; ie
. .

r . .
,

p A0 2
AA 30 0 Ap) A0 2
.

D ivi d i n g by A0 an d p as s i n g t o t he li m i t whe n , A0 0, it
follow s that
d0

Fo r t h e d e riv a ti ve of t he r of a c u r v e
a ea in re c t a n
g u arl
1
2
6 1
c o Ord in at e s , s e e Art 1 0 . . T he r es u lt is
x

X
E ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER XI

ds (I A dS
1 . In t he parab o a l y
2
4 a x, fin d
dx dx dx dx

2 . F in d 1
( 3
an d
d
fo r t he c irc el x
2
+ y =
2
a
2
.

dx do
3 . F in d
ii fo r t h e
17
c urv e 6 ” c o s x 1 .

4 F in d t h d i ti
. e x- e r va ve of t he l
vo um e of t he co n e ge n e rat e d by
l in g t h lin y
re v o v eb e ax a ou t t he a x is o f x .

5 F in d t h d i ti
. e x- e r v a ve o f t he l
vo u me of the e llip s oid o f re vo ut io l n ,

2
f m d by
or e l in g x
re v o v _
2
1 ab ou t it s o r ax is .
4
a
1
o 03
6 In t he find
c u rve a
J
_
.
p
d0
 C H APT ER X I I

AS Y M PTOTES

89 . H yp erbolic an d parabolic bra n che s W he n a c u rv e .

ha s a b a ch e x te d i n g to i n fi i t y t he t a n ge t s d a w
r n n n , at n r n

s u c c e s s i v e poi t s of t h i s br a n ch m ay t e n d t o c oi c i d e wi t h
n n

a d e fi n i t e fi x e d li n e a s in t h e f a m ili a c a s e o f t he h perbol a r
y .

O t he o t he r ha n d t he s u c c e s s ive t a g e n t s m ay m o e f a th e
n , n v r r

a n d f art h e r o u t of t h e fi e l d a s in t h e c a s e o f t h e p a ab o l a r .

T he s e t w o ki d s of i n fi n ite bra n che s m ay be c all e d h yp e bol i c

n r

an d p a r a bo l i c .

The r of e ach of t he i n fi n it e bran che s of a c u e c a

c hara c t e rv n

a lw a s be d e t e r m i n e d w h e t h e eq u a ti o of t h u rv e is k n o w n
y n e c n .

90 . e
D fi n i ion t ofa rect il in ear as ym pt ote I f t he t a ge n t s . n

a t s u c c e s s i v e p o i n t s o f a c u ve a pp o ac h a fi x e d s t ai ht li n e
r r
g r

a s a li m iti n po itio n w he n t he poi n t of c o n t ac t m o v e s f a t h e r

g s r

an d fa r t h e r al o g a n y i fi n i t e b a c h o f t h e g i v e
n n r n c u ve n r ,

the n t he fi x e d li n e is c all e d a a s ym p t ot e o f t he c u v e
n r .

T hi s d e fi n i t io n m ay be s t at e d m o e b i e fly bu t l e s s p e r r r

c is e ly as follow s An as ym ptot e to a c u r v e is a t an g e n t
:

w ho s e poi t of c o n t ac t is at i n fi n ity bu t whi ch is n ot it s elf

n -
,

e n tirely at i n fi n ity .

D E TE R M IN ATI ON O F AS Y M PTO TE S

91 . M et hod of limit in g in ter ce pts . The eq u ati o n of t he

t an ge n t at an y poi t ( x1 n , p1 ) b ei ng

— d —
0 01
7
6

1 43
2 0 3
55
0 1
1 44 D I FFE RE N TI A L CA L C UL U S [ C u x11 .

t he i n terce pts m ad e by t h i s l in e on t he c o o d i n at e
r ax e s a re

d
z
x l
00 y1
'

l ’
d 1

dx 1
x
1
y1
dyl

S u ppo s e t he cu rv e h as a bran c h 0 11 w hi ch x —cc

.
an d

p
i 00 . f Th e n
o m 1
( ) t h e c anr t o w h i c h li m its be f o u n d
t he i t e c e p t s x0 yo a pp o a c h as t he c o O din at e s x 1 0 1 o f t he
n r , r r ,

p o i n t of c o n t ac t t e d t o be c o m e i n fi it e I f t he s e l im it s be
n n .

d e n ote d by a b t he e q u atio n o f t h e c orre s po n d i n g a s ym pt o t e is

, ,

i +
‘’

a b

E x c ept in pe ci al c as e s t hi s m eth o d is u s u ally t oo c o mpli

s

c at e d to be of pr a c ti c al u s e in d e t e m i n i n g t h e e q u atio s of r n

t h e as ym ptot e s of a g iv e n c u v e Th e r e a e t h e e o t h e r r . r r

p i n cip al m eth o ds whi ch will alw ays s u ffi c e to de t e m i n e t he

r , r

a s m pt o t e s of c u r ve s w h o s e e q u ati o s i v o l v e o l y a l g e b ai c n n n r
y
f u n c ti o s The s e m ay be c all e d t he m e th o ds o f i n s p e c tio n
n .
,

o f s u b s tit u tio n an d of e x p an s io n, .

92 . M et h od of in s p e ction
ate s a s ymptote s . In fi n i te ordin ,

p a ra l le l t o a x e s W h e a n a l g e b a ic.e q u a ti o n i tnw o c o r n

o di at e s x a n d y is r ati o n ali e d c l e ar e d o f f ac ti on s an d
r n z , r ,

a rr a e d a c c o d i n g to power s o f o n e of t h e c o Ord in at e s s ay
g n r ,

y, it t ak e s t h e for m

a
s
"
( bx ( 2
0193 ex w a y u. 0.

in w hi c h un is a pol yn o m i al of t h e d e g re e n in te rm s o f t he

oth e r c o Or d in at e x , an d u n _ l is o f de
g re e n 1 .

W he n an
y val ue is g iv e n to x, t he eq u atio n d et e i
rm n e s n

valu e s fo y r .

L et it be requ ire d to fi n d for what v al u e of x t he c orre

s pon d in g or d i n a t e y h as an i n fi n ite v al u e .
1 46 D IFFE R E N TI AL CA L C UL U S [ OIL xn .

t wo l e s of x t hat m ak e y i fi n it e ; am e ly tho s e v al u es of
va u n n ,

x t h at m a k e dx + x + f = 0 a n d t he e qu atio n s of t h e i n fi it e
2
e , n

o d i n at e s are f o u n d by f ac to i n g thi s l as t eq u atio n ; an d s o o n

r r .

S i m il a l y by a a n g i n g t h e eq u a ti on o f t h e c u rve acc or d
r ,
rr

i g t o p o w e r s of x it is e as y to fi n d w hat val u e s of y g ive

n ,

an i n fi n ite v al u e to x .

Ex 1 . . In t h e c u rv e

2 x 3
+ x
2
y + xy = x
2 2 — y2
of t he i nfinit e o rd i n at e , a n d d e t e rm i n e the finit e n
po i t
in w h i h t h i lin
c s e m ee t s t he c u rv e .

h
T is is a c u b ic e q u at io n in w hi h t h c e coe ffi i n t
c e of y 3 is z e ro .

Arra ge d in po n w e rs o f y it i s
2 3
( 33 + 1 ) + yx + ( 2 x 0 .

t he e q u at io n fo r y b e c o m es
2
O y + y+2
° 2 01

t h e t wo roo t s of w hi h c are y z 00 , y 2; hn e ce t he e qu at io n of the

i nfinit e o rd i n at e is x infin it e o rdi n at e m e et s t he c u rve

a g ina i n

e re are no infin it e va u e sl of x fo r
finit l
e v a u e s of y .

Ex 2 . . S h w th
o at t he lin es x a, an d y O are as ym pt ot es t o the
c u rv e a x
2
y (x a )
2
Fi
( g 3 4 ) .

Ex 3 . . F in d t h e as m
y pt o t es o f t he c urv e x
2
(y a ) xy
2
C
3
92 A S Y M P TO TE S 147

93 M et hod tit ut ion Obl ique a s ymptot es

of s ubs Th e . . .

as ym ptot e s t h at a re n o t p a r all e l to e it h er a x is c an be fo u n d

by t he m et ho d o f s u b s t it u t io n w h i c h is a ppl ic a bl e t o a ll ,

al g e br a i c c u ve s a d is o f e s pe c ial val u e wh e n t he eq u at io n
‘

r , n

1 v e n I n t he 1 m p lic it fo m
18
g r

f ( a v) 0 .

C o n s i d er t he s tra ight li n e

y mx b, 2
( )
and let it be r e q u ire d to d e ter m i n e m an d b s o t hat t hi s l in e
s hall be a n a s ym pt o t e to t he c u v e f ( x y 0
) r , .

S in c e a n a s ym ptote is t he l im it in g p os i t io n of a li n e t hat -

m ee t s t he c u r ve i n two po in t s t ha t t e n d to c o in c i d e a t
i n fi n ity t he n by m ak i g ( 1 ) a n d ( 2) s i m u lt an eo u s t he
, , n ,

re s u lti n g e q u atio n i x n ,

f( x, mx b) 0,

is to have two of it s roots i fi n it e T hi s req u i e s that t he n . r

c oeffi c i e n t s of t h e two h i gh e s t pow e r s o f x s ha ll v an i s h .

Th e s e c o e ffi c ie n t s e q u at e d to z e o f u i s h two e q u atio n s
, r , rn ,

f o m whi ch t he r e q u i e d v al u e s of m an d b c an be d et e r
r r

m in e d T he s e v al u e s s u b s tit u te d in
. w ill giv e t he ,

e q u atio n of an as ym ptote .

F in d t h
Ex 4 . . e a s ym pt o t e s t o t he c u rve
3
y x
2
(2 a x ) .

I t h fi t pl
n e rs a ce , t h e re a re e v ide n tly n o as
y m pt o t e s p a ra e t o e itll l
e r h
of t h C o d in t
e o r a e axes . To d t m in t h
e er e e lq
o b i u e a s ym p t o t e s , m a e t he k
eq ti ua f th on o e c u rv e s im u lt n aw it h eo u s y mx b, an d e lim in at e y .

Th en

( mx )
2
b) 8 x
( 2 a x ,

or, a rra ng d i e n po w e rs o f x,

2 2 2
m ) )x + 3 b mx
3 3
(1 x (3 m b 2 d

171
3
+ 1 = 0 an d 3 m b —2 a = 0
2
.
 148 D IFF E R E N TI A L CA L C UL US xn
[ Ca .

T hn e m

hn e ce
y x

is t he n f
e q u at io o a n a s m pt o t e
y .

Th t h i d in t
e r e rs e c t io n of h i lin w it h t h
t s e e i n c u bic f nd
g v e ou
2
th q t i n 3 mb
e e ua o 2
x O3 : 0 wh n
, e ce x
a

h
T i s i s t he n ly bliq
o m
y pt t
o u e as o e , as t he o t he r root s o f t he e q u at ion for
m are im a gin y ar .

Ex 5 . .
Fin d t h ym pt t t t h
e as o es o e c u rv e
y( a
2 2
x ) a
2
( a x) .

H e re t he l in y
e 0 is a horiz o t a n l as m
y pt o t e by Art 9 2 . . To fi n d
t he ob liq u e a sym pt ot e s ,
pu t y mx b.
1 50 D I FFE R E N TI AL C A L C UL US [C m x11 .

95 . M eth od ex pan s ion Ex pl icit f un ct i on s Altho ugh

of . .

t h e t wo f o e g o i g m e t h o d s a e i all c as e s s u f
r n fi cie t t o fi d
r n n n

t h e a s ym pt o te s of al g e b ai c c u rv e s ye t in c e t ai n s pe c i al
r , r

c as e s t h e o bliqu e as ym ptot e s are m o s t c o n v e i e n t ly fo u d n n

by t h e m e t h o d of e x p an s io i d e s c e n d in g p o w e s nI t is n r .

b as e d o n t h e p i n c ipl e t hat a s trai ght li n e w ill be an as ym p

r

t o t e to a c u rv e w h e n t he d iffe e n c e betw e e t h e or di ate s

‘

r n n

of t he c u rv e a d o f t he li e c o r e s p on di n g t o a c o m m o n
,
n n , r

a b s c i s s a a ppro ac he s z e o a s t h e ab s c i s s a b e c o m es i n fi n it e
,
r .

It will a ppe a fr o m t he pro c e s s o f appl yi n g t hi s p i c iple

r r n

t hat a li n e a s w e i n g t he c o n d itio n j u s t s tate d will als o

n r

s a ti s f t h e o i g i al d e fi itio n of an a s ym ptot e
r n n
y .

Th e p c ip a l v al u e of t h e m et h o d of e x p an s io n is th at
ri n

it e x hibit s t he m an n er in whi ch e ach i n fi n ite bra n c h ap

p r o a c h e s it s a s ym pt o te .

Ex . F in d t h e a sym pt o t e s o f t he c u rve

wh e n ce y : i x
(
1 _ g
)( 1

H
O
—t : x
(
1 —l +
x 2x 2
—1 +

Hne ce t he o b li q u e a s ym p t o t e s are y ; t ( x 1) ( g
Fi .

T he s ig n o f t he n ex t t e rm s h o w s t at h wh n e x co , t he c u rve is abo v e

t he fi rs t as m pt o t e a n d
y be l w th
o e s e co nd ; d an vic e ve rs a wh n e x co .
 A S Y M P TO TE S 1 51

T he s am e m et h od m ay be a pp lied to cas e s in w hi ch x 18 an e xp lic it

f n
u c t io n of y
T his m e t h o d c an a s o l be e x te nd ed so a s to a pp ly t o c u rv es de fi n ed by
an im p ic it l e q uat io n , f( x, y) 0 .
[ S e e M c M ah o n an d n
S yde r
’
s f
D i fe r
e n t ia l Ca l lc u us ,
”
p .

FI G 3 7 .

X
E ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER XII

F ind t h e as ym pt o t e s o f eac h o f t he f ll w ing

o o c u rv e s

I£ f,
i
1 .
y(a
2
x 2
) : b( 2 x c ) . 7 .
(x a
)y
2 z
(y b) x 2
.

L 8 .

2
x 2 ax 9 xy
2
x
2 3
t .
y O .

)
2 2
1 3 . x
2
y
2
a
2
( x
2 10 .
y(x 3 a x 3
.

3
V11 . x 3 a xy + y
3
O
C 4 y = a +
7
.

12 x 3 3 3
I .
y 2: (1 .

V 5 ° 27
2
W x ) t 13 . x 4
x
2
y
2
a x
2 2
b 4
O.

6 2
'
.
y ( x 1) x
2
14 x
4
y
4
a xy
2
V
. . .

15 . x 3
+ 2
2
x y — xy2
1 .
 C H A PT E R X II I

D IRE CTI ON OF B END I NG . POINTS OF I N LEXI ON F

96 . Con c av ity u pw rd a
ard A c u rv e is s ai d to
an d down w .

be con ca ve d ow w a d in t he vi c i ity o f a poi n t P w h e n

n r n ,

for a fi n ite d i s tan ce on eac h s i d e of P t he c u v e s s itu ate d , r i

FI G 38
. .

below t he t an ge n t draw n at that poi n t as in t he ar cs AD

, ,

FE It is c on c a v e u p w a r d w he n t he cu ve li e s above t he r

tan ge n t , as r D 17 H E
in t h e a cs ,

B y d r awi n g s u c c e s s i v e ta n g e n t s to t he c u rv e as in the ,

fi gu re it is e as il y s ee n t hat if t he poi n t of c o n t ac t ad van c e s

,

to t h e ri ght t he t a ge n t s wi n gs in t he po s itive d ir e ctio n o f

,
n

rotatio n w he n t he c o c a vit y is u pwar d an d in t he n e gati e

n ,
v

d ire c tio n w he n t h e c o n c avity is d o w n w a d H e c e u pwar d r . n

c o n c a vit m b e c all e d a po s iti v e b e d i n of t he c u rve an d

y a
y g n ,

d ow n w a r d c o n c av it y e g ati v e be n d i g
, n n .

A p o i n t at whi c h t h e d ir e c tio n of b e n di n g ch an ge s c o ne

t in u o u s ly fro m p o s iti v e t o n e gati e o i e s

v , s at F o r
r v ce v r a , a
1 54 D I FF E R E N TI AL CA L C UL US [Cm X I II .

f u n ctio n of x a c c o d i g s t h e c o c avity is u pw ar d o d ow n
, r n a n r

w a r d an d h e n ce t hat it s x d e riv at i v e is p os itive or n e gative

,
-
.

Thu s t h e b e d i g of t h e c u rv e is in t he po s itive or n e ga
n n

dy
2
tive d i e c tio n o f rot atio n ac c or di g as t he f u n c tio n 2
r , n
dx
po s itiv e or e gativ e n .

dy
At a poi n t of in fi e x io n t he s lope is a m ax i m u m or
dx
z
dv
m i n im u m , th e e f o r e it s de rivativ e 2 c han ge s s ign fr o m
an d r
dx
po s itiv e to n e gati v e or f o m n egati v e to po s itiv e Thi s r .

l atter c o n ditio n is e v i d e tl y both n e c e s s ar y an d s u ffi ci e n t in

n

or d e r t hat t h e poi t ( x y) m ay be a poi n t of in fle x ion o n

n ,

t h e g ive n c u rv e
He n ce t h e c oor di n ate s of t he poi n t s of in fiex ion o n t he
,

c u ve
y f( )
r
x

m ay be fo u n d by s olvi n g t h e e q u atio n s
0,

an d the n te s ti n g wh eth e r f ( x) c han ge s it s s i gn as x pas s e s ’

thro u gh t he c riti c al v al u e s th u s obt ai n e d T o a n y c iti c al . . r

v al u e a t hat s ati s fi e s t h e te s t c orre s po n ds t he poin t of ,

in fi e x io n ( a,

Ex 1 . . Fo r t he c u rv e
2
y ( 06

n
fi n d t h e po i t s o f in fle x io n , an d s h w th
o e m o de o f variat io n of t he l
s o pe

an d o f t h e o rd i at e n
y
.

d
H e re
dx
4 x (x 2

32
3
4 x
2

hn e ce t he c rit ic a l l
va u e s fo r in fle xion s are x =i
ibh n
f
3
. It w ill be see n
th t

o s
a

it iv e
as x i

to
n c re a se s

n
t

e ga t iv e ,
h gh
ro u

h n th
e ce
$
s e e
3 , t he

is an
s ec o nd d e rivat iv

in fle x io n at wh i h
c

c
a ge

t he
s s i

co
g

n
nf ro

c av it y
m

p
c h ng f
a es ro m up w ard t o do w nward . Simi l ly
ar , at x J t he c on
V3
 D I R E C TI O N OF B E N D I N G 1 55

cav ity ch ang f m d w n w d t pw d es ro o ar o u ar . The f ll w in g n

o o u m e rica l
t bl w ill h lp t
a e h w th m d f i ti n
e o s o e o e o var a o of t he o rd i n a te an d o f t he
lp
s o d t h di
e , an t i n f b n d in g
e re c o o e .

1
A ins x f m t
cre a ses ro co o
3
t h b n ding i p it i
e e d ths lp os ve , a n e s o e

co nt in lly in ua f m th h
c re ase s
g ro 00 ro u

z e ro t m im m
o a l fi whi h
ax u va u e ,
c

i th l p
s e s o f th t t i n y t n g nt
e o e s a o ar a e

d w n t t h p in t
ra a é 9)
e 4 o ,

A s nt in t in
x co f mue s o c re a s e ro

l t 1
ot h b n din g i n g
- e e s e a
V3
tive , d th an lp d e f ms o e e creas e s ro
8
th _ g h t
ro u m in im m z e ro o a u

8 1 4
valu e wh o

I ch IS
o

t he 8 10 pe o f t he s t at l o n ary t a n ge n t at
0

V3 9
1
F in lly a in , as x c re a se s f ro m - to co , t he be d i g n n 18

vs
an d t h l p in e s o e crea se s f ro m t he va ue l
8
th g h ro u z e ro to 00 .

T he l
v a ue s x —1 , 0, + 1, at

h h th l
w ic e s ope p ass es thro u g h z e ro ,

c o rre s po n d t o t urn in g va u e s l of t he
o rdi na te .

Ex 2 . . Ex am in e for infi ex ions t he

23! l (x 4
dx 3

iv
d _ 2(x 4)
-
2
2
d x 9

H e n ce ,
2
at t he p o i t n 4 ,
Si
an d
25
—
2
are i nfinit e . Wh n e x 4,

18 po s it ive , a n d wh n e x 4, fl 2
is n e gat ive .

d x
1 56 D I FFE R E N TI A L CAL C UL US [ Cm X II I .

T hu s t he re is a n
po i t o f in fi e x io n at 4, at ic t he wh h l
s o pe is
in finit e, an d t he n n hn f
be d i g c a ge s ro m t h e p o s it ive t o t he n e gat iv e

d irect io n .

EX 3 . . Co n s id er t he c u rve =
y x
4
.

913 4 x3 ,
i-
d
. Z 12 2
13 .
2
dx dx
2
d
—3
At ( 0, is z e ro , b ut t he
2
dx
2
d
—
c u rv e h as n o In fi eX IO n , fo r 2
2
n ever
dx
FI G 4 1. .
c h nga e s S ig n (Fig .

98 . An a lyt ical d er ivation of e s t for t h e directi on of

t he t

be n din g . Le t t h e qu ati on
e o f a c u v e be
y r a d l e t n

P , (x 1 yl ) , be a
, p oi t u p on
n it The n t h e e qu atio n of t h e
.

t an ge n t at P is
y 01 23
1 )
S u ppo s e that w h en x ch an ge s fro m x
1
to x
1
h, t h e
n at e of t h e t an g e t c h a n g e fro m n

y1 t o t h at of t h e c u rve

fro m yl to y ; t h e it is pro
”
n

po s e d to de ter m i e t he s i gn of n

t h e difl e re n c e o f o d in at e s y
’ ’
y r

c orre s po n d i g to t h e
(x r h )
s am e ab
'
47.
n
FI G 42
s ci s s a x
‘ °

1
h .

B y T aylor s t h eor e m
’
,

f ( 0+
,
= f( 2’
1
‘
I bf‘

( 1)2 2
1 2

an d f omr t he b o v e e qu atio n
a of the ta n
g e n t ,

I h )
,
y 01 ( 23
1
“ “
2
1

H e n ce a y1 + A
r e a) .
an d it follows t hat
”
g fl
' ’
v v H
 1 58 D I FFE R E N TI A L CA L C UL US [ OIL X II I . 99 .

I n t he vic in i t
y f
o a
g iven
p oin t ( x,
y) t he c u rve is c on vex or

c on ca ve t o t he x -a x is , a cc or din
g as t he p ro d u c t y is p os it ive
or n e
g a t ive .

X
E ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER X III

1 . Ex am i n e t he c u rv e
y 2 3 (x fo r po i t s n o f in fi eX io n .

2 . Sh w t h
o at t he c u rv e a
2
y x a2
( x
2
) ha s a p o i nt of in fi ex io n
the or igin .

s
8
3 . F in d t h e n
po i t s of in fi ex io n on t he c urv e y 2
a

x 4a 2

4 . In t he c u r ve ay x71
, p r ov e t h at t he o rigi n is a p o i nt of in fi ex io n
if m an d n are p o s it ive o dd n
i t e ge rs .

5 . Sh w th
o at t he c u rv e y z c s in h as an i nfin it n e u m b er o f o i
p nt s of

in fle x ion lyin g on a s t r aig t li h n e .

6 . Sh w t h
o at t he c u rv e y( x
2
+ a
2
) = x hh as t re e
p o i nt s of in flex io n
lying o n a s t ra ig ht lin e ; fi n d t he e q u at io n f t h l in
o e e

7 .If y 2
f( )
x b e t h e e u a t io q n o f a c u rv e , p ro v e t h at t he ab sc is s as o f

it s p o i t sno f in fi e x io n s at is
y th e e f qu at io n
2 1 158 )

8 . D ra w t h e p art of t he c u rv e a
2
y
g ax
2 2a n 3
e ar it s po i t n of

in fle x io n , an d fi n d t he e q
u a t io n o f t he s t at io n ary ta ng nt e .
 C H APTE R XI V

CONTACT AND CUR VATUR E

1 00 . Order of con t act . Th e poi t s of in ter s e ctio n of

n t he

two cu rve s
y l( ) y “
I( ) x () x ,
f

are fo u n d by m aki n g t h e two e q u a tio n s s i m u lt an eo u s ; t h at

is by fi n d i n g t h o s e val u e s o f x for w h i c h
,

9( ) x « »
1( )
2

S u ppo s e x = a is on e v al u e t h t a sa ti s fi e s thi s e qu ati o n .

The n t he poi nt x = a, is c o m m o n t o t h e
cu r ve s .

If, m o re ov e r, t h e t w o rv e s hav e t he s am e t an g e n t at
cu

t hi s poi t the y a e s ai d t o t o u ch e ach oth e o t o hav e

n ,
r r, r

c on t a t o f t h e fi s t o d e r w it h e ach ot h e r
c r r Th e v al u es o f y .

an d o f a e t hu s t h e s am e fo
r both c u rve s at t he poi n t inr

q u e s tio n w h i c h r e u ir e s t h at
, q
() I ( ) a ‘ ’
f( )a ,

9T ) “ WOO
2
d g
I f, in add itio n t he v al u e of
,
be t he s am e for ea ch
dx2

cu rve at t he poi n t th e n
,

4 ( ) a ,

an d t he cu rv e s are sa i d to have a c o n t ac t of t he s e con d

o d e with
r r e ac h othe r .

If ¢( ) an d all t he de riv ative s to t he n th

“

a up

or d er i n c l u s iv e be e qu al to e a ch oth er t he , c u rv e s a re sa id
1 59
1 60 D I FF ER E N TI AL CA L C UL US [ c m X IV .

t o ha ve t c t o f t he n t h o d e
c on a T hi s is s e e n t o e qu i e
r r . r r

n + 1 c o n d iti o n s H e n c e if t h e e qu atio n o f t h e c u rve

.

be g i v e n a d if t h e e q u a ti on of a s e c o n d c u rv e
, n

b w itt e
e r in t h e f o m
n i w h i c h b( x ) p o c e e d s
r n « r

in pow e s o f x wit h u d e t e m i e d c o e ffi c i e t s th e n
r n + 1
r n n , n

o f t h es e c o e f
fi c ie t s c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d by e q uI n g t h e
n r rI

s e c o d c u v e t o h av e c o t a c t o f t h e n t h or d e r wit h t h e
n r n

g iv e n c u v e at a
r
g i v e p oi t n n .

1 01 . Nu mb er tion s im pl ied by con t act A s tr ai gh t

of con d i .

li n e h as two a b it a y c o s t a ts w hi ch can be d et e r m i e d
r r r n n , n

by two c o n d itio s a c c o di n l
n
g y a s t a i h t li e c an be d a w n
g r r n r

wh i ch to u che s a gi e c u v e at an y s p e c ifi e d p o i n t Fo r if
v n r .

t he e q u atio n of a li n e be w itt e n g mx b t he n r ,

2
dx dx

h en c e , th ro u gh an y a bit a y p in t x = o n a giv e n cu v e
r r r o a r

g j— a li n e c a b e d a w n w h i c h h as c o n t a c t of t h e fi s t
n r r

o r de r wi t h t he c u v e bu t whi ch h as o t i ge n e al c o n tac t
r ,
n n r

o f t h e s e c o n d o d er ; for t h e two c o di ti o n s for fi t or d er

r rs - n

c o n ta c t are

whi c h j u s t s u ffi c ie n t t o d e t e r m i n e m a d b
ar e n .

In g e e r a l n o li e c an be d r a w n h a vi g c o t ac t of a n
n n n n

or d er hi gh e r t h a n t h e fi s t wit h a g iv e n c u rv e : bu t th e r e
r

a e c e rt a i n poi n t s a t w h i c h t h i s c a
r be d o e F or e x am ple n n .
,

t h e a dd iti o n al c o n d itio n for s e c o n d o d e r c o n t ac t is O ( a) - r

,

whi ch is s ati s fi e d w he t h e po i t x a is a p o i n t of i fle x io n
‘

n n n

o n t he
g iv e n c u rv e y = T h u s t h e t a ge n t at a p o i n t .
n

of in fi e x ion o n a c u rve has c o n tac t of t he s e c o n d o d e r r

with t h e cu rv e .
162 D I F F E R E N TI A L C A L C UL US [ C m XI v
“

S i n c e by hyp o th e s i s t h e two c u rv e s h av e c o n t a c t of the

n t h or d e r a t t h e p o i n t w h o s e abs c l s s a i s a , h e n c e

1
9 (
> a)
I ( )
f a , «
NO W OO ,

n+l
h
an d
91

bu t t hi s ex pr e s s io n w h e n , h is s uf c en fi i tl y d i m i n i s he d , h as
t he s am e s ign as
I-l
n-
h

He n ce if n be o dd yl y2 d o e s n ot c ha ge S i gn whe n h is
, ,
n

c han g e d i n t o h a d t hu s t h e two cu v e s d o n o t c r o s s e a ch
,
n r

othe r at t he c o m m o n p o i n t O n t he o the r ha d if n be . n ,

e ven y c h a n g e s S i g n wit h h ; a n d t h e e fo e w h e n t h e r r
, 1 v
y2
c o n t a c t is o f e v e n or d e t he c u v e s c o s s e ach oth er at t h eir
r r r

c o m m on p oi n t .

F or e x am pl e t h e t a ge n t li n e u s u all y li e s e ti el y o n o e
,
n n r n

s i d e of t h e c u v e bu t at a p o i t of i fi e x io n t h e t an g e n t
r ,
n n

c r o s s e s t he c u v e r .

Ag ai t h e C cl e o f s e co d o d e
n, ir c o t ac t c o s s e s t he n - r r n r

cu ve
r e x c e pt at t he s p e c i a l p o i t s o t e d l ate in w h i c h n n r,

t h e c ir c le h as c o t ac t o f t h e t h i d o d e r
n r r .

E X ERC IS ES

1 . F ind t h e orde r o f co nt ac t o f t h e c u rv e s

4y z x
2
an d y z x —l .

2 . F in d t h e o rd e r o f c o nt a c t o f t h e cu rve s

x y
3
an d x
y 1

3 . Fi nd the o rd e r o f c o nt a c t o f t he c u rv e s

4y= x
2 —4 an d x
2 —2 y = 3 —y2 .

4 . D e t e rm i n e t he p ar ab o a l n
hav i g it s a x is p ara e ll l to t he y-ax is ,
w hi h c ha s t he c lo se s t po s s ibl e n
c o t ac t w
it h t he c u rve 2
(1 7; x 3
at t h e

po int ( a, a ) .
1 02 .

C O N TA C T AN D C UR VA T UR E 163

5 . D e t e rm i n e a s t ra ig ht lin w hi h e c ha s co nt ac t of the secon d o rd e r

wit h t h e c u rve

y = x2 —3 x2 —9 x + 9 .

6 . F ind t h e o rd e r o f c o nt act of

y = lo g ( x - 1) an d x2 —6 x + 2 y +
at t he poi t n ( 2 , O) .

7 . Wh at m u st be t he v alu e o f a in o rder t h at t he c u rves

an d xy = 3 x —1
n t ac t o f t h e s ec o n d o rd er ?

1 03 . Cir cl e vature The c ir cl e that has c o n tact of

of cur .

t he c l o s e s t o d e r wit h a g i v en c u ve at a s pe c i fi e d poi n t is
'

r r

c all e d t h e os c u l a t i g c i c le or c ir c l e of c u v a t u e of t h e
n r r r

c u v e at t he g i v e n p o i n t
r Th e r a d i u s o f t hi s c i c l e is c all e d
. r

t h e r a d i u s o f c u v at u e a d it s c e n t e is c alle d t h e c e n t e r
r r , n r

of c u rv at u e at t he as s i g e d poi n t
r n .

1 04 en gth of ra di u s of curv ature ; coordin at es

. L of cen t er

of cu rvatu r e Le t t h e equ ati on of a c i c le be

. r

( X 1
( )
in whi c h R is t he r a di u s an d 8 a e t he c o or di n ate s of t he
, a, ,
r

c e n te t h e c u e n t c o Ord in at e s b e i n g d e n ot e d by X Y to
r, rr ,

d i s ti n gu i s h t he m f o m t h e c o brdin at e s of a poi n t o n t he
r

g iv en c u rv e .

It is r e q u i e d to d e ter m i e R
r 8 S O t h a t t hi s c ir c le
n ,
a, , ,

m ay h a ve c o t a c t of t h e s e c o n d or d e r with t h e give n c u rve

n

a t t he poi n t
( y)
x , .

Fro m by s u cc e s s iv e d i ffere n ti ati o it follow s t hat n,

dY
( X

2
1 + + (Y — 8)
d —Y
ZZ X
1
16 4 D I FFE R E N TI AL C AL C UL US [ O IL X I V .

If t he ir c l e ( 1 ) h as c on t ac t o f t he s e co n d or de
c r at t he
p o i n t ( x g) with t he g iv e c u v e t he n w he n X =
,
n r , x it is
n e c e s s ar t h at
y
Y y,
2
dY dg 02 V fig .
,
dX dx dX 2
dx 2

S u b s tit u ti n g th e s e ex pr e s s i o n s in

—B
( w

1 + (y —B
+ )
wh e n c e

an d fi n ally , by s u b s tit u tio n in

1 05 . ire ction of radi us of curvature

D . Si n ce , at an
y poi n t
P on t he g iv e n c u rv e t he v a l u e of
, is t h e s am e for t he

cu rv e o s c u l ati n g c ir c l e fo t ha t poi t it follow s that

an d t he r n ,

they h ave t h e s am e t an ge n t an d o m al at P an d he n ce n r ,

that t he ra d i u s of c u rv at u re c o i n c i de s with t he n orm al .

Agai n s i n c e t h e v al u e of $3 is t h e s am e fo r b o t h c u rve s at
2

P, it follo ws f o m r Art 9 7, t h at t he y h a v e t h e
. s am e d ir e c tion
1 66 D I F FE R E N TI AL C A L C UL US ( o n x rv
. .

1 06 . To tal
vat ure of a giv en arc ; av era ge curvature
cu r .

Th e total c u rv a t u re o f a n arc P O ( Fig 4 6 ) in w hic h t he .

be n d i n g is c o ti n u o u s an d in on e d ir c o n

tio n is t he an gle t h o u gh whi ch t h e

, r

t a n g e t s wi n g s a s t h e p o i n t of c on t a c t
n

m o v e s f o m t he i iti al p o in t P t o t h e
r n

term i n al poi n t O ; or in other wor ds , ,

F 46 IG .
it
.
is t h e a gl e b e twee n t h e t an g e n t s at
n

P an d O m e as u r e d f o m t he for m er to
, r

t he l atter Thu s t he t o t al c u v a t u e o f a g iv e n are is po s i

. r r

tive or n e gative acc or d i g as t h e b e di g is in t he po s itive

n n n

or n e g tive dire c tio n of r o t ati on

a .

Th e t o t al c u rv at u e o f a n are d ivi d e d by t h e le n gth of t he

r
’

a c is c alle d t h e a ve ag e c u v a t u e of t he arc
r r r Thu s if t he
r .
,

l e n gth of t he a c P O be As c e n ti m et e r s an d if it s total
r ,

c u rvat u re be A ra d ia th e i avera e at re i
4 n s ) n t s ,g c ur v u s
8
ra dian s per c e n ti m e ter .

1 07 . Mea s ure of curv at ure at a giv e n poin t . The m ea s u re

Of t he of a g iv
c u r va t u re en c u rv e a t a g iv e n poi n t P is t h e

li m it w hi ch t h e aver ag e c u rvat u re of t he arc P O approa che s

whe n t he poi n t O appro ache s c oi n ci d e n c e with P .

S i n c e t h e av e ag e c u rv at u e of t he arc P O is
r r t he

m eas u re of t he c u rvat u re at t h e poi n t P is

x : r:
A8 =O
AS 618
,

an d m ay be re gar d e d as t h e rat e o f d e fle c tio n of t he are fro m

t h e t an g e n t e s ti m a t e d pe r u n it of le gt h ; or a gai n as t h e n ,

r atio of t he an gu l ar velo c ity of t he t an ge n t to t he li n ear

velo c ity of t he poi n t of c o n tact .
1 06 —108 ] C ON TA C T A N D C UR VA T UR E 167

To e x pre s s to in term s o f x , g , an d their d e rivative s ob s e rve

,

dx
—1 13
W he n ce b
( t an

ds

th e e fore
r
[ A rt 8 3
.

1 08 . Curv t ure a ati n g circle A c u rve

of os cul . an d it s os c u

l ati n g c i cl e r at P h a ve t h e s am e m e a s u r e o f cu r v at u r e at

that poi n t .

Fo r, l e t their re s pe ctiv e m e as u r e s
it , E
’
be o f cu rvatu re at
t he poi n t of co n tact ( x g) Th e n f o m Art , . r . 1 07,

div

B ut thi s is t he re cipro c al of t he e x pre s s io n for t he r adi u s

of c u r vatu re ( E q p . . he n ce

1c :
1 68 D I FFE R E N TI A L C AL C UL US ( on XI V . .

Th at IS : t he m ea s u re f
o c u rva tu r e te at a
p oin t P is t he

re c ip roc a l o f t he r ad iu s o f cu rva t u r e R for t ha t p i o nt . S i n ce

a cu rve an d it s o s cu l ati g c i cl e h av e t he ad i u s at
n r s am e r

t he ir poi n t of c o n t act it follows f o m thi s e s u lt th at the , r r

m e a s u r e of c u rv a t u e is al s o t h e s am e for bot h r .

I t is o n a c c o u n t of t h i s p opert y t h at t he o s c u lati g c ir cle r n

is c all e d t h e c i c le of c u rv a t u r e Th i s is s o m e ti m e s u s e d s
r . a

t he d e fi n i n g p o p e rt y o f t h e c ir cle o f c u rv at u e
r The r a d i u s r .

of c u rvatu re at P w o u l d the n be de fi n e d as t he adi u s of t he r

c ir c l e w h o s e m e a s u r e of c u rv a t u e is t h e s am e a s t h a t o f t h e r

g iv e n c u r v e a t t he poi n t P I t s v al u e as f o u n d fro m Art .

, .

1 06 an d Art 1 07 a c c or d s with t h a t g i v e n in Art 1 04

.
, . .

X
E ERC IS ES

1 . F ind t h e ra diu s o f c u rvat u re o f t he c urve 2

y 4 ax at t he o rig i n .

2 . F ind t h e ra diu s o f c u rv at ur e o f t he c u rve c

2
v
at t he igin
or .

3 . F i d th n e ra d iu s o f curvat u re o f t he c u rv e a3 y bxs
ox
2
y at t he
o rigin .

F in d t h h f ll w in g
.

e rad i u s o f c u rv at u re fo r e ac o f t he o o c u rve s

4 . xy m 2
. n
R e ct a gul ar h yp e rb o a l .

—
7 1 . Hyp e rb o la .

6 a
n ‘
l
y
”
x . Ge n e ra lp ar abo a l .

7 . V5: xf y x/ O. Pa rabo l a .

8 . x 2 y
2 ‘

o f. Hyp l
o cyc oid .

9 y
2
C is so id
N
. .
“

—
n
10 .
y
3 0 95 e E) . C at e ar
y .
1 70 D I FFE R E N TI A L CAL C UL US [ OIL X I V .

1
W he n u is t ake n as dep e n den t var abl ei , t he e x pre s
p
Sl on for 1c a s s u m e s t he s 1 m pl e r f o rm

Si n c e
at a poi n t of in flex ron van i s hes an d chan ge s s i gn 1c ,

he n c e t h e c o n ditio n for a poi t o f in fi e x io n ex p e s s e d in n , r

2
da
pol ar c obrdin at e s is that u s hall va n i s h an d c h an e
, g
2
d0
S i gn .

E X ERC IS ES

Fi nd t he ra d iu s o f c u rv at u re fo r e ac h o f t he f ll w i
o o n g curve s

1 .
p z a" . 3 .
p
= 2 a co s 0 —a . 5 .
p
2
cos 20= a
2
.

2 .
p = 9
a
2
co s 2 0 . 4 .
p c os
2
§0
t
= a. 6 .
p = 2 a (1 — co s 0) .

7 .
p0 a .

E V O LUTE S AN D IN V OLUTE S

110 . D efi n i ion t of an ev olute . W he n poi n t

t he P m ov e s
alo n g t h e g i v e n c u r ve t he c en t e r ,
d e s c ib es o f c u rv at u e 0 r r

a n ot her c u r v e w hi ch is c alle d t h e e v olu t e f t he fi s t o r .

L et f( x y) 0 be t he e q u atio n of t h e g iv e n c u v e The
,
r . n

t h e eq u atio n of t h e lo c u s d e s c ribe d by t he poi n t 0 is fo u n d

by eli m i n ati n g x an d y f o m t h e t h ree e q u atio n s r

0,

dx
109 C ON TA C T A N D O UR VA T UR E 1 71

an d thu s obt ai n i n g a relation betwee n 3 t h e c oor d i n a t e s a, , ,

of t he c e n t e r of c u rvat u re .

N o g e n e al pro c e s s of e li m i n atio n c an be g iv e n ; t h e
r

m e t h o d to be a d o pte d d ep en d s u po n t he fo m of t he g ive n r

equ atio n f( x y) 0 , .

E 1 x .F in d t h
. l t f th p b l y 4 p x
e e vo u e o e ara o a 2
.

2
d i 2 d 1
n i i
Si ce y = 2 p x ,
5 2 p x ,

—
— 2x 2 -
il3g
1
( +
4
) 2 17 2 6”
1
x a p 173

31 B ( 1 I n
“
) 2 192 56 2 2 0 92 96 2 P295 2);
a = 2 p + 3 x, p = _ s
p
i xi -
.

T he re s u lt o f e lim i n t in g
a x b et w n th l
ee e a st t wo e qu at i n s is
o

s o 3: ( p ier.
21 0
3 27 103 2
.
1 72 D I FFE R E N TI AL CAL C UL U S

whi h c is t h e e q u a t io n of t he e vo u t e l of t he p arabo la, a, 8

,
c u rre nt co ordi n at es .

EX 2 . . F ind t h l
e e v o u t e o f t he e llip se

2 2
x y
I
_

R F
y dy {L
5
_ y
+
.

’
2 2
b dx dx a
2
y
da
y x—
— b2
2
( 11 7; b2
ii x b2
bx 2 2

(
-

)
2 2 2 2
5
_
y ( a y
dx ’ 2
y
2
a
2
y
2
F F a
4
y
3

wh e n ce
2
911
4 2 2
(
(
2 e
0 x
3 a y y
y B :

a b
“2
b ,
a b 4
1
b2

2
62
T h f e re o re
a _

S i m I larly,
4
a

l
E im i n t in g
a x, y be t w n ee t he e q u at io n of t h e loc u s
d e sc ribe d by ( a, 8
, ) is

m
( o i ( in f ( a
s
bai Fi
( g 5 2) .

111 . Propertie s
v olute The e v ol u te of t he e . h as t w o im
porta t pr o p e r t ie s t hat will o w be e s t abli s he d
n n .

I . The n orm a l t o t he cu rve is t a ng en t t o t he evolu t e . Th e

p

l ti o n s c o n n e c ti g t he c o O d in at e s (
re a n r a, 8)
,
of t he cen er oft
c u rv a t u re wit h t he c o brd i at e s ( x y of t he orr e s po ndi ng
) n , c

poi n t o n t he c u rve are by Art 1 04 , .

,

x —a 8) — O
+ (y , ,

B y d i ff e r e n ti ati n g 1
( ) as to x, c on s i de i n g r a . B 9 ,
as

f u n c tio n s of x ,

2
d y da '
dd
—O
.

(2 B> _
.
2
dx dx d x ( ix
1 74 D IFFERENTIA L CA L C UL Us [ C m X I V .

Agai n , fro m ( 1 ) an d

dB
dx
x — a
9
— 8

H e n c e each of t he s e frac tio n s

, is e qu al to

9
( )

in whi ch is t he arc of t he evol u te ( C o m p are Art

a . .

N e x t m u ltipl yi g n u m e ator a d d e n o m i at o of t h e fi r s t
, n r n n r

m e m b e r o f ( 8 ) by x an d th o s e of t h e s e c o n d m e m b e r b
a,
y
g B ,a d c o mnbi n i g n e w n u mne r a t o s an d d e n o m i n a to s it r r ,

follows th at e ach of t he f ac ti on s i n ( 8) is e qu al to
r

( iv — a
) + <y

R
whi ch equ al s ?
15
by 7
( ) an d

B y c o m bi n in g with

i ”
dx h
as

th at is ,
dx

T herefore 0
'

j: R c on s tan t ,
1
( )0

wh erei n a is m e as u re d fro m a fi x e d poi n t A on t he evol u t e .

N ow, let 0 1 , 02 be t he c e n ter s of c u rvat u e for t he poi n t s

. r
 CON TA CT AN D CUR VA TURE 1 75

PI P 2, on t he g i v en cu rve ; le t P 1 0 1 P 2 02 R2 ; an d

le t t h e r
a cs A 0 1 A 02 be d e n ot e d by
, 0
1,
0
2
. The n
“

a
1 j ; R I
6 2 j : R 2 , by

that is , a
,
0
2 1: R
( 2 R 1) ;

he n ce , arc 02 R2 RI .

T h u s , in Fig 4 9 , .

P1 01 0 1 02 P 2 02,
P2 02 0 2 03 P 3 03 , et c .

He c e if a th r e ad be w appe d
n , r

a o un d
r t h e e vol u t e an d the n be ,

u wo u n d t h e free e n d o f it c a n be
n ,

m a d e to t ace o u t th e ori gi a l c u rv e
r n .

F r o m th i s prop e ty t he lo c u s o f t he r
F 49 IG
c e t e s of c u v at u e of a ive n cu v e
. .

n r
gr r r

i s c all e d t h e e volu t e o f t h a t c u v e an d t h e l a tt e is c alle d r ,

r

t h e i n volu t e of t he f o rm e r .

W he n t he s tri n g is u wo u d e ach p o i t o f it d e s c ibe s a n n ,

n r

d i ff e r e n t i n vol u t e ; h e n c e a y c u v e h as a n i n fi n ite n u m b e r ,
n r

o f i n v o l u t e s bu t o n l v ol u t e
'

y o , e e n .

A y two of the s e i n v o l u t e s i n ter c ept a c o n s t an t d i s t an c e

n

on t he ir c o m m o n n o m a l a d are c all e d p a a l l e l c u v e s o
r ,
n r r n

a c c o u n t of t hi s propert
y .

EX . F ind t h l ngth e e of t h at p art o f t h e e volut e o f t h e p arabo l wh i h

a c

lie s i n s id e t he c u rv e .

F m ro Fig 47 t he re u ire d
. q l n gt h i t wi t h diff n b t w n t h
e s ce e e re ce e ee e

ta ng nte s 0 3 P3 an d POC O, bo t h f whi h n m l t th p b l

o c are or a s o e ara o a .

T o fi n d t he c o ord i n at e s o f t h p in t P w it t h
e o q t i n f th t 3,
r e e e ua o o e an

n
ge t t o t he e vo lu t e at C3 , an d fi d th n th p i n t t w h
e o i h it in t t er o a c e rs e c s

t he parabo la .

Th e co or d i n 0 3 t h e p o i t o f i t er se ct io of the t wo
at e s o f , n n n c u rve s , are

( 8 p ; 4 an d t he e u at io q n
o f t he t an ge n t at C 3 is '

2x
‘

—8 p =0 .
1 76 DIFFEREN TIA L CALCUL Us ( o n XI V
,
‘

h n n n
T is t a ge t i t erse ct s t he p arabo l a at t he po i t n 2
( p,
wh h ic is P3 .

T he l
v a ue of t he ra diu s o f c u rv at u re is M , he n ce P0 0 0 2p,

P3 0 3 p , hn e ce t he a rc 0 0 0 3 is 2 p an d the re q u ire d
l n gt h
e o f t he e v o u e l t is t he f re o re 4p

EXERC lS ES

F in d t h e c o o rd i n at e s o f t h e c e nt e r o f c u rv at u re for e a ch o f t he f llow o

in g c u rv e s

l
+ y =
2 2 2
l . x ~
a

3
f
— — — —
2
2 . x z a lo g —L L L —Vfl g
flCl "

. 4 .

2/

F in d t h q e e u a t io n s o f t he e volu t e s o f t he f ll wing
o o c u rve s

1 5 . xy a
2
. 6 . a
2 2
6 2
x
?
a
2 2
6 . x % g§ a % .

h w th t th
8 . S ot a e c u rv a u re o f a n llip e se is a n
m i im u m at t he en d

o f t h m in e i d t h t th o r ax s , an a e o s cu a l t ing c irc e at l t hi s p o in t has co n

t a t f t h t hi d
c o d wit h t h
e r or er e c urve .

FI G . 50 .

T is h c irc le o f c u rv at u re m u st be e n ti ly re o u t s id e t he l
el ip se Fi
( g .

For, co n s id e r n
t wo po i t s PI, P2 , one on , e ac h s ide o f B , t he e n d of t he
1 78 DIFFERENTIA L CALCUL Us [ C m x 1 v . 111 .

the ce nt er c u rv a t u re t he v e r te x A Fi
( g .
pro v e
t h at CE :
2
a e , in wh h ic 6

is t he e cc e n t i ityr c of t he
e llip se ; an d h n th
e ce at CD ,
CA, C F, C E f o rm a ge o
m e t ric s e rie s w h os e co m

m on rat io is e . S hw l o a so

t h at D A, A F , FE f orm a

l
s im i ar s e rie s .

14 . If H be t he ce nt er o f

c u rv a t u re at B , sh w th t
o a

t h e p o i t H is n ou or w it h t
w hn
it i t h e e ip se , ac c o r ll d in g
as a or l) x/ 5, o r a c co rd
2
in g as e or

15 . Sh w by in p
o s ect io n
of t he fig t h t fu re a o u r re a l
n l
o rm a s b d wn t c an e ra o

th llip f m y p i t
e e se ro an o n

FI G . 52 .
w it h in t h lt e e vo u e .
 C H APT E R X V

S I NGULAR POI NTS

112 . t eof a
D fi n i ion s in gul ar p oin t I f t h e eq u atio n .

f ( x g) , 0 be r pre e t
e s n e d b y a c u ve t h e d eriv a tiv e L
( y
r , ’
dx
wh e n it h as a de t e mi n at e v al u e m e as u re s t h e s lop e of t h e
r ,

t an g e t at t he poi t ( x g) T he e m ay be c e t ai n p o i n t s
n n , . r r

o n t h e c u r ve h o w e v e a t w hi c h t h e
, exp es s ion
r, fo the r r

d e i v a tiv e a s s u m e s a ill u s ory o i n d eter m i n at e fo m ; an d

r n r r ,

i c o n s e q u e c e t h e s 10 p e of t h e t an g e t at s u c h a poi n t c an
n n , n

n o t be d i e c tl y d et e r m i e d by t h e m e t h o d o f Art
r n 10 S u ch . .

v al u e s o f x are c all d s i ng u la r v a l u e s an d t h e c o
e
g , e , rr

s p o n d in g p o i t s o n t h e c u v e a e c all e d s i ng u l a
n r p oin t s
r r .

1 13 eter min ati on of s in gul ar poin ts of a l gebra ic curv e s

. D .

W h e n t he e quati o of t h e c u v e is ra t io n ali e d an d c l e ar e d
n r z

of fr ac tio n s let it take t h e for m f ( x g ) 0

, , .

Th i s g iv e s by d i ffe e n ti atio n wit h r e gar d to x as in

, r ,

Art 7 1 , .

(if Gf clg
dx 6 g dx

Bf
dx
w he n c e
6f
ar

In o r d e t hat
r
ZZ
’
m ay b e c o m e ill u s ory , it is t herefor e
e
n c es s ar y that ( )
2
1 80 DIFFERENTIA L CA L C UL u s ( on . xv .

Th u s t o d e ter m i n e whether a g ive n curve f ( x g) 0

,

6f
has i
s n gu a l r p o i n t s pu t an d e ach e u al to z ero an d
q
,
7
6 :
s olv e t h e s e e q u a tio n s for x an d
g .

I f an y p air o f v al u e s o f x an d g s o fo u n d s ati s fy t he , ,

e q u a tio n f ( x g 0 h e poi n t d et e r m i n e d b t h e m is a
, ) t , y
s i n g u l a r p o i n t o n t h e c u rve .

T o d e t e r m i n e t he appe a r an c e of t he c u rv e in t h e vi c in ity
of a s i n g u la poi n t ( x1 gl ) e val u ate t he i n d et e rm i n ate form
r , ,

3f
dg 6x 0
,
dx 57 0

by fi n di n g t he li m it approa che d c o n ti n u o u s ly by t he sl ope

of t he t an g e n t w he n x é x l y é g l , .

He n ce

[ Art s 49 72 , .

at t he p o i n t ( x1 g l ) , .

Thi s e q u ati o n c l e are d of fr ac tio n s g ive s to d eter m i n e t he ,

s l o pe at ( x
1 gl )
, t h,e q u a d r a ti c

W (if
( )
8
z 2
ag 8x 6 g 6x

Thi s q u ad rat ic e q u at io n has in ge n eral two roots The .

o n ly e x c eptio n s o ccu r whe n s im u lt an eo u s ly, at t he poi n t in

qu e s tio n ,
1 82 DIFFEREN TIAL CALCUL US [ C m x v .

H e re
é
g z fix —g l—
- ii x fl —x —4 y —24 y2 .

[ T he l
va ues x 0,g 0 w ill s at is fy t h e se t hree e qu at io n hns, e ce

( O 0), is a si ng l u ar p o i t n .

2
8
S 1n ce
a £ —6 + 6 x = 6 at

67 2

6 x 6g

48 y z —4 at

hn
e ce t he e qu at i n d o et e rm i ni ng t he s lo pe is , f ro m

G
a ( )
r
“
4 "
P G —0,
; a;
of w hi h t h
c t e ro o s are 1 an d g. It f ll w
o o s t h at
( 0, 0) is a dou b l
e

in t t w h i h t h t nt h l
-

p o a c e an ge s av e t he s op es 1, g .

N e x t le t H
two t an ge n ts are t he n
'

115 . C u s ps .
: O . The
c oi n c i d e n t an d t h ere a e
, two c as e s to c o n s i de If t h e r r .

c u rv e re c e d e s fro m t he t a n g e n t in bot h d i e c ti o s f o m t he r n r

poi n t o f tan ge cy t h e s i n gu l ar p o i t is call e d a t a ocle

n , n cn .

T wo d i s ti c t b a n c h e s of t h e c u r v e to u ch e ac h oth e r at
‘

n r

thi s poi n t ( S e e Fig . .

I f bot h b n ch e s o f t h e c u rv e r e c e de f o m t h e t an ge n t in
ra r

o n ly o n e d i e c ti o n f o m t he poin t of t a ge n cy t he poi n t is
r r n ,

c alle d a c u s p .
1 1 11 SING UL A R P OI N TS 1 83

He e agai n th e r e are two c as e s to be d i s ti n gu i s he d If

r .

t he b c h e s r e c e d e fr o m t he p o i n t o n O pp o s it e s i d e s o f t h e
ra n

d o u bl e t a g e n t t h e c u s p is s a i d t o be o f t he fi r s t ki d ; if
n , n

they e c e d e o n t he s am e s i de it is c all e d a c u s p of t h e s e c o n d
r ,

ki n d .

T h e m eth o d o f i n ve s tigatio n wil l be ill u s trate d by a few

e x am ple s .

Ex 1 . .

af _ 4 2 3
a x + 6 x5 ,
if 2 a
4
y .

dx 6 3/

si
Th e po i t

ng l
n w ill
Pro cee d i g t o t he
s at i s

n
fy f( x, y) :

nd d
0,
g
g
E
e riv at iv es,
0,
g
— 0 ; he n ce it is a

u ar po in t . s e co

6f_ —0
2
4
)r
2 2
12 a x + 30 x at
( 0 0
7
06 2

”
at

affi
4
2 a .

The t wo l
va u e s o f are t he re f o re c oi n c id e nt , an d e ac h e q u al to ze ro .

F ro m t he f o rm o f t he e q u at io n , t he c u rv e is e v id e n t ly s ym m e t ric a l w it h
re gard t o bo t h ax e s ; hn e ce n
t h e po i t ( 0 , 0) is a t ac n d o e .

N 0 p a rt o f t he c u rv e c an b e at a gre at e r d is t a ce n f ro m t h e g-ax is t hn
a

i a , at w hi ch po i nt s
ZZ
— is infin it e . T he m ax im u m va u e l of g c o rre

s po n d s to x z i a . B et w n
ee x : 0, x : t h e re is a po i nt of

in flex ion Fi
( g .

EX 2 . .
f( x, g) = g
2 x3 : 0;

3 x2, z: 2y
55 55
Hn
e ce t he p o i t n ( 0, 0 ) i s a s in gu

lar po i t n .

6f_
2
F th
ur er “ —6 x —0 at (0
676 2 a 1

2”
61
dx ay
 DIFFERENTIAL CA LCUL US [ on xv .

h f q q n fin n
Z h
T t he t w o roo t s o f t h e u ad ra t ic e ti d i g —y
ere o re ua o e a re bo t
x

e q ltua o z e ro . S o far, t is h c as e is e x ac tly lik e th l t e b t h

as o n e, u ere n o

p a rt of t he c u rve li es t o t he l ft
e of t he a x is y. O t h i h
g t id
n e r s e, t he
c u rv e is s ym m e t r ic w it h re gard t o t he x -ax is . A in
s x y in
c rease s , cre a s e s ;
t h e re a re n o m ax im a n or n
m i im a, an d n o in flex io n s Fi
( g .

Ex . 3 .
f( x, y) z x 4
2 ax
2
y a xg
2
a
2 2
0 .

Th e p o i t n ( 0 , 0 ) i s a si ng l u ar p o i nt , and t he ro o t s o f t h e q u ad rat ic de fini ng

a
(
a re bo t h q lt e ua o z e ro .

dx
Le t a be po s it iv e . So l in g t h q
v e e u a t io nf or y,

Wh n e x is n e gat iv e , g is im agl n ary ; wh n e x 0, g 0; wh n e x is

p o s it iv e ,
bu t l e ss t h n a a, 3; h as t wo p o s it iv e l
va u e s , t h fe re ore t wo bra nh
c es

FI G 55 . . FI G 56. .

are ab ov e t he x -ax is . When x a , on e bra n ch b e com e s i nfin it h avi g

e, n
t he a sym pt o t e x a ; th th
e o er n h h th
bra c as e o rd i n at e 3
1 a . The o rigi n
is t h f
e re ore a c u s p o f t he se c o n d kin d (Fig .

116 . Con jugate poin t s . L as tly , le t H

g tive I n be ne a .

thi s c a s e t he r e a r e n o r e a l t an ge n t s ; hen c e n o poi n t s in t he

i m m e d i ate v i c i n ity of t he g iv e n p o i n t s ati s f
y t h e e q u atio n of

t he c u v e r .

S u ch a n i s ol a te d poi n t is c alle d a c on j g u ate p oi n t .

1 86 DIFFERENTIA L CALCUL Us [C R x v 1 16
. .

E X ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER XV
E x am i n e e ac h o f t he f ll w in g
o o c u rv e s f m lt ipl
or u e n
p o i ts an d fi n d t he
e q u at io n s of t he t a ge t s n n a t e ac h s uc h p int
o

2 2 z a
1 . a x I by

3
75

2 a x

3 . x i y% a i .

4
)
?
4 . a x .

5 .
g z a + x + bx i
2
cx g .

W he n a c u rv e ll l
h a s t w o p ara e a s ym pt o te s it is s a id to h av e a n o de at

i nfinity i n t he n
d ire ct io o f t he para lle a sym pt o t e s l . l
App y t o E X 6 . .

?
6 ( xk -
T) 4y + y= 0

2 4
10 .
y x

11 . S h w th
o at t he c u rv e g = x lo g x h as a t e rm i n t ing
a p o nt
i at t he
o rigi n .
 C H APT E R X V I

ENVELOPES

117 . a
F mily of cu v es r . T he e
q u a tio n of a cu rve ,

f( x, 0?

u su ally i n volve s be s i d e s t h e a i abl e s x an d g c e rt ai n c oe ffi

,
v r ,

c ie t s t h a t s e v e t o fi x t h e s i e
n r s h ap e a d p o s itio of t h e z , , n n

cu v e r T h e c o e ffi c i e n t s a e c all e d c o s t a t s wit h r e fe e n c e
. r n n r

t o t he v a i abl e s x a d g bu t it h as b e e n s e e n in p e v i o u s
r n , r

c h a p t e r s t h a t t h e y m ay t ak e d i f fe n t v al u e s in d ifi e e t
e
r r n

p obl e m s whil e t he f o m of t he equ ati o n is p e s e v e d Let

r ,
r r r .

a be o n e of th e s e c o n s t a ts T h e n if
“
be g i v e a s e i e s
n .
9,
a n r

of n u m e ri cal v al u e s an d if t h e lo cu s o f t h e e qu atio c o e
,
n, rr

s p o n d i g t o e a c h s p e c i a l v al u e o f
n be t ace d a s e i e s of a r , r

c u v e s is o bt ai e d
r all h avi g t h e s am e g e n e r a l c h a r ac t e r
n ,
n ,

bu t d i ffe i g s o m e w h at f o m e ach ot he i s i e s h ap e or
r n r r n z , ,

po s itio n A s ys t e m of cu rve s s o obt ai n e d is c alle d a fa m i ly

.

of cu rve s .

F or e x am pl e if h k be fi x e d an d p be arbit ary t h e e q u a
, , ,
r ,

tio n ( g k) 2
2p (x h) e p e s e n t s a f a m il y o f p a b ol as r r ra ,

e ach c u r v e o f whi ch h s t h e s am e v e t e x ( h k) a d t h e a r , ,
n

s am e ax i s h b u t d i ff t l t us e ct u m A g ai if k n,
g a : e e , a r n r .

be t h e arbit a y c o s t a t th i s e qu atio n r e p es e t s a f a m il y
r r n n ,
r n

of p ar abol as hav i g p a r all e l ax e s t h e s am e l at u s re c t u m an d

n , ,

hav i g t he i v e rt ic e s 0 t h e s am e li e x
n r h 11 n .

T h e p es e c e o f a a bit a yc o s t a t
r n i t h e e qu atio n of
n r r r n n a n

a c u rve is i d i c at e d in f u c ti o a l n ot atio n b writi t h e

n
y n
g n n

187
1 88 DIFFE RENTIAL CA L C UL US [ Ca XVI .

eq u ati on in t he f o r m f( x g ) 0 The q u a ti t y whi ch , ,

a : . n or,

is c o n s t an t fo r t he s a m cu e bu t d if fe e t fo d iffe e n t
e rv r n r r

c u rv e s is c all e d t he p a m t e r o f t h e f a m ilar T h e u e
, y e
q a .

tio n s of t wo e i ghb o ri n g c u ve s a e t he n writt en

n r r

f( x, g , a
) : 0, f( x, g , a h) : 0,

in whi c h h is a s m all i c re m e n t of The s e c u ve s c an be

n a . r

bro u gh t as n e ar to c oi n c i d e n c e as d e s i e d by d i m i i s hi g h r n n .

118 . Env lope

e of a family of curve s A poi n t of i n t e . r

s e c tio n o f t w o n ei gh b o ri g c u rv e s of t h e f am il y t e n d s tow a d
n r

a li m iti n g po s iti o a s t h e c u rv e s appro ac h c oi n c i d e n c e

n The .

lo c u s of s u ch li m iti n g poi n t s of i n ter s e ctio n is c alle d t he

e n ve lop e o f t h e f am il y .

L et f( x, g , a
)T .
0, f( x,
g ,
a h) O ( )
1

be two cu rve s of t he f am ily . B y t he the o re m of m e an val u e

( Art 4 5.
)
8
g, a
g, g ,
a + 9h) , ( )
2

wh i c h , on ac c o u n t of eq u atio n re d u c e s to
f
a
+ eh) 0
3a
( x, 04 : .

H e n c e it follow s t hat
,
in t h e li m it whe n , h =- O,

dj
k x, y ,
a
) : 0
da

is t h e eq u atio n of a c u ve p as s i g t hro u gh t he li m iti n g

r n

of i t e tio of u r v e f( x g = 0 wit h it s
p o m t s e s n c n
r t h e c ) , ,
a

c o n s e c u ti v e c u ve Th i s d e ter m i n e s for a y as s i gn e d v al u e
r . n

of a d e fi n ite li m iti n g poi n t of i n t e r s e ctio n on t he c or e

a r

s po n d in
g m e m b e r of t h e f a m ily T h e l o c u s of all s u c h .
1 90 DIFFERENTIA L CA LCUL US [ m xv1
C .

8 a
bu t
g
vel p
5
1
8a
t he
0,

poi t ( x
h e n c e t he

is g
m pe
iv e n
of

by
t he t an g en t to t he

en o e at n , g)

6 3: 6 g dx

B ut th i s eq u atio n d e fi n e s t h e d i re c t io n
of t h e t an ge n t to
t h e c u v e f( x g 0 at t h e s am e poi n t an d t h e e f o r e a
r
) , ,
a :
, r

l im iti n g p o i t of i t e r s e c tio n on an y m e m b e r of t he fam ily

n n

is a poi t of c o n t a c t of t hi s c u r v e with t h e e n velope

n .

Ex . F in d t h n l e e v e op e of t h e f am i ly f lin o es

y z mx +
£ a

obt ai nby v aryi g m

ed n .

f n
D i fe re t ia t e ( 1 ) as t o m,

2
( )

To l i m in t
e a e l l
m, m u t ip y ( 2 ) by m an d s q u are ; s qu are
( )
1 an d s u b

t rac t th fi t f e rs ro m t h e s eco d The e n . n l v e ope is f nd t

ou o b e t he p arabo l a

y
2 4p x .

1 20 . En velope of n o r m al s evol u te of a gi ve n cu v r e . T he
A 1 1 0 w d fi n e d a s t he l o c u s o f t h e c e n t e s o f c u rv a
( rt ). a s e r

t u re Th e c e n te of c u vat u r e w as s h ow n t o be t h e poi n t of
. r r

i n te s e c tio n of c o n s e c u ti v e n o m al s ( A t
r wh en c e by r r .

Art 1 1 8 t h e e n v e lope of t he n or m al s is t he ev o l u te
. .

Ex . F in d t h n l pe e ve o e o f t he n orm a s l t o t h e p arabo l a y
2
4 px .

Th e e q ti n f th n
ua o o e o rm a l at ( x
l,
is '

—
g§
1 — m) a
y y l ( 73
l

o r, e limi n at i ng x
l
bym e an s of t h e e q u at io n g1
2 4 P33I,
 1 1 9- 1 2 1 .
3 E N VE L O P E S 1 91

T he n l p f t h i l in w h n 9
e ve o e o s e, e
1
ta k e s a ll v a u e s , l is re q u ire d .

D iff nt i t ing t
ere a as o
2
3 g1 x
,
2
8p 2p

2
4 19
y1
3 ( x 2 P) °

Su bs t it u t i g t is n h l
va u e for gl in t he res u l t,

4 07: 21 0, 3

is t h e e q u at io n o f t he re q u ire d e vo u t e l .

1 21 . ara meter s on e e qu ati on of con diti on In m an y

Two p , .

c a s e s a f a m il y of c u rv e s m ay ha v e two p a am e t e r s w h i ch a e r r

c o n n e c te d by a n e q u atio n Eo r i s t an c e y t he equ ati o n of. n

the n o m al to a giv e n c u rve c o n t ai s two p ar am e ter s x 1 9 1

r n ,

whi ch a e c o n n e c te d by th e e qu ati o n of t he c u ve I n s u ch
’

r r .

c as es o n e p a am e t e r m ay b e e li m i at e d by m ea n s of t h e
r n
g v e 1 n

r e l ati on a d t he ot he r tr e at e d as b e fo e
, n
‘

r .

6
W he n t h e eli m i n atio n is d i ffi cu lt to pe rfo r m both equ a ,

tio n s m ay be d i ffe e n ti at e d as to o n e o f t h e p ar am e t e s
r r a,

r e gar d i n g t he othe r p ar am et e r 8 as a fu n c tio n of Th is ,

a .

a s
g iv e s fo u r eq u atio n s f o m w hi c h r a, 3
, an d _
m ay be e li m
in at e d , t he re s ul ti n g e qu atio n bei n g that of t he d e s ire d
e n v e lope .

Ex 1 . . F ind t h n l e e ve o p e o f t h e lin e

1 ;
+ _ 1’
a b

t he s u m o f it s n
i t e rc e pt s re m ai n in g n co s t an t .

T he t wo e q u at io n s are
1 92 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US [ C H X VI
. .

Di ff e re nt i at e bo t h q e u at io n s as to a ;

x
1 db
2 2
(1 b da
db
1 +
da

ab
'

da
x
whi h
2
1 c re du c e s to
a
2
2 2
,

x y x y
a b b 1
b
a
wh n e ce a
a a + b c

T h f
e re or e x/ x V; V5
is t he e q
u at io n f th d i d n l p
o e e s re e ve o e .
[ C o m p a re E X p . .

EX 2 . . F in d t h n l p f t h f
e e ve o e o e am i ly l llip
o f c o ax ia e se s

co n t nt
s a are a .

H e re + l
2
z l ;

FI G 59 . .
 1 94 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL Us [ c m X V I . 121 .

3 . ll
E ip se s are de s cribe d it c omm o n n
c e t e rs w h an d ax e s , a n d h av i ng
t he s u m o f t he se m i-ax e s e u a t o c q l Fn h
i d t e ir e . n lp ve o e .

V 4 . F in d t h e e n l p f th t ight lin h
ve o e o e s ra es av in g t h p e ro d u c t o f t h e ir

n
i t e rce p t s on t he o d in t
co r q lt W
a e ax e s e ua o .

l 5 . Fn i d t he e n l p f t h lin g 8
ve o e o e es
,
m (x a
) rV I m 2
,
m
be i g n a v a r iab e l p ara m e t e r .

6 . A c irc el m o ve s w it h it s c en t e r on a p arab o a os e l wh e q u at io n is
y
2
4 a x, an d p as ses t hrou g h t he v e rt e x o f t h e p a rab o a l . F in d it s
e n l v e o pe .

7 . F ind t h en l e v e o pe o f a p e rpe d icu n l ar t o t he n o rm a l t o t he p arabola

y
?
4 d wn t h
a x, ra ro u g h t h in te e rs e c t io n of t h e n or m a l w it h t h —
e x a x is .

8 . Sh w th t t h
o a e c urv e s d fin e ed by t h e e q u at ions

0°
B
E
in w hi h c a an d 8
,
are p aram e t e rs , all p as s t h ro u
g h f ou r fi x ed n
p oi t s ; fi n d
t h em .

9 . I n t he “
n oda lf am i ly (3; 2 a) 2:
( x a )
2
8 x
3
y,
3
s h w th
o at

t he u su a lp roce s s giv e s fo r e v e n lp o e a co m po s it e l
o cu s , m ad e u p of t he
n l
o d e - o cu s ( a ln
i e ) an d t he e n l ve ope p ro
p e r
( an e llip se ) .
 IN TEGRAL CALCULUS

C H APTE R I

GENER AL PR I NCI PLE S OF INTE GRATI ON

The fun d ma e n tal proble m The f u n d am e n t al prob .

le m of t h e D i ff e r e ti al C al c u l u s as e x pl ai n e d in t he pr e c e d
n ,

i g p age s is t hi s
n ,

Given a fu n tion f ( x) of a n in d p en den t v ria ble x t

c , e a , o

d t rm in e its d eriva ti e f ( x )
e e v

It is n o w p o p o s e d t o c o n s i d e r t he i n ver s e p obl e m
r iz r , v

Giv n n y fu n t ion f ( x) t o d t m in th fu ti n f ( x)
e a c
’
,
e er e e nc o

ha ing f ( x) for it s d eriv ti e

v a v .

The s t u dy of t h i s i n v e s e probl e m is o n e of t h e obje c t s

r

of t he In t egr al C al cu l u s .

T he g iv e n f u n c tio n f ( x) is c all e d t h e i n t eg a n d t h e
’
r ,

f un c tio n f( x) w hi ch is t o be f o u n d is c alle d t he i t eg r a l n d n , a

t he p o c e s s g o e t h ro u gh in o d e r t o obt ai
r n t h e u n k n o wn
r n

f u n c tio n f ( x) is c all e d i t eg t ion n ra .

Th e op e a tio n an d r e s u lt o f d i ff e e n ti atio n a re s ym boli e d

r r z

by t he for m u l a
d
f ) f( ) x ,
dx

or writte n
, in t he n ot atio n of di ffere n ti al s ,

a re ) f( ) x dx
1 95
1 96 I N TE G R AL CAL C UL US ( on . I
.

T he p e atio n of i t e g ati o n is i n d i c ate d by prefi xin g t he

o r n r

s ym b o l to t he fu n c ti d i ffe e n ti al w h o s e i n t e g al it
f o on , r r , r

is r e q u i e d t o fi n d
r Ac c o d i n gly t h e for m u l a of i n t e g atio n
. r , r

is w itte n th u s :
r

f( ) x dx .

F oll o wi n g lo n g e s t abli s h e d g e t h e d i f
f er e n tia l rat
usa h er , ,

t han t he de rivativ e o f t he u n kn o wn f u n c t i o f ( x) is writte

, n n

u n d er t h e s i n of i n te r a ti o n O o f t h e a d v a n t a e s of s o
g g e g
. n

d oi n g is t hat t h e v ari able wit h re s pe c t t o w h i c h t h e i n te

,

g r a t ion is perfo m e d is e x pli

r c itl y m e,n ti on e d T h i s is of .
,

c o u rs e n ot n e c e s s ar
y w h e n on l o e v i bl i i volv e d
, y n a a e s n r ,

bu t is e s s e n ti al w he n s ev e r a l v ari abl e s e n t e r i n to t he i t e n

n d o r a c han e of variabl e is m a d e d u rin t h e p o c e ss

g r a , g g r

of i n t e g a tion r .

1 23 . rat ion by in s pe ction The m o s t ob v i o u s aid to

In t e g .

t h e pr o bl e m o f i t e g r a tio is a k n owl e dg e o f t he r u l e s an d
n n

re s u lt s of di ffe r e n ti atio n I t fr e qu e tly happ e n s t hat t h e

. n

req u ir e d fu n c tio n f ( x) can be de t e rm i n e d at o c e by re c ol n

le c t in g t h e re s u lt obt ai e d in s o m e pr e vio u s d i ffere n tiati on

n .

F or e x a m ple s u ppo s e it to be r e qu ire d to fin d

,

It will be re call e d t hat c os x dx is t h e di ffer e n ti al of s in x ,

a n d t h u s t h e an s w e r to t he prop o s e d i n t e g r a tio n is di re c tl y

obt ai n e d That is .
,

f c os x dx s in x .

Agai n , su ppo s e it is r e q u ire d to i n te gra te

1 98 I N TE G R AL C AL C UL US [cm I .

1 24 . f un d a me n tal for mula s of in t e gration W he n t he

Th e .

f o m u l as of d iffe e ti ation ( 1 )
r r n pp 4 9—5 0 a e bo n e in .
, r r

m i n d t h e m e t ho d of i n s p e c ti on e f e e d t o in t h e p e ce d i n g
,
r rr r

a ti c l e le a d s a t o n c e to t h e foll o wi g f u n d am e n t a l i te g al s
r n n r .

U po n th e s e s oo n er or l ater e v ery i n t e gra tio n m u s t be m ade

to d e pe n d .

I . f u
n
du

'

I
f du
u
a

f = “
e
u
du c .

v .

I c os u du z s in u .

VI .

f s in u au — cos a .

f s ec
Q u du z t an u .

j
zu ‘
-c ot u
cosec du .

f s ec u t an u du s ec u .

X .

f coscc u c ot u du c os ec u .

—1 n l u
s in
‘

, or cos .

l u l u
t an cot
“ “

, or .

1 u l u.
“

coss e
"

s ec , or
1 24 G E N E RAL P R I N CI P L E S O F I N TE G R A TI O N 1 99

1 25 ertain ge n eral prin ciple s I n applyi g t he abo v e

. C . n

f o m u l as o f i t e g atio n c e tain p in cipl e s wh i c h follow fr o m

r n r r r

t he r u l es of d i ffere n ti a tio n s h o u l d be bor n e in m i d n .

( ) a The in t egra l f o the s um o f a fi

n ite n u m ber o f fu n c tion s

is e ual
q to t he s um of t he in teg ra ls f
o ea c h fu n c tion t a k en

a ra t e l
se
p y .

Th i sfollows fro m Art 1 6

. .

F or e x am ple ,

fn
l
f —
fi g —
cx
dx = x dx i

b
( ) A c on s t an t fa ct or m a g be r em ove d from on e s id e o f t he

S i gn o f in t eg r a t ion t o t he ot her .

F or s i n c e
,

d(c u
) = c du ,
it follows that
f c
c du du z cu .

To illu s tr ate let it be req u ire d to i te grate

, n

T he eri cal fac tor 5 is fi rs t pl ac e d o u ts i de t h e s i gn of

num

i n teg atio n aft e r w h i c h fo m u l I is applie d Ac c or d i n gly

r , r a .
,

Agai n , su ppo s e t he i n te g al r

f fi—lx
z

is to fou n d I t is r e ad ily oti ce d that e x c ept for t h e

be . n

c o n s t an t f a c t o 2 t he n u m e r ator of t he in t e g an d is t he e x ac t
r r

d e riv a tive o f t h e d e o m i n ator an d f o r m u l a I I wo ul d be

n ,
2 00 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL US [cm I .

a ppli c able . that is r e qu ire d the n in o de r to re d u c e

All , , r

t h e g 1 v e n 1 n t e g ral to a k n ow n fo m is t o m u l t ipl i n s i d e t he r
y ,

s i gn of i n t e r a tio n b 2 n d o u t s i de b Th i i
g y a
y 5 s
g v e s .

x dx 1
2 x dx d( x
2 -
1

In thi s con n ec tio n it mu st n ot be forg ott e n that p a n ex r es

s ion con t a in ing t he va ria ble f

o in t egra tion ca n n ot be re m ove d

from on e s id e o f t he s ig n o i
f teg ra t ion
n t o t he ot her .

( )
c An a r bit ra r
y con s t a n t m ay be a dd e d t o t he r e s u lt of
in t egra t ion .

Fo r, t he d e iv ative
r of a c o s t an t
n is z er o , an d h en c e

du d(a c
) ,

fro m whi ch foll o ws

f du =
f d(u c
) u c .

This co n s t an t is c all e d t h e co s t a n t of in t eg ra t i on n .

I t will be s e e n f o m t hi s t h a t t h e r e s u l t o f i n t e g ati o n is
r r

n o t u n iq u e bu t t h at an n u m ber Of f u n c tio n s ( d i ffe i f o m

, y g r n r

e a c h o t h er h owev e r o n ly by an a dditi v e c o n s t n t ) c an be
, , a

f o u n d w hi ch hav e t h e s am e give n e x pre s s io n for d e ri vativ e .

[ C o m p are Art 1 6 C or
.
, .

2 —1
T hu s a n y o n e of t he f u n c tio n s x
,
2
x + 1
3
x +
2
, , a ,

( x a
)( x a
) e t c will
, s e rv e a s
. a s
, ol u tio n of t h e probl e m o f

i n t e g ati g [ 2 x dx
r n .

I t o ft e h app e n s t h at d i ffe r e n t m e t ho ds o f i n t e g ati n l e d

n r o a

t o d i ffe r e t r e s u lt s
n All s u c h d i ffe e n e s h o w e v e c a n o cc u r
. r c , r,

o nl i t h e c o s ta n t t e m s r
y n n .

Fo e x a m pl e
r ,

[ 3 (x dx 8
f ( x + 1 ) d(x
2
( x

x
3 4 3x + 3x + 1
2 .
2 02 I N TE G R AL C AL C UL US [ C E I .

f co s
2
5x dx
1
3
08 x
dx
)
.

f in ( m
s n
) x dx .

f s in x
2 ’
o
x a x.

f (f )
23 3 =
dx (1 )
2
. co s x co s x si n x dx .

25 . f ins
2
x dx .

f t an 2
x dx
[ f z
(s e c
2
x 1 ) dx
] .

f ta n 2
x sec
2
x dx . 28 .

f oo s e c
2
(ax b) dx .

f
.

L 29 . x/ co t x c o s ec 2 x dx .

’
2
dx
)
dx
ji
se c x
.

s n x cos x t an x

31 .

f s ec
i’
u t an u da .

da
(J
c o s e c u c ot u

f
'

32 . oo t u du =
cosec u

t an du
‘

J
u

s ec u
1 2 5- 1 2a ] G EN E R A L P R I N C I PL E S O F I N TE G R A TI ON 2 03

In t egr ation by parts . If u an d v are fu ction s

n

fo r di ff e e ti a ti g a p
r n n ro d u c t gi ves t h e f o r m u la

wh e n c e , by i n t e gr ati n
g an d t ran s pos i n
g term s ,

I n dv uv —
J v du.

T hi s for m u l a affo ds a m o s t v al u abl e m eth o d of in te gr a

r

ti on k n own s i t e g ati o by p art s B y it s u s e a gi v e n

, a n r n .

i n t e gral is m ad e to d e p e n d o an o th er i n t e g r al whi ch i n , n

m an y i m p o t a t c as e s is o f s i m pler f o r m an d m ore re ad il y
r n

i n te g able than t he ori gin al o n e

r .

Ex 1 . .

As su m e a log x, dv dx .

T hn
e fl , v x .

n
B y s u bs t itu t i g in t he f o rm u a l n
fo r i t e grat io n by p art s ,

f lo g x a x log x
’
x

x lo g x x x
( log x 1)

x ( log x log e ) x log

:
EX 2 . .

u = x, do : e
z
dx .

du d x, v e
”
,

f xe z
dx xc “

f e md x e
”
( x

Su pp o s e t ht a a d ifi e re n t c h o ice h ad b ee n m ade for u an d

pre se t pron bl me s ay
,

u z e
”
, dv x dx .
2 04 I N TE G RAL CA L C UL U S ( On . I .

F ro m t ish w ld f ll w
ou o o

du e
z
dx , v

w ill h n fg l l
a
It be ob se rv e d t at t he n ew i t e gral e
z
d x is e s s s im p e in

f o rm t h n a t he o rigi nl a o n e , an d he n ce t he pre s e t n c ho ice of u an d do

is n ot a f n t
o rt u a e on e .

No g ne l le ra ru e c an be l aid do wn for t h e l
s e e ct io n of u an d dv .

S e v era l t i l m yb n
r a s a e e ce s sary be f o re a s u it ab e o n e c a n l be f und
o .

I t is t o b e re m a r k ed, ho w
p o s s ib e d v s o u d be
ev e r, t h at as far as l h l
ch n os e h in n h
l
su c l
a w ay t a t it s i t e gra l
m ay be as s im p e as pos s ib e ,
wh il e u h n h s h l f n n
o u d be s o c o se l
t at in d if e re t iat i g it a m at e ria s im

p lifi t i i b
ca gh t b t
on Th i E
s 1 by t k in g
ro u l g a th ou . us n x .
, a u o x, e

t n nd nt l f n t i n i m d t di pp by d iff nti t i n I
ra sce e a u c o s a e o sa e ar e re a o . n

EX 2 t h p
. n f it h
,
e p nt di t i n t g t i n T h
re se ce o e er x or e
”
re ve s rec e ra o . e

fi t f t
rs b m
ac or x d by diff nti t i n d t h t h h i
ca n e re ov e e re a o , an us e c o ce

u i n t x lly gg t d
s a u ra su es e .

Ex 3 . .

[ fl a
x
dx .

F ro m t h e prec e d i g re m ar n k it i s ev id e nt t h at th e on ly h c oice w hi h c

w ill lf
s im p i y t he i t e gra is n l
u x

Hn e ce da 2 x dx, v

2 z
fi x a 2
and x a
z
dx
lo g a lo g a

App y t h e l s am e m et h od t o t he ne n
w i t eg ra l , a s s u m in g

u z x, dv a
x
d x,
m
wh n e ce da d x, v
a

lo g a

sea
”
1
lo g a lo g a

"
c “
xa a

og a )
2
lo g a
( l

s u b s t it u t i ng i n t he pre c e d i g n f o rm u a, l
2x 2
f [
x
a 2
a
’
dx x
2 06 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL US ( on 1 . .

ma k e th e s e co nd f ac t o r n l f t he d iffe re t ia o a
2
x
2
. h nkin g
T i of t he
l at te r as a n e w v ar a i bl t h in t g n de, n t in t h i
e e ra co a s s v ar a i bl fi e a by
e ct e d

a n e x po n nt e d m l t ipli d by t h di ff
an u nt i e e e re al o f t he v aria b e , in l
whi h c c as e f o rm u a l I b ppl i
c an d e a e .

w
EX 2 . .

f x
dx .

As s u m e

T hn e

an d
2 2

H e re agai n n it
y t w itis t t
n oth d t il f t h
e ce s s arb t it o r e ou e e a s o e su s u

ti no it i
, as y t t h ink f l g
s eas w in d p n d n t
o i blo d t o x as a n e e e e v ar a e an o

p f m
er o r t h in t g t i n ew it h p t
e t t
rah t I t
o i t h n dily n re s ec o a . s e re a s ee

t h t tha p i
e exn t b in t t
re s s o
g d n i t f t h
o i b
e l l g m l e ra e co s s s o e v ar a e o x u

t ipli d by it d iff
e nti l s d t h t t h in t g t i n i
e re a d in gly an a e e ra o s ac c o r
x
re d d t
u ce im m d i to an pp li t i n f t h fi t f m l f in t g t i n
e a e a ca o o e rs or u a o e ra o .

Th us

f l g d (l g ) o x o x
2

1 dx
E1 3 . e
.

1 + x2

T i h nk of ta n “
l
x as a n e w v ariab e an d ap p l ly f orm u a l IV . T h us

dx
1

2
1
d (t a n '
1
x ) c
um
-
W .

1 x

l
s in dx
f
‘

x
Ex 4 . .

2
x

T i h nk o f s in
-l
x a s a n e w v ariab e an d l as t h e di ff e re nt i l a of

t h at v ariab e l . App y l f o rm u a l 1 .

f
2
Ex 5 . .
( x 2 x 3 ) (x 1 ) dx .

l l
M u t ip y a n d divide by 2 . n
T h e i t e gra t l h nt k e a es t he f orm

% j ( x
2
+ 2x 3) ( 2 x + 2 ) dx .

O bs e rv in g t h at ( 2 x 2 ) dx is t h e d if e re t ia f n l f o x
2 2x 3, an d h nk
t i
in g o f t he l a t t e r e x pres s io n as a n e w v a r a i bl it ie, s s ee n th t f a orm u a l Ii s

l
d irec t y applicab l l
e, e adi ng t o t he re s u lt
2
}(x 2x
 G E N E R A L P R I N CI PL E S OF I N TE G R A TI ON 2 07

EX 6 . . fl g o co s
( x
2
1 ) s in ( x
2
1) x dx .

Ma k e t he s u b s t it u t io n
1 z.

Th e give ni n t e gra lt k a es t he f o rm

{f
l g o cos z s in zd z.

Ma k e a se co nd c ha ng e o f v ariab e , l
cos z y.

T hn e s in zd z

Th e tran s f orm e d n
i t e gra is l
2 f lo g 7/ d%. .

to w hi h t h c e re s ul t o f Ex 1 , Art 1 2 6 ,
. . can be n ppli d
at o ce a e .

I t w ill b e o b se rv e d t h at t wo s u b s t it u t io n w h i h n t lly
s c a u ra s u gge s t

th m l
e f
se v e s ro m the f o rm o f n n
t h e i t e gra d a re m ad e in s u c c e s s io n . Th e
t wo t o ge t h e r a re obv io u s ly q e ln
u iv a e t t o t h e o n e t ra sform at io , n n
c os
( x
2
1) g.

E it h er p t x
u a z , or e ls e d iv id e n u m e rat o r an d de n om i n at or by a , an d

w rite in t h e f orm

R e gardi g n f as a n ew v ariab e , l t ish co m e s u nd er XI an d g iv e s t he

re s u t l a

In a s imi a r l ma nn er t re at Ex s 8—10 . .

Ex 8 . .

EX 9 . .

Try l
a so the s u bs t it u t io n x
208 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL Us ( CH . 1 .

EX 1 0 . .

Try als o t he s u b s t it u t ion x a z.

EX 1 1. .

Ma k e t he t ra nf s orm at ion

F ro m t his f ll w
o o s, by d ifi e re n t iat io n ,

t h at is,

dx dz dz
2
s i a x 2
i a
2
+ x z

EX 1 2. .

I x
?
a
2

x —a 1 + z
As s u m e z ; t hat is , x = a
x + a l - z

Th e re as o n f th
s or e c h o ic e o f s ubs t it u t io nm ade in t his an d t he pre
c ed i ng ex a m pl w ill b
e e m a de l
c e ar in Art s 1 3 3 . an d 1 39 .

Ex 1 3. .

I co s e c x dx .

l l
M u t ip y an d d iv id e by c os ec x c ot x. It will be readi ly s ee n
n
t he i t e gra t l h n t k th f
e a es e o rm
If
An ot h e r m t h d w ld b
e o ou e to u se t he t rigo n o m e t ric fo m ular

x x
s1 n x = 2 s m — c os
2 2

w h nce e
f co s e c x dx
f 2 s in cos
z

f
2 2

Ex 1 4. .

f se c x dx .

Pu t x = z , an d us e Ex 1 3 . .
210 I N TEGR AL C AL C UL Us ( on . I .

d“ 1
XVII u 2 2 a.
a

du 1 u a
X VI II 2 2
_

2a
10 g
_
a u + a

XI X 1 —1
. s ec or cose c

ve rs
—1 9 °

XX I . ft an u du log c os u l og s ec u .

X XII . f oot u du l og s in u .

XX III { (5 T)
7
. se c u du log ( s cc u tan u ) log t an +
i

XXI V f 2
t
. c os e c u du log ( cos ec u cot u ) l og tan -

1 29 . e
Int gra1§ of t h e fo m r

I n t e g r al sof thi s f o r m are of s u ch f eq u e n t o ccu r e n ce as r r

to de s e rv e s p e c i al m e ti o n The i t e g atio is e dil y e ffe c t e d

n . n r n r a

by t h e s u b s tit u ti o n o f a n e w v a ri abl e w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e
r ad i ca l t o a s i m pl e fo m T w o c as e s are t o be c o n s i d e e d
r r . r

a cc or d i n g as a is p o s itive or n e g a tive .

CAS E I os iti e I n t h i s c as e b d i i d i o u t t he
.
p
a v .
y v n
g
c oeffi c ie n t o f x t h e a d i c al m ay be w itt e
2
r r n
1 2 8—1 29 ] G E N ER A L P R I N CI P L E S OF I N TE G R A TI ON 21 1

T h e give n i n te g al the n t ak e s
r the for m
z+B
( Ax + B ) dx
x= x +

2 a B bA
2 a\ /a

2 a B — bA
10 g z +

2 aB — bA b 2 b
10 g x + -
x +
2 a \/ a 2 a

C A S E II . a n eg a t ive . W he n a is ne gativ e by d ivi di n g

,

out t he po s itiv e n um be r a the ra d i c al be c o m e s

an d in c o n s e qu e n c e t he i n te gr al t ak e s t he form
1 ( Ax B ) dx

2 a B — bA
2 ax /j d f
21 2 I N TE G RAL CA L C UL US ( on 1
. .

n
O n div id i g n u m e rat o r a n d de n o mi n ato r by V3 t h e in te gra l re d u ce s to

(a s )
Im ’

w h i h by m n
c ea s o f t he s u b st it u t io n x g
, z can be w ritt e n

(3 —z
5
+ V3
) dz
1

éfi
4
’

jfi
d
J m ( h mfl fi

m
-
lo g (z +

D ivide n u m e rat o r a n d de n om i n at o r by V2
‘

. Th e in te gral be c o m e s

2 x 1

( z x

1 4
( x
”

sin

1 30 . e a
In t gr l s of t h e fo rm

I n t e gr al sof t hi s type c an be re du c e d t o t he for m give n in

t he pre c e din g arti cle by m e an s of t he re cipro c al s u b s tit u tio n
1
Ax + B
Z
 I N TE G RAL C AL C UL US

I
dx
)
2
x
( l og x x

)
2
s ec x

a — b t an x

d
dd
f — i
-l
33 . v e rs

1 c os 0 a Vx

t an dx
'

x
2
a b t an x

dx
[
‘

j1
S u bs t it u t e x
c ot x

Pu t 1 c ot x 35 fl g (
o 511 V 332
O
?
)
dx
x3

{A
 C H A PT E R I I

R ED UCTI ON FOR MULAS

1 31 . I n Art s 1 2 9, 1 3 0 t h e
.i n te g ratio n of c ert ai n s i m pl e e x
pr es s ion s c o t ai n i n g an irration ality of t he f o rm Va x bx c
n
2

ha s b e e n e x pl ai n e d As w as s h ow n i Art 1 2 9 t h e r ad i c al
. n .
,

c an be e d u c e d to t h e f o r m j x j a by a c h an g e of v a ri
2 2
r : :

abl e . I t r e m a i n s to s h ow h o w t h e i t e gr atio n c an be p e r n

for m e d in s u ch c as e s as for e x am pl e , ,

f a 2 2
j: x i a dx ,

n bei n g an y i n t e ger .

F or th i s p u po s e it is c o n ve n ie n t to c o n s i de r a m ore ge n e ral
r

type of i n te gr al of whi ch t h e p e ce di g a e s p e c i al c as e s v i r n r ,
z .
,

f x
m
( a bx ”
) p
dx, 1
( )

in wh i c h m, n,
p a re a n
y n um b e r s whatev e r i n t e g al , r or f ra c

t io n al , po s itiv e o r n egative .

I t is t o be e m ark e d i t h e fi r s t pl ac e th at n c an with o u t
r n ,

l o s s o f ge e rality be ega d e d as p o s iti v e Fo if n w e e

n , r r . r, r

n e ativ e s a i t o l w itt
l
g y
, n n t h e e
g a n d c u d b
,e e n n r r

m m
)
” p
x x ax .

exp e s s i o whi ch is of t he s am e typ e as x ( a

r n, is m

tha t t h e e x po e t o f x i s i d e t he p a e th e s i s is po s itive
n n n r n .

21 5
21 6 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL US [ OIL II .

It will n ow be p ove d th at
r an in t eg ra l f t he
o typ e 1
( ) ca n

in g en era l be r e du c e d to on e o f t he fou r in t egra ls

( )a bx ”
) p
dx, ( b) A bx ”
) p
dx ,

( )cA
f x
m
( a d
( )
p lu s a n a lg ebr a ic t e rm f
o t he for m
"
B x
( a

Here A B A are c ertai n c o n s t an ts whi ch will be d eter

, ,
u
, ,
.

m i n e d pr e s e n tl y .

O b s e v e t ha t ih e ach of t he fo u r c as e s t he i n t e g r al t o
r

whic h ( 1 ) is re d u ce d is of t he s am e t yp e a s bu t t hat
c e rt a i n c h a g e s h av e t a k e n pl ac e in t h e e x p on e n t s v i
n , z .
,

t he e x po n e n t m o f t h e m o n o m i al fa c t o r is i n c e a s e d o r r

d i m i n i s h e d by n ,

or t he e x po n e n t p of t he bi n o m i al is i n c e as e d o r di m i n
, r

is h e d by u n ity .

Th e v al u e s of A a n d u a e d e ter m i n e d by t h e followi n g r

r ul e
Comp are t he exp on en ts of t he mo n om ia l fa t o s in t he given c r

in t egra l an d in t he in t egra l to which it is t o be re du c e d . S e lect

t he le s s f
o t he two n u m be rs an d in cre a s e it by u n ity The .

r e s u lt is t he v a lu e o fA . I n like m an n er, comp a re t he exp onen t s

f
o t he bin om ia l fa ctors in t he two in t egra ls , s e le c t t he le s s , an d

in cr ea s e by u n it
y. This gives u
,
.

Thu s , if it is d e s ir e d t o re d u c e t he g i ven i n tegral to

A m

f bx ) d x,
” p
x

fi r s t writ e d own t he fo rm u a l

f f
"
x
m
( a bx "
) p
dx A bx "
) 1’ dx B x
( a
21 8 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL US [ C m 1 1 .

T her e is on e c as e , h ow e v e r, in whi c h thi s re d u ction is

i m pos s ible , v iz .
, whe n
m n
p 1 0,

for in that c as e A a d B b e c o m e in fi it e [ S ee Ex 4 p n n . .
, .

In a s i m il a r m an n e r t h e t h re e followi n for m u l ae m a be
g y
d e riv e d

f x
m
( a bx ”
) p
dx

b< m + n + np + 1 )
x
( a + bx ) d +
a (m + 1 ) l
a
( m + )

f x
m
( a bx ”
) p
dx

m 1
x ( a dx

f x
m
(a bx ”
) p
dx
m+ l p +l
x < a bx n
)
p+1
( bx ) dx [ ]
n
a D
(“
KP 1) au
(p 1)

T he c as e s in whi c h t he a bov e r e du c tio ns are i m p os s ible

are ,

Fo r form u l ae [A] an d whe n m n

p 1 0;

for for m u l a [ B ] w he n m 1 0

for fo m u l [D ] r a whe n p 1 0 .

f Va
3 2 2
Ex 1 . . x x dx .

If t h e m o n o m ia l f act o rw e re x i n s t e ad o f x
3
, n
t he i t e grat io c o u ld n
e as ily b e e ff l I Sin i
ec t e d by u s n in g f orm u a . ce n t h e pre s e t c a s e m z 3 ,
n 2 f m l
,
A
[ ] worh i h di m in
u a i h m b y w ill d ,
t h bc s es n, re uce e a ov e

in t g l t
e ra th t b di
o on e t ly in t g t d a c an e re c e ra e .

In t d f s ea b t it t i g i [A]
o m igh t
su d ily b d n
s uit i b t t
n n , as re a e o e, s es o

a l
pp y t p t i l o
p b l mar t h m
c u ar m d f p d t hrot w e d s e sa e o e o ro c e u re a a s u se

in d i in g t h g n
er v l f m l Th e tw e d nt g e ra i thi or u a . e re a re o a va a es n s.

F i t it m k t h t d n t i d p n d n t f t h f m l
rs , a es e s u d end n e e e o e or u as, an s eco ,

wh n e l d t i n h t b m d i t h m p bl m t h w k
s e v e ra re uc o s av e o e a e n e sa e ro e ,
e or

i g n
s elly h te ra [ S E s or e r . ee X .
 R ED UC TI ON F OR M ULA S 21 9

Acco rd i g y ass u m e n l
l

2d x % dx
f ) A
j
2
( )
2 2 2 2 2
x
3
a x x a
( x B x
( a

t he v a u esl of A a n d pt h ing
av be e nd e t e rm i n ed by t h e p re v iou s y give l n
ru e l .

f
D i fe re t ia te , n an d div id e the re s u l n q
ti g e u at io n by x ( a
2
x 3 2 . This
i v es
g
x
2 : A + B (2 a
2
5 x 2
) ,

f ro m w hi h c , by e qu t ing a coe ffi i n t
c e s of lik e p o w e rs of x,

2
2 a
A B i,
T
,

an d hn
e ce ,

f z3v a
2
x 2
dx
Q
—
f

gfw ?
x
2
)
% x dx
}
; x
2
( a
2
x 3 2

2 2
)(
2 3 x
(1 a

By f ll w ing t h
o o e su gges t io n s of Art 1 29, t his i t egra
. n l c an be re du ce d

t o t he f m or

in w hi ch z x 1 .

As su m e

f
-
4) t A A 4) % dz
( z
2
f ( E z (z 2

d e t e rm i i g A
In nn n ot ice t h at m 0 in b ot h i t e gra n l s, so t hat
A= O + A so , l

The m o d e of p ro c e du re of E X 2 m ay be
. f ll w
o o ed . A n o t he r m e t ho d
c an a s o l be u se d , as f ll w o o s

On w rit i ng i n th f m e or

an d o bse rvi ng t h at
f x 2( 2 a x ) 2 d x,

dx 2( 2 a
‘

2
‘

5 j
_1 x
) d
‘ '

v e rs x x x,
2
a 2 ax x

it w ill be n th
se e n
t h e i t e gr at io m ay b e e ffe c t e d in t he pres e t c as e
at n n
by re du c in g h
e ac o f t he e x po e t s m a n d p by u it y nn
T is is p os s ib e n . h l
s in ce n 1 an d m c an ac c ordi g y be d im i is e d by 1 n l
e c e a s s um e n h . Hn
.

I w2( 2 a fi A
f i(2 a fi E i (2 a
’
dx '
dx
’

x x x x
22 0 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL Us [ C m II .

The ex
po n nt f t h
e o e bi n o m ia l in t he n ew n
i t e gra l m ay be re du ce d in
t ur n by as s u m ing

f 2(2 a ) 2 A
f 2(2 a d 2( 2 a 2
”
d ”
‘

)
“

x x x x 56 B x x ) .

Wh n t h i e s e x pre s s io n is s u bs t it u t e d fo r t h e i t e gra in t he n l s e co nd
m e m be r o f t he pre c e d i g n q e u at io n , l
t he res u t t a e s t he orm k f
B x2( 2 a x fi C xl ( 2 a
’

in wh i h c A, B , C ’
are w rit t e nfb re v it y in t h e p ac e of A A , A B
or l ’ ” ’ "
, B '

re s pe c t iv e ly . T he va u e s l '
l l
o f A , B , C a re c a c u a t e d in t he u s u a m a l nn er

by d ifi e re n t iatin g, s im p lifyin g , an d e q t in g ffi i nt
ua coe c e s of li k e po w e rs

of x .

The m e t h dj o u st giv e n re q u ire s t wo re d u c t io n s, an d he n ce is l ess

s u it a bl t h n t h t
e a a e m p o ye d l in E X 2 , . w hi h q c re u ire s but o n e re d u c ti n o .

r u le for de t e r m i n i g t he v al u e s of A an d m ay n o w
The n u
,
.

be a d v an t age o u s l y abb e v iat e d L et m p be t he e x p o n e t s r .

, n

of t h e two f ac tor s in t he giv e n i n te g al d m p t he c orr e r , an

'
,
’

s p o d in g e x p o n e n t s
n in t h e n e w i te g r al O f th e s e t w o n .

p ai s m p an d m p o n e of t he n u m b e rs in t h e o n e p air is
r , ,
’
,
'
,

le s s th an t he c o e s po n di n g n u m ber in t he o th er p air Th i s
rr .

fa c t will be e x pr e s s e d bri e fly by s ayi n g that t h e o n e p air is

le s s th an t he othe r p air W ith thi s u n d er s t an di n g t h e .

pre c e d i g u l e m ay be e x pre s s e d as fo llow s

n r

S e le ct t he le s s f o t he
p i of two
e x
p on en t s m ,
p an d a rs

e a ch n u m be r in t he a ir s elect e d b u n it
’
m ’
, p . I n crea s e p y y .

This gives t he p a ir of ex
p on en ts A, 11 .

I
$ 613;
Ex 4 . .

%
)
2
a

As su m e s u c c e s s ive ly
-
2d x h
f
.

dx A ' x
4
(
2
x a
2
) B ’x5 x2
( a )
2
,

-
2dx —2 ”x 3 x2
x
4
( x2
a
2
) A" a
2
) dx B (
— —2
x
2
( x
2
a )
2 2d x Am
f c c
z
a
2
) dx B i l/x x2
(
 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL US [C a I I 13 1
. .

EX . 6 13 .

jam
EX . 7

Ex . 8
EX 1 5
.

X 9 .

EX 1 6
$ 1 Ex
j
dx
.

i . 10 .

x
2 /
\ a
2
x
2

Ex 1 1
dx
J EX 1 7
f (M
.
.

a r
1
EX 1 2. .

f ( a
2
x )
2 % dx .

EX 1 9. . S h w th
o at

”
dx 1
5( x
2
+ c
)
”
2 c
( n 1)
+ (2 n -3
)
 C H APT ER I II

INTEGRATION OF R AT I ONAL F R ACTIONS

132 . D ecompos i ion t ation al fra ction s T he obje ct of
of r . t he
p es e n t
r ch apter is to s how how to i n t egrate fra c tio n s of t he
form
M ,

f( ) x

wher e i n ¢ ( x) an d f( x) a e p o ly o m i al s in x
« r n .

The d e s ire d re s u lt is a c c o m pli s h e d by t h e m e th o d of s epa

r ati g t h e give n fra c tio n i n to a s u m of ter m s of a s im pl e r
n

ki d an d i n t e grati n g t e m by t e r m
n ,
r .

I f t h e d e g e e of t h e n u m e ator is eq u al to or g e a ter t han

r r r

t he d e g e e of t h e d e n o m i n ato
r t h e i n d i c a t e d d ivi s io n c an be
r,

ca ie d o u t u n til a r em ai n de is o btai n e d w hi ch is of lower

rr r

d e g ree t han t h e d e n o m i n ator H e n c e t h e fra c tio n c an be .

re du c e d t o t he form

in whi ch t he d e g e e o ff( x) is le s s th an that of d ( x)

r .

As to t h e i n te gr ati o n of t h e e m ai n d er fr ac tio f( x ) it r n is
fi ) x

to be e m ark e d in t he fi rs t pl ac e th at t h e m e th o ds of t h e
r

pr e c e d i g a ti c le s are s u ffi c i e n t to e ffe c t t h e i te g atio n of

n r n r

s u ch s i m ple fr a c tio n s a s

A A '
M x -l-n M '
x-
I —
ZW Px + Q
1
( )
x —a x—a
’ ’ ’
2 ?
(
z z z z 2
) x i a
( x zt a ) x + mx + n

N ow t h e of s e e al
su m v r s u ch fr ac ti o s is
n a fr ac ti o n of t he
ki n d u n d er c on s i d er atio n , v iz .
, o e wh o s e
n n u m e ato r is of
r

2 23
224 I N TE G R AL CA L C UL US [ C m I I I .

l o we r d eg ree t han it s d e o m i n at o Th e q u e s tio n n at u r ally n r.

a i s e s as to w h et h er t h e c o n v e r s e is po s s ibl e t h a t is
r ca eve : n
y , r

fra ction be s ep ara te d in to a s u m offra ctions of a s s imp l e

x

typ es as t hos e given in

The an s we r is , ye s .

S i n c e t heof everal fr a ctio n s has for it s d e n o m i a

s um s n

tor t he le as t c o mm o n m u ltipl e of t h e s e veral d e n om i n ato s r ,

it follo ws that if i — c an be s e p ara t e d i t o a s u m o f

{Fz3
z
n
x

s i m pler fr ac tio n s t he d e n om i n ato s of the s e fr ac ti on s m u s t

, r

be d ivi s o s of xp( x ) N o w it is k n own f o m Alg ebra that

r . r

o l n omia l :v) ha ving a l c oe i ien t s n d on l t h

e ver
yp y 1( fi 1r
( a
y o s e re c

h a vi n g r e al c oe ffic ie n t s a e to be c o s i d e r e d in wh at follo ws ) r n

c an be s e a ra t e d in t o fa t ors f it her t he fi s t o r t he s on d
p c o e r ec

d egre e t he oefiicien ts of a h fa t r bein g rea l

, c e c c o .

Th i s fa c t n at u r ally le a d s to t he d i s c u s s io n of fo u r d i ff e r e n t
03 88 8 .
'

I . W he n f( x ) « c an be s ep a r ate d i n to re al fac t o rs of t he

fi rs t d e g ree , no two alik e .

E g . .
,
—d ) ( x —b) ( x —c) .

II . W hen r e al fac tors

t he a re all of t he fi rs t d e gree s o m e ,

of whi ch are repeat e d .

2 3
E g . .
, ( x a
)( x b) ( x c ) .

I II . W he n s o m e of t he fac tors a re n e ce s s arily of t he

s ec n do d e g ree , bu t no two s u ch a re a lik e .

2
E g . .
, «
f( )
x ( x
2
a
2
)( x
2
x 1 ) (x b) ( x )
a

IV . W he n s econ d d e gree fa ctor s o cc u r . s o m e of whi ch

a re r e peat e d .

— x + 1 (x b)
E g . .
, ) .
 TE GR A L CAL C UL US

Ex 2
—2
.

2
2 x +3 x

EX 3 .

EX 4
— 2 — 3
. .

x
2
+ 4 x + 3 2 x x x

L K
4
3
“
3 dx
EX 5 . .
Ex 1 3 .
)
+ 7 + 12
2
x x

x dx EX 1 4
dx "L
EX 6 —52
.

—4 x + 2 2
. .

2 M
x 1

Ex 7 . .

(x
2
4 ) (4 x 2

—2 c x + a c a b+ bc [ S ep a rat e M i
n
i t o p ar
EX 8 —3 x + 2
/
. .

( x a
)( x b) ( x 0
) t ia l
4
’v M
2

Ex 9 . EX 1 6 . .

5( x
2
+

1 34 . C A S E II . F a ctors of t he fi r s t de gr ee , s om repeat e

As s u m e
5 x
2
3 x + 1 A B C '
D
( )
1 I
III - 1
I I
x ( x x
( “
f

To j u st i fy t h i n b th t
s a s s u m pt io ,
o s e rv e a

( ) aI dd in g
n a t h f t i n i t h ig het -h n d m m b
ra c toh l s t mn e r a e e r, e e as co

m on m lt ipl u f t h d n m in t
e o will b e
(e o w h i h i id n
a o rs t i l e x x c s e ca

wit h t h d n m in t
e e i t h l ft-h n d m m b
o a or n e e a e er .

( )
b F t h t
urh e r,
p i n 1
e ex
( (
re s s o t
s h n
x, xly , x x are e o

o n whi h
es b c m d
c an d n m in t
e a s su f t h p ti l f
e as ti n e o a o rs o e ar a rac o s,

s in ce th th
e s e are nly di i f (e o v s o rs o x x

( ) cWh n q t ie n ( )
1 i
e l ua d f f o t i n d t h ffi
s c e are i n t f o ra c o s , an e c oe c e s o

lik p w
e o f i b th m mb
ers o x n q t d fo q ti n e b
e rs a re e ua e ,
ou r e ua o s ar e o

t i d w hi h i
a ne , c t ly t h igh t n m b
s e x ac f m w hi h t d t m i n t h
e r u er ro c o e er e e

f o ur unk n w n n t nt A B C D
o co s a s , , , .

I n t d f t h m t h d j t in d i t d i ( ) f
s ea o e e o l l t ing t h
us ffi ca e n c or c a c u a e coe

i t
c en s, a m p id o re ra
p w ld b f ll w roce ss ou e as o o s :

By l in g f f
c e ar ti n t h id n t it y ( 1 ) m y b w it t
o rac o s, e e a e r en

5 x 2 —3 x + 1 = A ( x Cx ( x
 1 33 .
IN TE G R A TIO N O F R A TI ON A L FR A C TION S 2 27

Pu t t i g n x 1 give s at o n ce
3 D .

S u bs t it u t e fo r D t he l j
v a ue us t f nd
ou , an d t ra n s po se the c o rre s po n di ng

t e rm . h
T is giv e s
'

2
5 x Cx ( x

It c an be s ee n by ins p e ct io t n h t t h ight h n d m m b f t h
a e r lt - a e er o e re s u

is d iv is ib l by x
e 1 As t is re
. h l ti n i id n t it y it f ll w t h t t h
a o s an e , o o s a e

l ft h n
e - a d m e m b e r is al so d i i ibl by
v s 1 eWh n t hi f t i x . e s ac o r s re

m ove d f ro m bo t hm e m be rs , th q ti n d
e e uat o re u ce s o

5 x —1 = A (x 0 93 .

N o w pu t x : 1 . T hn
e

0 4 .

Su bs t it u t e t he va u e l f un d
o for C , t ra n sp os e , an d d ivide by x 1 .

The re s u lt IS
1 A (x. 1) B x
.

B y g1 v1 n g x t he va u es l 0 an d 1 in s u c c e s s io n , it is f nd t h
ou at

A 1, B 1 .

Ac c o rd i g y, nl
—3 x + 1 2dx = l+
J(
5 2
1 4
f
3
.

( x
_
+
x x
( x x —l ( x

x —l 8 x —5
log
x 2 (x

f(
dx
Ex .

2 —l 1 x 4- 26 2dx
f ( x B 1Ld (I:
Q —
V EX 1 0
[
3 .

( a) 2
.

x 3 2
x + 3 x

f(
dx
x
1
E x 11
f (
2
bxa
)
1
dx
“

dx
)
2 2 ? .
x
.
a

V Ex .

x
2
( x V8 ) ?
5
5 3
f
x x
2 11 1130 Part l al
$ 6 2;

a4
2 2
x4 2 d x
Ex 1 3 .

[ Su b s tit ut e x —a z z
22 8 IN TEGRAL CA L C UL US [ on 111 .

1 35 . CASE I II . Occurren ce of qu adratic fact ors , n on e

rep ea t ed .

( x 2
l) ( x 2
2 x + 2)
As sum e
4 x2 + 5 x + 4 Ax + B Cx + D
( )
1
2
+ 2
x + 1 x +2x+ 2
T he n

( ) 4 + 4 = ( Ax E ) ( x + 2 35 +
2
2 x + 5 x 2
D ) (x + 2

Bye q u ati ng coe ffi i nt c e s of lik e po w e rs o f x

4 = QE + D,
fro m which

Hn e ce t he giv e n in t e g ra lb eco m e s

dx 2
+1
l j l
x _1 _1 x
Q t an 95 + t an (H 1
2 2
x +l x + 2 x+2

To m a k l e c ear t he n f
re as o s or t he a s s u m pt io n whi h w c as m ad e c on

c er n ing t h f e orm o f e q t i n (I )
ua o , o b s e rve t h t in
a th f
s ce e ac t o rs of t he
de n om i n
l ft m m b
at or in t h e
1 d 2 2 th e m t e er are x
2
an x
2
x , es e us

n ily b t h d n m in t
e ce s s ar i the igh t m m b
e Al ein th
o a ors n e r e er . so , s ce e

n m t f t h gi n f t i n i f l w d g t h n it d n m in t
u e ra o r o e ve rac o s o o er e re e a s e o a o r,

th n m
e t u f h p t i l f t i n m t b f l w d g t h n it
era o r O e ac ar a ra c o us e o o er e re e a s

d n m in t
e o A t h l tt i
a or f th. nd d g i s h e th a er s o e se c o e re e n e ac case , e

m t g n
os l f m f n m t f lfillin g t hi q i m n t
e e ra or or a t b u e ra o r u s re u re e o e

ofl w od g t h n it d n m in t ) i
er e re e
p i n fat h fi t d g s e o a or s an ex re s s o o e rs e ree

h A B
s uc as C D x , or
'
x .

N ti b id
o th t i
ce , q t in g t h
es ffi i n t f lik p w
es, a f i n e ua e coe c e s o e o e rs o x n

opp it mos m b f
e q ti n e f q t i
e rs n b t
o in d w hi h
e ua o ou r e ua o s a re o a e c

tly
e x ac ffi t d t m in t h f
su ce n kn w n ffi i nt A B C D
o e er e e our u o c oe c e s , , , .

4 dx
EX 2 . .

2
+ 2x
4f
x

j(
‘
I” dx
j
“ x
EX 3 . EX 7
+ 1 ) (x + 1 ) x2 + l
2 4
x x +
’
dx dx
j(
x
Ex 4 Ex 8
8
+ a x

m
'

Ex 5 . .

i ( x 2
a
2
)( x2
. Ex 9 . .

j( x i ) (z + 2 93 + z
230 IN TEGRA L C AL C UL Us [ C m I II 1 3 6 —1 37 . .

The fi rs t t e rm be co m e s
9

j
dx
5
dx
-—
u x
— 1 -1
lo g (
2
x 2) t an
2
x 2 x
2
2

The s e co n d int
, e grat e d by t h e m e t h o d o f re d u ct io n ( C h ap . II ) , give s

x 1 l x
t an
“

2
x + 2 « 5 V2
F in lly by
a , app lying f o rm u a l I t he l as t n
t e rm i t e grat es im m e diat e y l
Hne ce
i

2 x5 — x4 -i- 8 x3 --
4 4 x 2
dx = 1og (x 2
2
( x +

x —l —3 2) dx
2

! f g
Ex 2
x +
. .

2
Ex 5 , ,

x + 1 x
2
(
x
2
+ 1)
2

i )—
2 - a2 — —x2
f(
2
x x - a
2 x’
3 -
l 2 a x
.
Ex s _
ax Ex 6
“
>
2 2 2 2
x + a
( a
: + a
)
2 dx x5

f( 1
x dx
Ex 7 .

)
2 3
+ x

pri n c ipl e s u s e d in t he pre ce di n g c as e s ih -t he as s u m p

The
tio n of t he p arti al f actio n s m ay be s u m m e d u p as follows
r :

E a ch of t he den m in a tors f t h p a r tia l fra ction s c on ta in s

o o e

on e an d on l im ef t r f t h g iven d n m in a to W h
y n
p o e r ac o
n o e e o r . e

a re e a t e d rim e fa t r occu s a ll f it s d ower s must

p p ifi ren t
pc o r ,
o e

b u s e d a s d en om in a t s of t he p art i l f
e tion s or a ra c .

The n u m e a tor f e a h f t he a s s u m ed f a cti n s is of d egre e

r o c o r o

on e lower t ha n t he d eg ee f t he
p rim e f a ct or o c u rring i
rn t he o c

c or re s
p on din g d en om in a tor .

1 37 . Ge n e ral t h e ore m
every ratio n al f ac tio n c an . Sin ce r

be i t e g r ate d by fi s t s e p ar ati n g if n e ce s s ar y i n to s i m pl e
n r , ,
r

fr ac tio n s in a c c or dan c e with s o m e o n e of t he c as e s c o n s i dere d

a bov e t h e i m po t an t c o n c l u s io
,
is at o n c e d e du c ible
r n

The in tegr a l f very a tio l fr tio o a n be fou n d an d is

e r na ac n c ,

ex
p re s s ible in t erm s o f a lge br a ic, log a rit hmic, an d in ve r e t rig o
s -

n ome t r ic fu n ct ion s .
 C H A PTE R I V

INTEGR ATION B Y R AT I ON ALIZ ATION

At t he of t he pre c e di n g chapt e r it was r e m a rke d that

en d

ev e ry r atio n al al ge b ai c f u n c ti on c an be i n te grate d T he
r .

qu e s tio n as to t he p s s ibility o f i n t eg r ati n g i rratio n al f u n c

o

tio s has n e x t to be c o s i de e d Thi s h as al e ady be e n

n n r . r

to u ch e d u p on in C hapt e I I w h e re a c e rt ai n type of i r a
' r , r

t io al f u n c ti o n s w a s t e a t e d by t he m e th o d o f re d u c tio n
n r .

I n t h e pr e s e n t c h apt e r it is pr o po s e d to c o n s i d er t h e

m ple s t c a s e s o f i r ati o al f u n c tio s v i

r n th o s e c on t ai n i g
n , z .
, n

Of r atio ali atio n every s u ch f u n c ti o n

n z , c an be i n te gr at e d .

138 . e ation
In t gr of fun ct ion s con t a in n g i t he ir ra t ion alit y

t he oot of an e x pre s s io n of t he fi r s t d e g e e i x bu t
n th r r n , no

oth e r irratio n ality it c an be e du c e d to a ratio n al form

,
r by
m e an s of t h e s u b s tit u tio n

Vax + b = z .

2
2 x + 3 2 z .

dx z z dz ,
 INTEGR A L OAL O UL vs [ c m I V .

x §+ x

It w ld ou app e a r at fi rs t s ight t h at h n n n n
t is i t egra d c o t ai s l s ev era

irrat io n liti
a e s , v iz . V573, x/ x . It IS l
re a di y s e e , o n hw
e v e r, t h t th y a e

a re all po w e rs of V5 , an d he n ce t he s u bs t it ut io n {72} z w ill t i n li

1 ra o a ze

t he e x pre s s io n t o be in t egrat e d .

UK. Ex 3 u

f x \/ x
dx

+ l
h Mi m e
d”
—2
.

( x

dx dx
Ex 4 Ex 7
— —a M
.
. . _

( x
a

f
dx
Ex i
—1
.

2 vx + x § + xl g
x

W he n two ir ratio n alitie s of t he form V a x + b c , + d

o c c u r in t he i n t e gr an d t he fi rs t r adi cal can be m ad e t o
, d is
a ppe ar by t h e su b s t it u tio n

T he s e c o n d r adi cal th e n re du c e s to

b) + d.

an d he m eth o d of t he n ex t ar ti cle c an be applie d .

1 39 . e ration of ex pre s s ion s con tai n in g / w2 bx +

In t g x a 0 ,

E very e x pre s s io n c o n t a i n i g V x + bx +
2
bu t n o oth e r
n a c,

irr atio n ality c an be r atio n ali z e d by a proper s u b s titu tio n

, .

In or d e r t o m ak e t h e n e c e s s ar y s t e p s c l e ar e a g eo m etri c al r,

i n t e rpr e t atio n of t he pr oble m will be ve y u s e f u l r .

T o t hi s e n d le t t h e give n r ad i c al be repre s e n te d by g ;
that is le t ,

1
( )
23 4 IN TEGR A L CAL C UL US [ GEL IV

poi n t s of i n t e r s e c tio n . Th e othe r root c o e s po n di n g to, rr t he

variable poi t P is n ,

F rom thi s follo ws

g
—2 = z
(
x — l ) = x
z
2 —1

z
2 —1

Two parti cu l ar c as e s of t he m etho d give n above d e s erve

to be n oti ce d .

( )aWhe n t he c on ic in t ers ects t he x -axis .

In thi s cas e t he q u ad ati c r ex p e s s io n

r ax
2
bx c has re al
factors s ay
, ,

— x
)( x

T he co i c ( 1 ) i n te s e c t s t he x ax i s in t he two poi n ts
n r -

(a, O ) an d eit h e o n e of w hi c hrm a

y be c o n v e n ie n tl y
s e l e c t e d fo t he poi n t Q
r .

Th e e q u atio n of a y li e QP t hro u gh t h e fi r s t poi n t is

n n

{9 z ( x a
) ,

an d t he e qu atio n of an
y li n e t hr o u h
g t he s e c o n d poi n t ,

a z ( w B) A
( )
’

E it her on e of the s e e q u atio n s , c o m bi n e d with will

e ffe ct t he d e s ire d ratio n ali atio n z .

b
( ) When t he con ic is an hyp erbola .

Th i s o c c u s w he n t he c oe ffi c ie n t of
c as e r is po s itive x2 .

The c u rve e x t e n d s to i n fi n ity in two d iffere n t d ire c ti o n s ,

n am el t h d i tio of t h e a s m ptote s I f o n e of t h e
y ,e e c s r
y n .

poi n t s at i n fi n ity o n t he c u rve be t ake n for t he poi n t Q t he ,

li n e s QP p as s i n g thro u gh t hi s poi n t a re p arallel to t hat

 IN TEG R A TI O N B Y R A TI ON A L I Z A TI O N 23 5

as
y m ptot e w h i ch to u c h e s t h e cur ve at Q . T he eq u atio n s of
t h e a s ym ptote s are

Ac c or d i n gly t h e li n e s p ar all e l to t he on e as ym ptote are

g V5 x z,

an d th o s e parallel to t he ot h er
'
g =
( B )
E it h er
of the s e eq u atio n s u s e d in pl ac e of ( 2) w ill s erv e
e qu ally well in e x p e s s i n g x an d g ( V a x bx
= 2
r c ) r a tio n

ally ih term s of a n ew variable z .

T he co ni cy /
\ x 2
2 x 1 is an h yp e rbo la an d f or m u a l ( B ) c an be
app li ed . h
T is give s

wh n e ce by s q u ari ng an d s o v i l ng f or x,

2
+ 1
x z
’
z
)
an d accordin g ly
z
2
2 z 1
2
z
)

2(l z )
Wh n t h
e es e e xpre s sio n s are s ub s t it ut e d in t h e give n int e gra l , it b ecom es
2
2 z 1 4 2
z f(
z
d % + d
2(1 + z
)
2
1 + z

2
- z + 4 lo g ( 1 + z ) +
1 H ]
1

c ou ld be u se d for t h e pu rp o s e o f rat io n lia z at io n .

23 6 INTEGRAL CA LCUL Us [ GIL I V .

Ex 2 . .

The d e n om i n at o r n
be i g ra t io n li a z ed, n
t he i te gra d t a n k es t he f o rm

“
( 1 x
)
T he co ni c

n
i t e rs e ct s t he in t wo po i t s ( A
x-a x is ; 1, n
If t he p o i t (n1 , 0 ) b e c o s e f o r Q h
, t h e n e q
u at io n o f an y lin e pas s i g n
t h ro u g h t hi s p o i nt is
y
The s im u lt a n l
e ou s s o u t io n of t he se t wo e q u at io n s giv es

x
z
2
1 2 z
2 2
2 1 z 1

VI 2
2 2
dz
wh e n ce
x
2
dx
z

( 1 x ) z
2
1

2( z t an
“
1
z )
- l
t ail
x —l x —l
Ex 3 . .

1 40 .wh at pre c e de s c o m bi n e d with t he theore m of

Fr o m ,

A t 1 87 it follows t h at ev e y r atio n a l f u n c ti o n d e p e n d i n g
r .
,
r

o l o n x a n d t h e s qu a r e root of a pol yn o m i a l of n o t h i g he r
n
y
tha t h e s e c o n d d e gr e e in x can be i n t eg at e d an d t he re s u lt
n r ,

e x pre s s e d in t e r m s of k ow n f u c tio n s n n .

EX ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER IV

2 ,

2 (x a —
fi ( x a ) §
 C H APT E R V

I NTEGR ATI ON OF TRIGON OM ETR IC AND OTH ER TRAN

S CENDE NTAL F UNCTION S
1 41 . In r e ga
to t he i n tegr atio n of t igo n o m etri c f u n c
r d r

tio n s it is t o be re m arke d in t he fi rs t pl a c e that every

,

ratio n al tri g o n o m e tri c f u n c tio n c an be ratio n ally e xpre ss e d

in t e r m s of s i n e an d c o s i n e .

It is ac c or din g ly e vi d e n t t hat s u ch f u n c tio n s can be i n te

g rate d b y m e a n s o f t h e s u b s tit u tio n

s iu x 3 .

Aft e r t he s u b s tit u tio n h as b e e n e ffe c te d t h e i n te gra n d ,

m ay i n volve t he i rratio n alit y

— z2
( co s x ) .

Thi s be re m ove d by ratio n aliz atio n as e x plai n e d in t he

c an ,

pre c e di n g c hapter or t he m et ho d of re du ctio n m ay be

,

e m plo ye d .

T h e s u b s tit u tio n co s x 2 will s erve equ all y well .

It is u s u ally e as ier h owever to i n te grate t he tri g o n o m etri c

, ,

for m s with o u t a n y s u ch previo u s t an s fo m atio n to al gebrai c r r

f u n c tio n s The follo vVin g arti cl e s treat of t he ca s e s of m o s t

.

fr e qu e n t o cc u rre n c e .

f f
in ‘
zn
1 42 . s ec x dx, cos ec x dx .

In t hi s c as e n ppo s e d to be a po s itive i n te ger

is su .

If s e c zn
x dx be writte n in t he for m
i ’H z
1 ( )
’
s ec x s ec x clx ( t an x ,

238
CH . V l 4 1 —l 43
. .
] TR I G ON O M E TR I C F UN C TI ON S
the fi rs t i n tegral b e c om e s

f ( t an
z
x x) .

If be e x pan d e d by t he bi n o m ial for m u l a

an d i n tegr ate d term by term t he re q u ire d r e s ult is re ad ily
,

obt ai n e d .

In like m an n er ,

f in z z
dx
‘

cos e c x cos e c x

f
2
( c ot x
( c ot x
) .

Th i s
l as t form c an be i n te gr ate d as in t h e pre c e di n g c a s e , ,

by e x pa n d i n g t he bi n o m i al in t h e i n te g r an d .

The s am e m et h o d will evi d e n tly appl y to i n te g ral s of t h

form
f m
f m
zn in
t an x s e c x dx , oo t x c o s e c x dx,

in whi ch m is an y n u m ber .

E X ERC IS ES

dx

(
4 4 4
s in x
4
)
4
s in x c o s x cos x

dx -

8 ( z t an 3x 8 6 0 423 dx
) .

S l n x CO S x

2 fi I

co s x dx g
fi
s in x

1 43 .

f m
s cc x t an
2 1x dx,
f oos ec
m
x c ot
2 l
x dx.

In th e s e i t e gr a d s n is a po s itive i n t e ge
n n r, o r z e r o s o t h at
,

2 n 1 is an y po s itiv e o dd i n t e g e w hil e m r, is unr e s tri c te d

24 0 IN TEG R AL OA L O UL US ( on . v .

The fi rs t i n t e g r al m ay be w itte n r in t h e fo r m

f
m-1 2n
s ee x t an x s ec x t an x dx

f m l
(
z
1 ) d ( s ec
”
)
‘

s ec x s ec x x ,

whi ch be i t r
c an n eg a te d a ft r e p an d i n g ( s
e x z
ec x by t he
bi n o m ial for m u l a .

S i m il a rly ,

f m
c os e c x c o t
2n + 1
dx
f m l
x cot
zn
cos e c x cot x dx
‘

x cos e c x

f - m 1
(
z
1 ) d ( c o s e c x)
”
"

c os ec x c os e c x .

X
E ERC IS ES

1 .

[ s ec x
z
ta n
a
x dx . 5 .

f ta n 5
x dx .

f
’
dx
j
2 3 5
. c o s ec x c o t x dx . 6 . z se c " 3x t a 3
n x dx )
.

7 . I ta n x dx .

4 . f in s 3
x c ot x dx . 8 . f oo t x dx .

M 44 . It an
”
av d x , f oot
”
x dx .

The fi rs t i n te g ral c an be tr eate d thu s

f t an n
x dx t an z
x dx

ft an x ( s ec x
z 1 ) dx

n -l

f
t an x f
t an n
dx
'

x .

1 ‘

W hen po s iti v e i n t ege r t he e x p on e n t of t an x m ay

n is a ,

be d i m i n i s h e d by s u c c e s s i e appli c atio s of t hi s f o rm u l a
v
n

u n til it b e c o m e s z ero ( w he n n is e ve ) o on e
( w h e n n n , r

is od d ) .
24 2 INTEGRAL CA L CUL US [ Ca V .

1 45 .

f s in m ac co s n x dx .

( ) a er mEit h
or a p os iti ve od d i n t e genr .

I f o n e of t he e x p o ne t s f e x am pl e m is n , or , a p os itiv e odd

i t eg e t h e g iv e n i n t e g al m ay be w itt e n
n r, r r

f ( i 2
x s in x
2
x c os
"
dx cos x
) c os
”
xd ( c os x
) .

m 1
S i n ce m is v e n an d t h er e fo r e
o dd , m 1 is e ,

po s itive i n t e ge H e c e t h e bi n o m i al c a be e xp a
r . n n n ded i to
n

a fi n it e n u m b e r of t e m s a n d t hu s t h e i t e g a tio r , n r n c an be

e as il c o m pl e ted
y .

Ex 1 . . f in c
s 5 os x dx .

n
Acc ord i g t o t h e m e t h od j u st n
i d ic at e d t is i t e gra h n l can be re d u c e d to

f ins
“x v c o s x d ( co s x ) f ( l c os
2
x ) (
2
'

co s x )
%d
( oo s x )
gx }x
’
1 1
co s
3 co s 2 00 5 2 x
1 1 .

Ex . 2 .

f sin s x dx . Ex 5 .

Ex 3 . . f n si
3
x cos 4
x dx .

s in 3 x dx

Ex 4 . .

f
D

b
( ) m + nev en n e gative in te ger
an .

In thi s c as e t h e i n t e g al m ay be p ut in r t he form

c os
m”
x dx
f t an m
x dx ,

whi c h c an be i t e g ate d
n r by Art . i 1 4 2, s n ce t he ex po n en t
— m ) of s ec x is ve n po s itive i t e ge
( n an e n r .
 TRIG ON OM E TR I C FUN CTION S 24 3

Ex 7 . .

f COS g(I?

n
The i t e grat io ni s ef
fec t e d in t he f ll wing
o o s teps

t an i x 4
‘

s ec x dx

t an x ( t a u x
i 2
1 ) d (t a n

2 t an % x ( g 4
2
t an x )
’
.

Ex . 8 Ex 1 1 .

Ex . 9 Ex 1 2 .

Ex 1 0
. Ex 1 3 .

( )
0 M ultiple an gl e s .

W hen m both ev e n po s itiv e i n t e ger s i n t e gr ati o n

a n d n a re ,

m ay be e ff e c t e d by t he u s e o f m u ltipl e an gle s Th e tri g o .

n o m e t ic f o r m u l as u s e d fo
r th is p u po s e a e
\
r r r

1 cos 2x

z
1 cos 2x
c os x
2
s in 2x
$1 11 93 C O S
2
14 .

f s ia c os
4
x dx .

f s in
2
x c os
4
x dx
f ( s 1n x cos x )
2
co s dx

2
si u 2 x 1 c os 2x
4 2

—
% f sm
\
2
2 x dx + 1
1 3
; Si n
2
2 x co s 2xd (2 )
x

os 4x

fi x —gfi s in 4x + 1 s in 3
1 5
2x .
244 INTEGRAL CA L C UL US [ Cm v .

Ex 1 5
I 2
x s in z
dx Ex 1 7
f si f
x c os 4 x dx
‘
. . cos x . . . n .

Ex 1 6
J
fi
s iu Ex 1 8
6
. . x co s x dx . . .
( i s u
‘
x cos
4x 4
) dx .

t/
n
I t e grat e t he t wo f ll w in g by t h
o o e a id o f m u lt ipl ngl e a es .

d Q dx
Ex 1 9
. .

I s in
4
x co s
‘
x
Ex 2 0 . .

I s 1 n x co s x
3
s in
3
x c os x

I t egrat e t h e
p f ll w in g by
o o a n y o f t he p rece d i ng m t h e o ds

—
LL1 M
j l
’

s in

I f
‘
x
Ex 2 1
. . dx dx 2
( s ee
2
x 2 co s
2
x ) dx .

2 2
co s x cos x

Ex 2 2
. .

j Ex 2 4 . .

f x
2 \/
a
2
x 2
dx .

J Ex . 23 .

I EX 2 5 .

I ch /
n 51
: a
2

[ S u b s t it u t e x [ Su bs t it u t e x a s ec

dx
1 46
j a + b cos x a + b s in w

W rit e a bc o s x in t h e fo rm
os
2 x
—+ sm c os
2 x
—s 1 n 2 x

2 2 2 2

dx
Th e n
f a + b c os x a —b a + b
a - b
24 6 IN TE G R A L CAL C UL US ( on . v .

dx
a s in x b c os 2
x)
dx
1 co s x
2

1 47 md x ,
f w”
cos u m d x
a“
s in u
.

f e e .

In te g ra te
f e
m”
s in n x dx by part s , as s u m n i g
s in n x, an d do dx
”
u e .

Th i s g ive s

f e
w”
s in n x dx e
“
s in n x
f e
w”
c os n x dx . 1
( )

In te g rate t he s am e ex pre s s i o n i
aga n , as s u m n g th s i i ti m e
u e
”
, do s in n x dx .

T he n

f f
a
w”
e sin nx dx e
”
c os n x e
”
c os n x dx 2
( )
fi
.

M u ltipl y ( 1 ) by
g an d 2 b
( ) y g an d add . The i n te gral s
t he right m me bers a re eli m i n at e d , an d t he re s u lt is

By su btr acti n g ( 1 ) fro m t he for m u l a

is obtai n e d .

X
E ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER V
1 . S ho w th at

( 1 n
) f s ec
"+ 2
x dx t an x se c
n
x n
f se c n
x dx .

n
I t e grat e by part s , t a in g k u
”
se c x, do se e
2
x dx .
1 46 TR I G ON OM E TR I C F UN C TI ON S 24 7

2 . S h w th
o at

( 1 n ) j c o s ec "+ 2
x dx c ot x cos e cn x n
f c o se c ”
x dx .

s in x c o s x

dx Q dx
j e5 c o s
1

5( 1 8 .

2
.

2
x
) l x
'
s in 2 x
[ Pu t x c os
j e
x
dx .

s in x dx
‘

j cos
5
x 10 ,

f
m
e s in x dx
’ ii
.

f s in 2 x s in x dx
z
11 ,
e .

[ S U GG E N S TI O . 2 s in 2 x s in x = cos x co s 3
12 . S ho w th at

2 ( a
,
b
) 2 ( a 6)
Use t h e t rigo n o m e t ric f or m u a l
s in a s in 3
, [ os ( a
c p
3
, )
co s (a
13 . S h w th
o at

f ins a x co s bx dz M w .

2 ( a b) 2 (a b)

S ho w th at

f oo s a x c o s bx dx
s in
( a

a — b)
b) x s in
( a

+ b)
b )x
.

2 ( 2 ( a

f in s ”
x 00 3 3
x dx . 17 .

f ( t an x co t x ) 6
dx .

I f
 C H APT E R V I

INTE GR ATI ON AS A S UM M ATION

1 48 . pr e c e d i n g fi ve c hapters v ario u s m e tho ds o f

In t h e
i n te gra ti o n ha ve be e n e x pl ai n e d The fi n al obje c t in every .

c as e h as b e e n to d e ter m i n e a f u n c tio n F ( x ) s u ch t hat it s

d erivative s h o u l d be i d e n ti c al wit h a giv e n f u n c t io n f( x) .

It is n o w prop s e d t o a n al y e t hi s i d e a a little m o e f ully

o z r ,

a n d to s h ow t ha t it e a d il l d to a v iew of i n t e g r atio
y r ea s n

whi ch is of t h e highe s t i n t e es t an d i m po t an c e r r .

In or d e r t o obt ai n t h e d e iv at iv e o f a fu n c ti o n F ( x) it is
r

n e c e s s a y in t he fi r s t pl c e t o d e t e m i e t he i n c e m e n t
r a r n r

Ax )
'

F( x E ( x) 1
( )
whi ch t he fu n c tio n E (x) t ak e s whe n t h e i n de pe n de n t v i ar

abl e x t ake s t h e i n c r e m e n t Ax .

T h e e x pre s s io n ( 1 ) c an be pu t in a for m m ore c o n v e n ie n t

for pre s e n t p u pos e s if it be as s um e d that for all v al u e s of x
r ,

u n d e r c o n s i d eratio n F ( x Ax) c an be e x p an d e d by m e an s Of
T ayl o s t h e o e m [ Art 4 1 p T hi s e x p an s io n is
’
r r .
, .

F(x Ax)
u
F
E
g g
) Ax 2
g
”
F ( x) F ’
(
x ) Ax
( ) A
( )
x
3

Fro m t hi s , by tran s po s i n g F ( x ) , t he i n cre m e n t ( 1 ) is ob

t ain e d in t he for m of a s eri es , v iz , .

F(x Ax ) F( x)

i fl mx) ?
gg
fi
l
( ) Ax Ax +
’
F x

f( ) A
xx qS( x ) Ax .
25 0 INTEGRAL CAL C UL US [ Cm vi .

an d su b s titu t e i t he fi s t t e m o f t he p e ce di n g e qu atio n
n r r r .

T he a d d it io n o f t h e ab o v e e q u atio s t he n i
g v es n n

F ( b) -F( a )

Ax [ f( a ) + f( a Ax) + f( a 2 Ax ) +f( a + n 1 Ax) ]

Ax 1

This ex p i
re s s o n fo r F ( b) F( a) , whil e d ep en di n g on t he

g i v e n f u n ct o n i f( )x , c o t ai
n ns a s lo a s er ie s of s u c ce s s iv e
v al u e s of v iz .
,

Ax ) + q(
b a n 1

T hi s l at t e r c an be g ott e n rid of by t aki n g it s li m it as Ax

a ppr oa ch e s e z ro .

Fo s i c e
r, n
N
E C ) Ax +
”
c< > x < Ax> +
2

2 3 ,

it f o ll o w s t hat
m
A i ; 0
O 4
( )
an d he n c e , if ( I) d e n o t e t he nume ri c ally gre at e s t ter m o f t he

se rie s
90
6 1 A51 0+
t he n
Ax ¢( a Ax ) i Ax [ < I) (I)
( n t er m s ) ]

[éAx n CID

( b
B i
u t s n c e , on a c c o u n t of
l
io
lr
( I) : 0’
Ax
it f o ll o w s th at
A 32 O we ) w Ax) + 1 Ax

an d he n c e
F ( b) F( a )

l 1 Ax) ] Ax 5
( )
l”
0M ) a + f< a Ax) f( a n .

A ;
 IN TEGRA TIO N AS A S UMMA TION 251

T he s e c on d m e m ber of ( 5 ) is d e n ote d for brevity by t he

f( x ) dx ,

an d is ca lle d t h e d efi n i t e i n t eg r a l of f( ) b e tw e e n
x t he li m it s
a an d 6 .

S u pp o s e of t he li m it s s ay t he u pper li m it 6 is
on e , ,

r e ga d e d as v a i abl e w hil e t he o t he has a fi x e d v al u e

r r , r .

T o e m ph as i e t h i s a s s u m pti o n c o c e n i n g t he v a i ability o f
z n r r

6 le t it be r e pl a c e d by t he let t er x
,
Th e n e q u ati on ( 5 ) .

m y be writt e n
a

3
A32 0 [ (
Fe ) f a) +f( a Ax ) + f< a n 1 Av ] Ax

F ( a) . 6
( )
He e t he t e r m F ( a ) h as a fi x e d altho u gh arb it a y v al u e
r , r r ,

d e p e d i n g o t he p a r t i c u l
n n c h o i c e t h t is m a d e fo t h e c on
ar a r

s t an t a I t m ay be e g a d e d as a c o s t a t o f i n t e g a tio n
. r r n n r .

F or m u la ( 6 ) e x p e s s e s i two s t e p s t he s ol u tio n of t he
r n

probl e m o f d e t e r m i n i n g t he f u c tio F ( x) n n :

1
( ) F in d t he su m o f t he s erie s o f n t erm s

foo f( . a Ax) , f( a 2 An a f( a
( n me
t hes e being t he va lu es o f t he given fu n ction f( x ) corre s
p on ding

to t he n e u idis ta n t
q va lu e s of x ,

a, a + Ax, a + 2 Ax , m
, a + ( — 1
n
) Ax .

( )
2 Fin d t h lim it f t he r o du c t o f t his b A s um
x a s Ax
e o
p g ,

a
pp roa c hes z er o while n in cr e a s es to fi
in n ity, s u bj e ct t o t he con
d ition n Ax x a .

T he a dd itio of
rbitr ary c o s t a t of i n t e gratio n m ake s
n an a n n

t h e s o l u ti on t h e m o s t g e n e al po s s ibl e r .

T h e m t h o d j u s t f o m u l at e d fo r d e t e m i i g t h e i n t e g r al
e r r n n

E ( x) o f a g i v e f u n c tio n f( x) is n o t s u it abl e fo t h e a c t u al
n r
25 2 IN TEGRAL CAL CUL US [ Cm vi .

work of i n t e gratio s i n ce with fe w e x c e ptio n s ( c f E x s 1

n, , . .
,

2 b e l o w ) t h e s u m m ati o n o f t h e s e ie s in t h e ri ght -han d

, r

m e m b e r of ( 6 ) pre s e n t s i n s u per abl e d iffi c u lti e s .

O n t h e oth e h an d for m u l a ( 5 ) ad m it s of a very s i m pl e

r ,

g eo m e tri c a l or p hys i c a l i n terp e t tio n in m o s t of t he a ppli c a r a

tio n s o f t he c al c ul u s an d he r e i n li e s o n e of it s chief m e rit s

, .

It pla c e s befor e o n e a v e y c o n v e n ie n t an d u s e f u l fo m u l ati on

r r

o f m an
y of t h e probl e m s of
g e om et
y m e c h an i cs p hys i cs r , , ,

et c . t he fi n al s ol u tio n o f w hi ch is m o s t re a dily e ffe c te d by

,

t he eval u atio n of t he d e fi n ite i n t e gral

in t he followin g m a n e r F irs t obtai n t h e f u n c tio n F ( x)

n .

by i n te gr ati n g f ( x ) dx a c c o d i n g to t he m et h o ds alre a dy r

e x pl ai n e d in t h e p e ce d i n g c h apte s r r .

D eter m i n e F ( b) an d F ( a ) by s u b s tit u ti g t h e li m it s I) an d n

a in t h e re s u lt Fi n ally s u btr ac t F ( a ) fro m E ( h)

. .

g ive s

fe m M ) E c)a

as t he val u e of t he d e fi n it e i n t e gr al .

Ex 1 . . Give n f( ) xfi nd F x b
( ) yet hx
e m,
e t ho d o f s u m m at io n .

Fo r t he sa k e o f brev it
y rit e Ax h T e wo rm u la ( 6 ) giv e s . h nf
i —l )k
l
lD
F ( x) - [ e
a
e
a +h
e
a+2h a+ n
e (
] h F ( a) °

h O

The su m in t he ri
gh t m e m be r m ay be w r it te n
"
[1
“ 2h c
“
e e e

b
( y t h e f orm u al fo r su m m i ng a ge o m e t ric series
)

e
“
h
1 _ e
z -a
nh z x u — a
b e
,

—a
e
a
( e
z
l)
2 54 INTEGRA L C A L GUL U S
‘

[Cm v1 .

A s er e s i
of e c t a gl e s P Al P 1 A2
r n is t hu s for m e d e a c h
, , ,

of whi ch li e s e ti e ly withi n t he giv e n a e a The s e will be

n r r .

r e fe rre d to a s t he in t i r e c t a gl e s B y pro d u c i g t he
e r or n . n

li n e s al e ady d aw a s e i es o f r e ct a gles S AI S l A
r r n, r is n , z,

f o r m e d w hi ch will be c all e d t h e exte i e cta

gl es I t is r or r n .

c l e a r t h at t h e v al u e of t h e i v e n a e a will a lw a s lie betw e e n

g y r

t h e s u m of t h e i n te io a d t h e s u m of t h e e x t e rior re c
r r, n

t an gl e s o e x p e s s e d in a form u l a
, r, r ,

PA1 P 1 A2 Pfl B a re a AP Q B n
S A1 S IA2

7
( )
The d ifi e re n ce b e twe e n t he s u m of t he e x te ior an d t h e r

s u m of t h e i t e io r e ct a gl e s is
n r r n

SRI S IR 2 S 1R e c t an gl e S
n_
T T Qr A x
1 _ .
,, n

I f t he f u c t i o f( x) d o es n o t be c o m e i n fi it e as x v a i e s f o m
n n n r r

a to b TQ will be fi it e an d h e n c e T Q -Ax will a pp o a ch

,
n ero r z

s i m u lt e ou s l
an
y wi t h A x H e n c e t h e li m it o f t h e s u m o f t h e
.

e x t e rior r e ctan gl es e qu al s t he li m it of t he s u m o f t h e in t e
rior r e ct a gle s F o m ( 7 ) it f ollow s that t he are a is e qu al
n . r

to t he c om m o li m it of t h e s e t wo s u m s
n .

T o d eter m i n e t hi s s u m ob s erv e t h at

R e c ta n gle AP R I A1 AP AA1 f( a) Ax .

S i m il arly A1P 1 R A f( a Ax) Ax 2 2 ,

=
f( a n 1 Ax) Ax .

Ad d i n g ,

sum of r e c t an gl e s
[f( ) a + f< a Ax) + f< a m Ao JAx .

H en c e , by r e qu i r i n g Ax to appro ach e o z r ,

Are a AP Q B

520 [f( 1 Ax) ] Ax

1
A
a ) + f( a n .
1 49 INTEGR A TION As A S UMMA TION 2 55

T hee x pre s s i o n j u s t obtai n e d for t h e a e a is i de n ti c al wi th r

that o c c u r i n g in t he ri ght h an d m e m be of
r - a d affo d s r n r

o e o f t h e s i m pl e s t an d m o s t i n ter e s ti n g of t h e g eo m e t i c al
n r

i n te pretatio n s of th at for m u la Thu s

r .

f aw n
:
f ( )
9

1 50 . Gen e ral iz ation area for mula Pos itive an d

of t he .

n e ga t ive a rea I s te ad of taki n g t he li m it of t h e s u m of

. n

t he i n te i o r ( or e x terior ) re c t a gl e s a m ore g e n e r al pro

r n ,

c e d u re wo u l d be to t ak e a s erie s of i n t er m e d i at e r e c t an gle s .

33
1 AI

L et 1
x be an y val u e of x b e tw e e n y v al u e a an d a Ax , x
2
an

betwee n a + Ax an d a Q Ax et c T h en f( x 1 ) Ax w o u l d , .

be t he a e a of a re c t an gl e K L AI A ( Fig 6 2) i t e r m e d i at e
r . n

betwee n PA1 a d S AI ; th at is
n ,

P A1 < f( x 1 ) Ax < S A1 .

L ikewi s e P 1 A2 < f( x2 ) Ax < S IA2 , et c .

25 6 IN TEGRAL CALC UL US ( on . v1 .

< sum of e x t e ri or r e c ta gl e s
n

hrefo
,

an d th re
( cf . Fig .

Ar e a AP QB A
“
L; 0 1
( )0

I f t he a re a to
fo u n d is e n ti e ly ab o v e t he x ax i s t he
be r -
,

o di n ate s are all po s itive If at t he s am e ti m e Ax be t ak e n

r .

po s itive ( that is if b a ) f o rm u l a ( 8 ) or ( 1 0) giv e s a po s i

, ,

tive s i gn to t he ar e a O n t he other h an d t he area is n e ga

.
,

tive if b elow the x ax i s - .

If t h e c u v e g = f( x ) is p artl y abo v e an d p a rtl y below t he

r

x ax i s t h e v a l u e of t h e d e fi n ite i te gr al ( 8 ) will be
-
, ep e n r r

s e n te d by t h e al g eb ai c s u m of t he po s itive an d n e g ative
r

a r e a s li m it e d by t hi s c u r v e .

1 51 . ertain pr opertie s of defi n ite in te grals F ro m t he

C .

b
d e fi n itio n of t h e d e fi n it e i t e g al li it of
parti c u l ar s u m [ form u l a p
f f( x ) d x s nt

c e rt ai n
h e m r

i m portan t
a

.
a

propertie s m ay be de d u c e d .

( )
a I n t erchanging t he limit s a an d 6 c ha nges t he s ign o f the
defi n it e in tegra l .

Fo r if
t rt s at t he u pper li m it 6 an d di m i i s h e s by t he
x s a n

a dditio n o f s u c c e s s ive n e gative i n c re m en t s Ax) a chan ge ,

of s i gn will o ccu r in form u la g ivi n

g

F( a ) F ( b)
flw) x dx .

“
He n c e f( ) x dx dx .

6 I
( ) f e be a n u m ber be t we en a an d b ( a c < b) , t hen

f f
c

fl ) e dx = f( ) e dx dx .
25 8 IN TEGR A L CA LCUL US [ Cm vr
.

t ak e fo r u pper li m it v al u e x = x w hi ch is l e s s th an
a
'
, b,
ac c or d i n to pre i re t
’
a < x b . Th e n , g t he c e d n
g s ul s ,

E (x '
) F ( a) =
f fl e
> de

N ow le t i n c re as e an d appro ach
x
’
6 as lim it . If at t he
s am e ti m e t he in te g ral
t

fi f( ) dx
x
( )
1 4

appro ache s a de fi n ite fi n it e li m it that lim it wi ll be d e fi n e d

, ,

a s t he v al u e of t h e i n te ral
g

in t he ae
c s un d er c o n si de ratio n ; that is ,

'
x < b.

oth er han d t he i n te gr l ( 1 4) m ay i n c e as e wi t h o u t
O n t he a r

li m it W he n that happ e n s t he i n te gr al will be s ai d to h ave

.
,

an i n fi n ite val u e or ,

b
a s i m il ar m an n e r if f( a )
In
wi ll be d e fi n e d to be t he lim it of
,
00 ,

t he
the

i n te gr al
f
valu e of f( x) dx

a < x
'
< b

as x
’
di m i n i s h e s ppro ach e s a as li m it
an d a .

Fi n ally if f( c) ,
wh e re c is an y n u m b e r betwee n
00 ,
a an d

b, it is n e c e s s ary to d et e rm i n e t h e m e an i n g of

fiffi( x
) dx, an d
fiff( x
) dx

by t he m eth o d j u s t s u gge s te d , an d th e n ad d t he two re s u lt s

in a c c or dan c e with form u l a
 IN TEGR A TION As A S UMM A TIO N 25 9

Heretofore t he li m it s a b h av e bee n as s um e d to be fi n ite , .

Th e c as e in w hi c h o e o f t h e li m it s s ay b is i fi it e is
n , , n n ,

re adily d i s po s e d of by in te g ati n g fro m a t o a fi ite u pp e r n r

li m it x an d the n c o n s i d e i g t h e lim it w hi ch t he i n tegral

’
, r n

appro ach e s as x i n c rea s e s to i n fi n i t i li it w

’
y T h s m h e n o n e .
,

e x i s ts will be de fi n e d as t he v al u e of t he i n te g al s o that
, r ,

f( x) dx f( x ) dx .

An actly s im il a
ex r m o de of p o c e du r e i s to be followe d if
r

t he lower lim it a is 00 , or if both li m it s are i n fin ite .

X
E ERC IS ES

Ex 1 Prove, W it hou t pe r f o rm i ng t he i t egrat ion n

—
. .
,

2
d a

xe flc
dx
2
. .
a 1 x

Ex 2 . . Wit h ou t n
i t e grat i g n h w th s o at

?“ 2“

I
’ '

dx
j
x ax x
_
2 2 2 2
a x + a a x + a

Ex 3 . . If y ¢ (x) an d g l/ l( ) x are t he e q u at io n s of t wo c u rves

w hi h c are co n t in u ous be t w n ee x a an d x b, an d su c h th at to e ac h
l
va ue of x co rre sp o nd s but on e va uel of g , p ro ve t h at t he
a re a n
b ou d e d by t he se c u rve s an d t h e t wo o rd i n at e s x a, x b is
n u m e rica y e u a toll q l
( ) 93
“ l
O d fi

Ex 4 . . Prove t h at t he a re a o f t he c irc e l ( x h) 2
(g k) 2

e q lt
ua o h+r

Ex 5 . . Eva lu at e

Ex 6 . . Ev a lu at e

Ex 7 . . Ev a l u at e
 C H APT ER V I I

GEOM E TR I CAL APPLI CATIONS

1 53 . Areas . an gul ar coordin ate s

R ect . I t w as sh own in
A t 1 49 t hat t he are a b o un d e d by t h e
r . cu rve g t he
x-a x i s a n d t h e two or di n a t e s x
, a x , b, is r e pre s e n te d by
t he d e fi n ite i n te g ral

j;91 x ) dx

In e x a c tl y s i m ilar m an n e r it c an be s hown that t he are a

an

li m it e d by t h e cu rve t h e g ax i s an d t he two ab s ci s s as g
,
-
, a,

g 8 i
,s repre
, s e n te d b
y
2
( )

It w as re m arke d at t h e e n d of Art 1 50 t hat when b is .

'

g reat e r t h an a t h e i n te
g al 1
( ) g irv es a po s itive or n e ative
g
re s u lt ac c or d i n g as t he a e a is above o b elo w t he x ax i s
r r - .

S i m ilarly if 8 > , ,t h e i n te g r al ( 2 ) g ive s a po s itive or

a,

n e ga tive re s u lt a cc or d i as t h e a re a wh i c h it r e pre s e n t s is
g n

to t h e ri ght or left of t he g -ax i s .

W h e n e v er it is requ ir e d to de t e r m i n e t he ar e a of a fi gu r e
whi c h is p artly o n o n e s i de an d p artly o n t he o the r s i d e o f
t he c o or d i n at e ax i s it is n e c e s s ar y to c al c u l at e t h e po s itiv e
,

an d t h e n e g a tiv e a e as s epar at e l y a n d a d d t h e r es ul t s e ac h
r ,

take n with a po s itive s i gn [ Of E x 5 p . . .

, .

1 54 . S econ d m ethod . An other m eth o d of d eter m i n i n g

t he a re a is b as e d on t h e r e s u lt of A t r . 1 0, p . 23 . It
wa s there s how n that if 2: epr e s e n t s t h e r area m ea s u r e d
26 2 IN TEG RAL CAL CUL US [ Cm vn .

X
E ERC IS ES

1 .
Fn
i d t he area n
bou d e d by t he p arabola y 4 ax 2
, t he x -ax is ,

an d t he o rdi n at e x b .

2 . F in d t he ,
are a of t he t ria g n l f e o rm e d by t he li ne 5 2 an d

o d in
a
t he co r at e ax e s .

3 . F ind t he a re a bet w n ee t he x -ax is an d on e s e m i-u nd l u at io n of

t he c u rv e g s in x .

4 Fin d t he a rea n
b ou d e d by t h e se mi —
c u b ical p arabo l a i
n xi a
—
ml
jy
. z

t he li ne x 5 .

5 . Fni d t he are a be t w n ee t he c u rv e
g i z
s n x c os x a n d t he x -ax i s ,

f ro m t he origi nt o t he p o i t n at w hi h x c 2 7r.

FI G 66 . .

An n ti n
e x am i a o of t he cu rv e will h w t h s o at t he are a is part y abov e l
tly b l w t h
3
an d p ar e o e x-ax is. T he cu rv e c ros s es t he ax is at x = , an d

at x
2
T he fi r st
p o rt io n of are a , w hi ch is pos it ive , is obt ai e d n by in t egrat
in g f ro m O to —
77
. The re s u lt is i»
. The n ex t t wo p o rt io n s o f are a a re
2
S
n l l by in t g t in g f m 3: t
r
lt i
i
7
e gat iv e , an d are ca cu at e d e ra ro o . Th e re s u s
2
g . T he l as t p o r t i n w h i h i p it i
o ,
i f n d by i n t
c s os ve, s ou ,
e grat i ng f ro m

to 2 7r, t o be Hn ttl e ce g
o a are a .

6 . F in d t he are a b tw n th e i ee d th e x -ax s an e c u rv e y : a s in 4 x,

from t he o rigi n to x 7r
.

7 . F in d t he area bou nd e d by t he cu bic a lp arab o a l y x 3

, t he y-ax is ,
an d t he 1111 8 y 8 .
1 54 G E O M E TR I CA L A PP L I CA TI ON S 26 8

8 . F in d t he area n
bo u de d by t h e p arabo l y a x 2
an d t he lin e

3, x .
[ C f E x . . 3, p .

9 . Fni d the ar e a n
b o u de d by t he p arabo l a g x
2
an d t he t wo lin es

10 . Fni d t he area n
bou d e d by t he p ar ab ola g 4 p x an d t he in e 2
l
x : a, an d s hw h
o h
t at it is t wo t ird s t he a re a o f t h e c irc u m sc ribi g n
re c t a n gl e .

Wh t i t h a s e area n
bo u de d by t he c ur ve a n d it s l at u s rec t um ?

11 F ind t h
. e are a o f t h e circ e x l 2
g
2
2 ax 0 .

12 F in d t h
. e are a b ou de d n by t he c o ord i n at e ax e s , t he witc h
3
8
y 2
a
an d t he o rd i n ate x x
1
. Byi n c re as i ng x
l
wit h ou t lim it ,
x 4 a
2

fi n d t he a re a b et w n th
ee e c ur v e a n d the x -ax is .

13 . F ind t h e are a o f t h e e llip se £

a
2 £2 : 1 .

'

14 . F in d t h e area o f t he hyp ocyc o id x l ?

"

fl a b .

15 . F in d t h e are a bo u n de d by t he lo gar it m ic h c urv e y ”

a , t he
x -a x is , an d t he t w o n
o rd i at e s x x , x
1
x
2
. S h w th
o at t he re s u lt is
propo rt io n lt a o t he d ifi e re n ce bet w n th
ee e o rd i n at e s .

Pre cau tion s to erve d in eval u atin g defi nite

be obs

e ral s Th e
in t g . t w o m e t h o d s j u s t giv e fo de t e m i n i n g n r r

pl a e ar e as are
n e s s e n ti ally alik e in t he p o c e s s e s requ ire d r ,

n am e l
y
1
( ) i n t e gr al of t he giv e n fu n c tio n f ( x)
t o fi n d t he

( 2 ) to s u b s tit u t e f o r x t h e two li m iti g v a l u e s an d b n a ,

a n d s u bt ac t t h e fi s t r e s ult f o m t he s e c o n d r r r .

E o n e o u s r e s u lt s m ay be
rr e ache d ho we ve by an in r ,
r,

c au ti u s appli ca t ion o f t h i s p o c e s s
o r .

I n p a c ti c al p o bl e m s t h e c a s e e q u i i n g s p e c i al c a e is
r r , r r r

th t in whi ch f ( x) b e c o m e s i n fi it e fo r s o m e v al u e o f x
a n
,

b e tw e e a a d b W he that h app e s a s p e ci al i n ve s ti ga
n n . n n ,

ti on m u s t be m ad e aft e r t h e m an e of A t 1 5 2 n r r . .
 26 4 IN TEGR A L CAL C UL US ( on . vn .

Ex 1 . . F ind t h e a re a n
bou d e d by t he cu rv e
3; ( x c, t he c o ordi n

n at e ax e s , an d t he o rd i n at e x 2 .

A d irec t app li cat io n o f t he f orm u la

gives

2
are a,
o ( x

b
wh ere
1 t he n
s ym bo l
in di t in g t h t t h
is l a s ig n o f s ubs t it ut io , ca a e v a u es

b , t b in
a are t d f i th
o
p i
e n m m d t
ser elyp dm g t h
or x n e ex re s s o 1 e 1a e re c e e

sign d th
, an nd lt bt t d f m t h fi t
e s e co re s u su rac e ro e rs . 1

Th i lt in t A gl n
s re s u t th q ti n f th
1s c o rre c hw . a ce a e e ua o o e c u rv e s o s

i fi it f d in gly
0
b m 1 It i e co es n n e or x . s ac cor

FI G 6 7 . .

n e ce s sary t o fi n d t he are a O OFA

Fi
( g 6 7 ) bo u d e d b y a n o r
.d i at e AP n n
c orre s po n d in g to l
a v a ue x x’ hich is e s s t ha 1 w l
Fo r t is po rt i o n . h n
t he a re a
f( ) x is fin it e a n d po s it ive , an d o rm u a f
c an b e im m e diat e y l l
app li ed, w it h t h e re s u lt
m’

fm
”
C C
OC PA
’
are a c.
1

If n ow x
’
be m a de t o i n cre as e an d appro ac h 1 as a lim it , t he l
v a u e of

t he e x pre s s io nf or t he are a w ill in creas e w it h ou t lim it .

A ik el re s u lt i s ob t a i n ed fo r t he are a i nlc u de d be t w n ee t he o rdi n at e s

x 1 an d x 2 . Hne ce t he re q u ire d a re a is i nfinit e .

Ex 2 . . Fin d t he area lim it d e by t he cu rv e y

8
( x
2
a
2
)
2 = 8 x“, the
c o ord i n at e a x e s , a n d t he ord in t a e x 3a .
1
26 6 INTEGR A L C AL C UL Us [ c a V II .

Ex . 3 . F in d t he ar e a n
b ou de d by c u rv e g t an
-1
x, th e c o brd i na t e

ln
a x e s , an d t h e i e l x .

I t h i p bl m w h
n st d l wit h
ro e e av e o ea a

m ny a l d f n ti n f
-v a u e I f t t u c o o x . n ac , o

h l
e ac f v a ue p nd infin it
o x c o rre s o s .
an e

n mb f l
u ft
er o
— T h p bl m
v a u es o an 1
x . e ro e

din gly h
acco r i d fi it w hi h as an n e n eness c

m u s t be re m ov e d b a dd i

t ion al a s s u m pt io n .

Th e c ur v e y t an
"
1 x co n s is t s o f an in
finit n m b f b n he u er o p n din g ra c e s , corr e s o

d in t
or f w h i h d iff by in t g
a es o m lt i c er e er u

pl f E
es o h b n h i n t inac f ra c s co u ou s or

ll fin it
a l f e ( F i
v a ues
g I t i o x s ee . s

FI G . 69 . id n t ly
ev e y t l t f
n e c e s s ar t h o s e ec on e o ese

b n h f th b n d y f t h p p
ra c es or e d ou ar o e ro os e

are a, an d dis c ard all t he o th e rsS pp

. fu m pl t h b n h AB i
os e , or ex a e, e ra c s

l
s e ec t e d . The ordi n at e t ot hi b n h h
s th
ra c l wh n i as e v a u e 71
'
e x s z e ro ,

5
— n 7
an d 1 n cre as es c o n t m u ou s ly t +
o 7:
2 t as ly x 1 c re as es c on 1 n u ou s

to 1 . Hn e ce t he re q u ire d are a is

— l
t an 1 x dx [ x t an 1 x
e (
2
D] ;
“

og 55

5 7r
lo g 2 .

Ex 4 . . F in d t h e a rea o f t h e p ara ll l
e o gram s t rip AB C 0 ( Fig .

3
Ex 5 . . F in d t he a re a be t w n ee t he c is so id y
2
x

— 23
an d it s a s ym p

t o te x = 2 a .

Ex 6 . . F in d t h e are a inl c os e d by t he 2 2
c u rve 33 31 a
2
(y 2 x
2
) an d it s

as ym p t o te s .

Ex 7 . . F in d t h e are a bo u n d e d by t he c u rv e a x
2
y( x a
) ,
t he x-a x is ,

an d t he as ym p t o te x = a .

Ex 8 . . F ind t h e are a inl c u ded bet w n th ee e c u rve ( 2

an d it s a sym pt o t e .

Ex 9 . . Wh at r e s t ric t io n l
m u s t be p ace d o n t h e e x po e t k in nn o rd e r

t h at the are a b ou n d e d b y t he c u rv (
e 1 x ) y
k 1 ,
it s a sym pt o t e x 1,

an d t he co ord i n a t e ax e s m ay b e fin it e ?
1 55 G EO ME TR I CAL A PPL I CA TI ON S 26 7

1 56 . Area s . Pol ar Coordin ate s . L et PQ be an arc of

a cu r v e who s e equ ati o n in p ola r c o or d i ate s
n is

p
= f ( 9) 3
( )
Le t it
requ ir e d to fi n d t h e a re a bou n de d
be by th i s c u rv e

a d t h e two r a d ii OP an d O Q
n .

D aw fro m t h e o i gi n a s e ies
r r r

of ra dii 0 P 1 0 P 2 , at ,

e q u al a n g l e s AH Le t t h e c o b . r

d in at e s o f t h e p o i n t s P P 1 P , ,
2,

" ‘
a Q be ( “a ( Pp ( P2 ,

b
( , D raw t he c ir c le
arcs PR I R I ’
, P1 R 2R 2 ’
, In
t he i
c rc u a l r s ec o t r P OR
r a di u s OP a,
FI G 70
. .

a rc PR 1 = a -A0 ;

a ear P 0R 1 = «

2 a
2
A0 .

S i m il arly a ear P I 0 1 l2 ’
=- 1 =
o
2
2
,1 A9,

a re a P2 0 183 : 1—
2 p2 A9,
2

a re a P 2 _
— 2 P —12 A9 n
°

Th e s um o f th es e sec to i al a re as
r is

ace a
?
pa a
2
) Ae < 4)

T his is pprox i m at e v al u e fo t he e qu ir e d a re a P O Q
an a r r ,

wh i ch is l e s s th a t he t u e v al u e by t h e am o u t s c o t ai n e d
n r n n

i the
n e gl e c t e d t i a
n u la p tio P R P P R P t
g o s
l l
r
1
n
2
e c r r n , 2 , .

S u ppo s e t h e fi g u e PR I P 1 e o lv e d ab o u t 0 u t il it o c c u pi e s
r r v n

t h e po s iti o P R I R 2 a d s i m il l y wit h P 1 R P e t c
’ ’ ’
n Th e nn ar
2 2,
.

t h e s u m of all t h e p art s n e gl e c te d is e vi d e tly l e s s t han t he n

26 8 I N TEG RA L C AL C UL us ( c a . V II .

s trip P R l R P t he ar e a of whi ch app o ache s

’ ’
n n_ 1, r zer o as t he
s e c t o ri al a l e A9 is m a d e to appro a c h
n r
g e o z .

i
He e nc a re a P00 A l? 1
02 p1
2
p2
2
A6

2p
2
d e .

An o t h er m etho d of pro c e d u re is 1 11 rate d in Ex . 1

i m m e diately followi n g .

Ex 1 . . F in d t h e are a of t he l mni
e s cat e
p
2
a
2
co s 20 .

Le t A de n ot e t he are a of t he sec to r

F O Q m e as u re d f ro m t he po l ar ax is to
an arbit rary ra di u s ve c t o r O Q . T he dif
fe re n t ial o f are a is ( Art 8 8 , p 1 42 )
. .

( L4 2p d 9
2
2 a
?
cos 2 Odd ,

wh n e ce , n
by i t e grat io n ,

A 2a
3
2
f 00 8 2 0d9
Fm 7 1
3 st , 2o c
.
.

If 0 w ere z e ro , t he lin e OQ w ldou oc cu p n

y t he i it ia p os it io l n OP an d

t he are a w ld b
ou e z e ro . T h at is

wh n e

Th e s u b s t it u t io n Of th i s re s u lt in t he prece di g n f orm u a l gives

O= 0 + C .

2
A g si a

In o rd e r t o fi n d t he t o t a l are a o f t he fi gure pu t 9
77
— . I n t is h c as e

OQ w ill b e n n
t a ge t t o t he e m is c at e l n at 0 . On ac c o u nt of t h e s ym m e t ry
of t he l
c u rv e , t he res u t o b t ai e d wi n ll be on e f o u rt h t he l
t ot a are a, an d
t he re f o re
area
2
“

Ex 2 . F in d t h e are a o f t he c ard io id p a ( 1 co s

J
.

Ex 3 . . Fi d t h
n e are a o f t he t h re e loops o f t h e c urv e p a s in 39 .
27 0 IN TEGR A L CA L C UL Us [ Ca vn .

Th i s d e fi n iti on is i m m e di at e ly c o n v e tible i n to r a fo rm u a l
s u it abl e fo d i e c t a ppli cati o
r r n .

Fo le t t h e poi n t s P I P 2
r, be s o ch o s e n t hat , ,

FRI = P IE Z

t he li n e s P R I , et c . b ei g n d ra w n p ara ll e l to t he -
x ax s i .

D en ot e b A t he i n c re m e n t R iP, of
g The n t he c h o rd
y g .

P, IP, h as
_ t he l e n gth
VOW ? ( 2?
4

I t isl r
x
t h e val u e of
c ea
5x
t hat co
2
£ 1 is
e s po n d i n g to
? rr

s o m e poi t of t h e c u v e betwe e n P
n a d P
[ C f A r t ,_ 1 n ,
. . r .

H e c e by s u b s tit u tin g l n ( 5) an d u s i n g t he p i n c iple

n ,
r

e m ploye d in d e ivi n g t he a e a-fo m ul a A t 1 50

r r r r .
,

a re PQ dy, ( )
6

inwhi ch ( x g ) ’
,
’
an d ( x
”
,
”
y ) are t he c oor di n at es of P an d

Q es pre c tiv e ly .

The s am e re s u lt w o u l d al s o be obt ai n e d by i n t e g ati g t he r n

ex p re s s o n s i fo r t h e d e iv ativ e of arc ( 1 ) a d
r p 1 39 , n . .

Ex 1 . . F in d the l ngt h
e o f arc t he p arabo a g = 4 p x m e a s u re d
of l 2

f ro m t he vert e x to on e e x t re m it y o f t he at u s rect u m l .

In t is h c ase

j:
p
an d he n ce n
le gt h o f are 1
5
dx .

Ex 2 . . F in d th e l n gt h
e of arc o f t he s e m i cu bic a
-
l p arab o l a ay
’2 x8

from t he o rigin t o t he poin t Whos e abs cis s a is

Z
.
157 G E O M E TR I CA L AP PL I CA TI O N S 27 1

Fin d t h nt i l h hyp l 5 % ?
l

Ex 3 e n gt o f t he o cyc o id
1
. . e e re x g a

Ex 4 . . F ind t h l ngt h
e e o f arc o f t he i l
c rc e ( x h) 2
(g k) 2 r
2
.

Ex 5 . . F in d t he l ngt h
e o f ar c o f t he c at e n ar
y g ( e
°
e
a
) f ro m
the v e rt e x t o t he p o in t ( x
l, yl ) .

Ex 6 . . F ind th l ngth
e e of t he logarit m ic h c u rv e y lo g x f ro m x 1
to x VS .

Ex 7 . . F ind t h l n gth
e e o f arc o f t he e vo lu t e o f t h e e llip se

e i
( )
aw + 04 01 = ( a
2
bot .

1 58 . Len g h t of curv s e . Polar coord n i ate s . W he n t he

equ ation of t he cu r ve is giv e n in pol a c o brdin at e s le t t h e
r ,

poi n t s P I , P2 4 be s o cho s e n that t h e ve c torial a n gle 9

M I7 3 .

i n creas e s by eq u al i n c re m e n t s AH i p as s i n g f o m a poi n t Pn r ,

on t he cu r v e t o t h e n e x t s u c c e e d i g p o i t PM D a w t hen n . r

lin e s P, R ,+ 1 perpe n d i c u l a to t h e r a dii GPM

r T he n .
 INTEG R A L CA LCUL US [ cm V II .

[ C f . p .

AGVP + p S in
% A0

li m it of t he s u m o f all s u c h c ho
Th e rd s will be a c c o di n g , r

to de fi n itio n t he le n g th of t he arc P 62
,
. H e n ce

arc PQ d 9, 7
( )

in w hi ch ( p ’
, (p
”
, a re t he co ordi n ate s of P an d Q
r e s p e c tivel y .

Ex 1 . . F in d n
t he le gt h o f arc of t he l
o garit hm ic s pi ra l p ‘
z e
“9
be
t w n
ee t he t wo p n
oi t s (
pl , 91 ) an d ( pz ,

Si n ce

d0 1
it f ll
o ows t hat

l ngt h f
pz
of arc Pl )
2
dp Va 1 (p 2
'

e °

P]

Ex 2 . . Fin d t h l ngt h e e o f arc o f t he c a rd io id p a

( 1 co s

Ex 3 . . F in d th l gt h e en of t he c is s o id
p 2 a t an 0 s in 0 f ro m 0 O

t0 9 I .

Ex 4 . . Fin d t h n t i l e e re e n gt h o f t he cu rv e p 2 a s in 0.

p o i
Ex 5
nt s
. .

( pl 91 )
F in d t h l n gth
, an d
e

(P2
e

,
of t h e parabo l a p
: a s eo
2

5 be t w n ee the

Ex 6 . . Fi
nd t he l n gt h
e o f arc o f t he h yp e rbo li c s pira l p9 a be t w n ee

t he po i t s n 0
(P 1 )
1,
an d
( 9 2, 02)
 2 74 INTEGR A L CA LCUL US [ C m v n .

Ex 4 . . F in d t h l ngt h
e e of t h e i n l
v o u t e o f t h e c irc e l
a; a
( co s 9 Os i n y a ( s in fl Oc o s 0)
. f ro m to

Ex 5 . . F in d t h le en
gt h g
od arc o f t h e c u rve s §
r y
g ‘

f from (
o , a, 0)
to ( xv yl ) ’

’
As s u m e x a se c9 3
, y a t n9
a 3
.

Vi
2 2
Ex 6 F nd th
i e l n gt h
e o f arc o f t he e ll p i se
x
—
‘

y 1
5
. . .
2 5
a

Put t i g n a: a co s ( ) I , y b s in () I ,

2 3
i
4
2 (1 77
[ 1 6
61
by e x pa d i g n n e
2
co s
2
( b
; i tno a se r1 e s an d n
i t egrat in g t erm by t erm .

J Ex . 7 .F ind t h l n gt h e e o f a rc o f t h e c u rve

x : eo s i n9 , y 6 9 00 s 0
from 0 = 0 t o

Area of s urf c ae be a con

of r evol ution . Le t A Q
t in u o u s a c of a c u rve w h o s e e q u a r

ti on is e x pre s s e d in re c t a gu l ar n

c o or d i n at e s x an d y It is r e qu ir e d .

to de t e r m i n e a fo m u l a fo r t he r

are a of t he s u rfac e ge n e r ate d by

revolvi n g t he arc AQ abo u t t he
w-ax i s .

It h as bee n s h own in Art 8 6 .

,

p 1 40 th at if S de n otes t he area .
,

of t he s u rfac e ge n erate d by t he r o t atio n of AP ( P bei n g

a v a ri abl e poi n t with c o or d i n at e s ( x t e
y» h n , ,

028
27 g
ds
dS
fro m whi ch
dz

as
da
 G E O M E TR I C AL A PPLICA TIO N S 275

H en ce , by i n t eg ati n g t he s e two
r ex pre s s io n s ,

s u r ac f e 27
1: y

l a 1 + dy, 9
( )

t he li m iti n g v al u e s o f w an d y bei n g t he c oor d i n ate s of t h e

poi t s A an d Q
n .

T hat t h e re s u lt of i n t e gr at o n i s to be ev al u ate d b e twee n

i

t he li m it s at an d b ( o r a d 8 ) is r e a d il
y s e
a e n b
n
y f o llowi n
, g
t h e s u g ge s ti o n s m ade in Art 1 54 F or d e n otin g t he . .
,

i n de fi n ite i n te gral
2
n
by gb ( :v) 0 , s i n c e t he a re a is vi de tl y ero whe n as a
e n z :

whe n t he poi n t P c o i n c i d e s with A) it follow s t h at

whe n c e 0 t( a) c .

M oreover w h e n P c oi n c i de s wi t h Q t h e re q u ire d s u rf ac e is
,

d et e r m i n e d an d th erefore
,

s u rf a c e g e n e a t e d b A Q 6 0 b
y r cf( )
) g( )
t

B u t a c c or di g t o Art 1 4 8 pa)
n 4 00
3. is t,h e( d e fi ?n ite i te n

al o bt ai n e d b v l u ati 1 0 b tw e h li m it d b
g r
y e a g( ) e e n t
n e s at a n .

I lik e m an e it is f o u d t hat t h e ar e a of t he s u rf ac e
n n r n

obtai n e d by r e volvi n g A Q abo u t t he y ax is is -

dy = 2 7r
f x

In e a ch of t he abov e
the r e s a ch oi c e of two form u
c as es i

las fo t h e a e a
r T h at o n e s h o u l d be s e le c te d w hi ch can
r .

m o s t ea s il y be i n te grate d .
 IN TEG R A L fv n
‘
27 6 CAL C UL US L
o a .

Ex . 1 . F ind t he s u r ac e f of t he c at e n o id obt ain e d by re vo vi l ng t h e

n f
c at e
g ( abo u t t he y-ax is, ro m x O to
“
ary y _ e e x _ a.

an d hn e ce , by u s i g t he n s e co nd f orm u a o f l '
t he re quir e d s u r ace f has
t he are a

; T
2 (6 e fl
dx) .

Ex . 2 . F ind t he s u r a ce f o bt ai n d by e re vo vi l ng abou t t he y-ax is t he

q u art e r o f t he c irc e x l 2
y
?
2x 2y 1 O co n n t ai e d be t e e w n
t he

po i nt w h
s e re it t ou c h es t he co o din t
r a e ax e s .

Ex 3 . . F in d t h f
e s u r ac e g e n t d by
era e rev o vi l ng th e p ara bo a l y
2
4px
a bo u t t he i f
x-ax s ro m t he o rigin t o t he p o i t n (p p)
2 ,
.

Ex 4 . . F in d t h f
e s u r a ce ge n erat e d by t he l
re v o u t ion abou t t he y-ax is
o f t h e s a m e are a s in E x 3 . .

Ex . 5 . F in d t he f
s u r ac e ge n e rat e d by t he rev o u t io l n of t he ellip se
2

?
+ 3 1,
2
(1 1

( )
a abo u t its m a j o r ax is h l
( e pro at e sphe roid) ;
t

( )
b a bo u t it s m i n o r ax is h l
( e ob at e sp e roid)
t h .

Ex 6 . . F in d t h f
e s u r ac e ge n era t e d by t he rev o u t io l n of t he cardioid

p a
( l co s 9) ab ou t t he p o l ar ax is .

n
R e gard i g t h e g u re fi f
as re e rr e d in t he fi rs t pl ace to l
rect an gu ar ax e s

s uc h h x
t at p co s 0, y
p s in 0 we hav e

f
s ur ace 2w
f y ds 2 fi
zz s in 9,
61

Ex 7 . . F in d t h f
e s u r ace o f t he c on e obt ai n ed by re vo l ing t h t p
v a o rt io n
o f t he li ne 36
z 1 w hi ch n
is i t ercept e d by t he co r o d in t x a e a es ,
a

( )
a abo u t t he —
x ax is ;
( B) ab ou t t he y-a x is .
27 8 IN TEGRA L GAL GUL Us [ Cm vn .

t he sum of t he n cy li n d ers g en erate d by t he in terior re ct an

g le s of t he plan e , v iz .
,

A —IP—
_

W ( AP z
Al l 7
-
1
2
1 ) Ax a
n n
2

ha s for lim it t he vol u m e re qui re d B u t t he li m it of thi s . sum

b
is [ by form u l a

he n c e
f
p 2 5 0] t he d e fi n ite in t e gral wy dx
z
.
, an d

vol u m e 71

Th e am e re s u lt is r eadily obtai n e d by i n tegrati n g t he

s .

e x pre s s io n for t he d erivativ e o f vol u m e [ Art 8 5 p . .

, .

T h e vol u m e ge n e r a t e d by revol u ti on abo u t t h e y ax i s is -

fo u n d by a like pro c e s s to be ex pres s e d by t he d e fi n ite

i n te gral

in w hi ch a an d ,8
are t he v al u e s of
g at t he e x tre m itie s of

t he g i v e n a rc .

Ex 1 . . F in d t h e vo u m e l of t he l
ob at e s p h e ro id o bt a i n ed by re vo l ing
v
2 2
t he e llip se £
a
2
Q
6
.

2
1 ab o ut it s m i n or ax is .

Ex . 2 . F in d t he vo u m e l of t he sp h ere o bt ain e d by re vo vi l ng t he
c irc e l x 2
(y [a) 2
r
2
a bo u t t h e y-ax is .

Ex 3 . . The are of t he h yp e r bo a xy l k g
, n ding f m t h
ex t e ro e v ert e x

to i nfin ity i l d b t it ym pt t s revo v e t d a ou s as o e . F ind t h l m g n e vo u e e e ra e .

Wh t i t h l m g n t d by
a s e vo u t th e e e ra e re v o v l in g t h m be sa e are a ou e

o th m
er as
y p t t o e

E 4 F in d t h n t i
x . . l m bt i d by t t ing t h hyp y l id e e re vo u e o a ne ro a e oc c o

53 g g b t it h
‘

i
'

3 y a a ou e er ax s .

E 5 F in d t h l m bt in d by t h
x . . l ti n f th t p t f e vo u e o a e e re v o u o o a ar o

th pe b l fi + V;
ara / Z in t
p t d
o a by t h o d i n t b t x z e rc e e e co r a e ax e s a ou

one o fth o s e ax e s .

E 6 F in d t h l m g n t d by th
x . . l ti n f t h wit h e vo u e e e ra e e rev o u o o e c
3
8a
m a
t he x-aX lS .
16 1 G E OM E TR I CA L A P P L I CA TI ON S 2 79

Ex . 7 . F in d t he vo u m el ge n e rat e d by t h e re vo u t io l n of t he wit h c

ab o u t t h e y-ax is , t a i g t he po r t io kn n o f t he c u rv e ro m t h e f v e rt e x
( x z 0)
t o t he p o i t (x l , 9 1 ) n
‘

h
W at is t h e im it l of t hi l
s v o u m e as t he po i t n ( x
1,
m o ve s t o w a rd

infini ty
Ex 8 . . F in d t h l
e v o u m e o bt a i n ed by rev o l in g
v a c o m p e t e arc l h of t he
cyc o id x l a ( 9 s in y a (1 c os 9) a bo u t th e x

277
Vo
0
l um e 77 y d z
‘

x
( 1 c os 9) d 9 3
.

Ex . 9 . F in d t he vo u m el o b t ai n ed by rev o v i l ng t he c ardio id

p
z a
( 1 c os 9) abo u t t he po l ar ax is .

As su m e x z:
p co s 9, y p s in 9 .

T hn e dx d (p c os 9) d [a
( 1 cos 9) cos 9]

a s in 9( 1 2 c os 9) d 9
Hn
.

e ce

Vo l ume r
j 2
y dx 1 m 3 s n 9 1
i 3
( co s 2 cos 9) (1 9 .

Ex 1 0 . . A q u ad ra nt of a l
circ e rev o v e s l abo u t it s c h o rd . F in d t he
l
v o u m e o f t h e s pi n dl e so ge n e ra t e d .

T he e q u a t io n o f t he c irc le be i g t a n k nie n t he f o rm

( a t
w n

the x-ax is ca n be as s u m e d -as the ax is o f ro t at io n . T he ord i n at e s o f t he

rot at e d arc are de t e rm i n ed by t h e f orm u a l

162 . M is cella n e ous

appl ication s In t he pre c e di n g arti cl e .

t h e v ol u m e o f t h e s oli d o f e v o l u ti o n is s h o w n t o be t h e r

li m it o f t h e s u m of t h e vol u m es of a s eri e s of cyli n d i c al r

pl at e s o f thi ck e s s Ax The otio h ere i volv e d is with n . n n n ,

s u it abl e m o d i fi c a ti o s a ppli c abl e t o a v a riet y of pr o bl e m s

n ,
.

T he followi g e x am pl es ( e x c e pti n g E x s 6 9 1 0) are illu s

n .
, ,

t rat io n s o f t hi s p i n c ipl e r .
28 0 IN TE G RAL CA L C UL us ( on . vu .

2
F ind t h l lip
5h n; l
x
Ex 1 . . e vo u m e of t he e l so id + =1 .
2
e
I m agin e t he s o lid d iv id e d i t o n a n u m be r o f t i p at e s by m e a s of n
p ln
a es e
p pe
r n d ic u lar t o t he x-ax is an d a t e q l ua d is t a n ces f
Ax rom e ac h
th R e gard t h e vo u m el ly t h t f o f e ac h pl at e
prox im at e
o er as ap a o an
.

e llipt i c
yl in d
c f lt it d Aer o Th b f th
a
y l in d
u w i
ell b th x . e as e o e c er e e
e llip se i wh i h t h
n llip id i int
c t d by
e e f th t t in g pl n
so s e rs ec e on e o e cu a es .

If t he e q t i n f t h i pl n b d n t d by
ua o o A th q ti n f t h
s a e e e o e x , e e ua o o e
e llipt i c b f th
as e o
yl in d i ( i y z po d
e c i t ) er s n , c r na es

f 2 2
A 2

2
b 02

2 2
;I
( a
s
A) 2 2
21 02 1
2
A) 2

The se m i-axes o f t he e l lip s e are

b
a G

Si n ce the a re a o f t he e l lip i t h se s e pro d u c t o f t he s e m i-a xe s mul t ip ie d l

by 71 ( E x 1 3 , p . . it f ll w t h t
o o s a

7 66 “
c a

b
——
an d l
vo u m e o f e ll ipt ic cy i der ln c
( a 2
A“
) AA ,
a
AAbe in g u se d in pla ce o f Ax s in ce is A)
( .

The re s ul t o f s u m m i n g ll h t m d t kin g t h lim it

a s uc er s an a e as M ap

p ro ac h es z e ro is e q u iva e l nt t t h d finit int g l

o e e e e ra

l “
f
f w f;
” o
}
2
s A) dx ?
.

c a

0 11 a cc ou nt of t he e llip s o id be i g n s ym m e t rica l w ith re s pe ct t o t he

p l a n e x 0, t h e lim it s 0 an d a in l c u de on e h lfa t he re q u ire d v o lu m e

an d he n ce in t d f in g lim it — d +
s ea o us s a an a it is m ore co n ni nt t
ve e o

w r it e t he d fin it in t g l i t h
e e b f m
e ra n e a ov e or .

Ex 2 . . F in d by t h m t h d f E 1 t h l
e e o o x . e vo u m e of t he e llipt i c co n e

2 2
y

m e as u re d f m th
ro e y z —
pl n a e as ba s e t o t he v e rt e x ( 1 , O,

Ex 3 . . F in d t h e vo u l m e of a py ra m id o f a lt it u de h an d o f b a s e-are a A .
2 82 IN TEGRAL C A L GUL U s [ on v 11 .

n l
Let O Y be t he i it ia po s it io o f t h e s t ri g an d A B a n y i t e rm e diat e n n n
p o s it io S i c e n
a t e
. v e ry i s t a tnt h e o rce is e x e rt e d o n t h e n n
e ig t B in f w h
n n
t he d ire c t io o f t h e s tri g B A , t h e m o t io o f t h e po i t m u s t be in t he n n
s am e d irec t io n h
; t at is , t he dire c t io n o f t h e t ract rix a t B i s t he s am e as
t h at o f t h lin B Ae d h n BA i
e an e ce s a n n
t a ge t t o t he c u rve . T he
e x pre s s o i n f t h t n g n t l n gt h i ( A t
or e a e e s r . 7 9 , p 1 3 0).

1 < >
2

1 1 + fl
1x
r
y 1 a
is
( dy
dx

So l in g
v fo r

n
I t e grat i g n w it h re s pec t t o y,

2 2 2
a y / 2 — 2 y
dy z x a y
y

The co n t nt f int g t i n i d
s a o e ra o s et e r m i n ed
by t h e a s su m pt io t at ( O, a ) n h
is t h e t t in g p in t f t h
s ar o o e c u rve . n h
S u bs t it u t i g t e s e co ord i at e s in t he n
abov e e q ti n w fi d C O
ua o e n
'
.

Ex 7 . . A w o od m a n f ll e s a t ree 2 f ee t in diam et er, c u t t in g h lfwa ay

t h ro u g h o n e ac h s ide . T h e lo we r f f
ace o h e ac cut is h o riz o nt l a , an d t he
u ppe r f ace ma k e s an a ngl e of 6 0
°
w it h t h l w e o er . H ow m u c hw oo d doe s
he c ut o u t ?

Ex 8 . . The nt ce er of a s q u are m ove s l n g di m t

a o a a e er o f a give n l
c irc e

o f ra d iu s a , t h pl n e a e of t he s q u are b in g p p n d i l
e er e c u ar to t h at of t he
l
c irc e , a n d it m gn it
s a u de v ar
yi g in n such w y th t t w a a a o o ppo s it e v e rt ice s

m ov e on t he c irc u m e re f n ce of t he c i l
rc e F in d t h l
. e vo u m e o f t he so lid
ge n e rat e d .

Ex 9 . . Th e e qu ia n gu lar sp ira l is a c u rve s o c o nt

s ru ct e d t h at t he a n gl e

be t w n ee t he ra d iu s v e ct o r to an y p o i nt an d t h e t a ge t n n at t he s am e

p o i n t n t F in d it q t i n
nt i s co s a . s e ua o .

E 10 D t m in t h
x . . h in g t h e er e e c u rv e av e p ro pe rt
yt h at t h e li n e d ra wn
f m t h f t f y d in t f t h
ro e oo o an or a e o e c u rv e p e rp e ndi l c u ar t o t he c or

res
p n d i n g t n
o g n t i f n t n t l n g t ha e s o co s a e a .
 G E O M E TR I CAL A PPL I CA TI ON S 2 83

I f t he a n gl w h i ht h t ng nt
e c e a e ma k wit h
es t he x -ax is be de n ot e d by
it is at o n id n t t h t
ce e v e a

a 1
2
3! V 1 + t an ¢
1

F ro m t hi s f ll w
o o s

x
)+C
2
log ( y a .

Wh n t h e e n n
t a ge t is para e ll l
t o t he x -ax is t he o rd i at e it s en lf
is t he pe rp e d icu ar a s n l I f th i
.

n
o rd i at e be c o s e for t he y-ax is h n
n
t he po i t ( 0, a ) is a po i t o f th e n
cu rve , a n d hn e ce

C log a .

T he e q u at io n ca n accord in
g ly Fm 7 8
n
, .

be w rit t e

F ro m h f ll w
t is o o s, by t a i g t he kn re cipro c a l o f bo t hm e m bers,

o r, rat io n li in g t h
a z e de n om i n at o r,

( )
2
a

Addin g ( 1 ) an d (2 ) an d d ivid i g by n
-
Z
3/ e ) ,

whi h i c s t he e q u a t io n o f t h e cat e n ary .

Ex 1 1 . . h
A rig t c irc u l
n h in g t h n gl
ar c o e av e a e 29 at t he ve rt e x h as
it s vert e x 0 11 t he f
s u r ace f ph fo d i a s e re o ra us a an d it s ax is p as s i ng
t h gh t h
ro u n t e ce er o f th p h F i
e sn d t h l m
ere . e vo u e o f t he p o rt io n o f t he

sp h w h i h
e re i t c s e x e r or i t th n o e co e .

2 2
F in d t h l m f t h p b l id £ z
E

pl n z
12
a
x

e
. .

c.
e vo u e o e ara o o
a
2
ii
c u t ofl by t he
-
 2 84 LN TE GR A L GA L G UL U s [ CH / VII .

X
E ERC IS ES O N C H APT ER VII
J 1 F in d t h
. e area b ou n de d by t he hyp b l y er o a x “
a , t h e x-ax is , an d

t he t wo o rd i n ate s x a, x na .

F m th ro lt b t in d p
e re s u t h t th o a e , ro v e a e are a c o nt i a n ed b et w n
ee an

infin it b n h f t h
e ra cd it o
ym p t t i e c u rv e a n s as o e s in finit e .

Q) 2 F in d t h
. n t in d b t w n t h
e area c o a e e ee e c urv e s y
3
x an d x3
y .

3 Fi d t h. nf th l t fth
e area o llip e ev o u e o e e se

(W (W (
?
a

4 Fi n d t h
.
- e are a bou n d e d by t he parabola V5
co r o d in t x a e a es .

5 Find t h
. e area con t ain e d bet w ee n t he curve

2
—x
31
a + x
an d it s asym pt ot e x a.

[ H 1NT . The i t egrat io n n m ay be f ilit

ac at e d by t he s ubs t it u t io n
x a co s

6 . F ind t he are a b et w een t he curve g (y

z- 2 =
)
2
x —1 an d t he
co drdin at e ax es .

v 7 . Find t he are a co mm o nt o t he t wo el lip ses

+1
2
—1 2
£ + Ii
i
—1
w m
“
“

9 fi

8 . If (a a ) an d (b, ,8 ) are two pairs

. o f va u e s l of x an d y t
, he

fo r mu l a for in te grat io by part s gives n

b

L
fl
y d x a oc
L x dy .

n
I t erpret t h is re s u lt g eo m e t r1 c ally i n t erm s o f area.

9 . F in d t h e are a n
b ou d e d by t he l o
garit hm i c ( or e quian g u lar ) s pira l
p e
ao
an d t h e t wo ra d ii
pl , P2
F in d th l ngt h
10 . e e o f an arc of t he s pira l of Archim e de s p a 9
b t w n t h p int (p
e ee e o s
l, (p2 ,

J 11 F in d t h
. f e s u r ac e of t he ri ng ge n e rat e d by re vo vi l ng t he circ e l
(y le) z G2 k
( > a ) ab o u t t he x-ax is .

12 . Fi nd t he l
v o u m e o f t he rin g de fi n ed in E x 1 1 . .
 C H APTE R V I I I

S UCCES S IVE INTEGR ATION

1 63 . Fun ct ion s of a
far we ha ve s in gle v ariable . T hu s
c o n s i d ere d t h e proble m of fi n d i n t h f n c tio n of w h
g e u
y x e n

011 ‘

o n ly is g ive n It is n ow propos e d to fi n d y wh en it s n t h
.

dx
d erivative
if ”
is g ive n
1
.

Th e m o d e of pro ce d u re is evi d e n t Fir s t . fi n d t he fu n c

n-l
d y d y n

l
w hi ch h as for it s d e rivative . Th e n , by i t e
n
dx n
dx ”
—2
‘

a ti n g t h e re s u lt d
d n
y
g r eter m i ne
dx , an d s o o n u n til a ft e r 71 n ‘
z’ .

s u c c e s s i v e i n t e g ra io n s t h e r e qu i e d r es u lt is fo u n d As an
t r .

a rbitrary c o n s t an t s ho u l d be a d d e d a fter e ac h i n te g atio n in r

or der to obt ai n t he m o s t ge n er al s olu tio n t he f un c tio n y will ,

c o n t ai n 71 a bit a r y c o s t an t s
. r r n .

s
d y 1
Ex 1 . . Giv e n 9? 5
—
,
8

1
n
I t egrat io n o f — wit h re s pe ct to x gives
x§
d y 2
1
2 2
Cl ?

dx 2 x

n
I t e grat in g a se co n d t im e,

dy 1
C lx C2
dx 27 1:

an d fin lly a 3) l log x (7l x 2

0 22: C3 .

T he t rip l int
e egrat io n q re u ire d in t is h e x am p e l w ill b e s ym l
bo iz e d by

1115wa -
3
s

1
w hi h will be
c cal e d l t he trip le in tegra l of —
8
w it h re s pe ct to x
.

286
on v n r. . S UCCESSI VE INTEGR A TION 287

Ex 2 n th h ing t h p p t y t h t t h d i f
D e t erm i e e c u rv e s av e ro er a e ra us o

y p nt P i p p t i n l t t h
. .

t
c u rva u re a t i an b f th
o nt f th s ro or o a o e cu e o e s eca o e

a n gl w hi h t h t ng nt t P m k w it h fix d lin
e c e a e a a es a e e .

If yt m f
a t ng l
s s e b h n w it h t h gi n lin f
o rec a u ar ax e s e c os e e ve e or

x-ax s ,i it f ll w f m q t i n o
p o1 6 4 dsf m Aro t 1 0 t h et ua o .
, an ro r .
, a

2
1
( Pg
’ 2
ax

in w hi h c a is an arbit rary c o n t nt
s a . s e
q u a t io n re du ces to
z
d y
2
dx
from w hi h f ll wc o o s
2

ff a
( )
d x
2 9
2
C lx

Cl an d n n t nt
0 2 be i g co s a s of n
i t e grat io n . Hn e ce the re q u ire d c u rv es

are t he l h in g
parabo a s av ax e s t h e y-ax is
a
p a
r ll l t
e o .

The i t n
ex s e f t h tw ce o e o a rb it rary c o s t a t s C , 0
l 2
in t he
p re n n
ce d i g n
e q u at io n m k it p ibl
a es oss e t o im p o s e u rt e r c o dit io s f h n
S u ppo s e , fo r n .

e x am p e , l it be re q u ire d t o d e t e rm i e t h e cu rv e n
av i g t h e pro pe rt
y h n
l
a re a dy s pe c i fi e d, an d h av i ng b e s ide s a m ax im u m ( or a m in im u m ) po in t
at 1
( ,
Si n c e at s u c h a po i nt
3 31
2:
0, it f llows t hat
o

0 a
( l

w hn e ce Cl '
1 .

Als o , by s ubs t it ut ing 1 , 6) i n t he e q u at io n f th o ~

e curve,

0 a (% 1 C a) ,

f ro m w hi ch

Acco rd i g y t he nl re q u ire d cu rve is

1
£
y
2
( x

Ex 3 . . F in d t he e q u a t io n ( in re ct a ng l u a r co o rd i n at e s
) of the c u rve s

h in g th p
av e ro
pe rt y t h at the r a d iu s o f cu rvat u re is e q l ua t o t he c u be o f

t h t n g nt l
e a e en gt h .

[ H NI T . Ta k e y as n
t he i de pe de t n n v a riab e l .
]
28 8 INTEGRAL C AL C UL Us [ C m v m .

Ex 4 . . A p a rt ic l e m ov e s a o l n g p t h i pl n
a a n a a e s u ch t hat t he l s op e

o f t he lin e n n
t a ge t at t h e m o v in g p in t h n g
o t c a es a a rat e p ro po rt io a o n lt
t he l
re c ip roc a o f t he ab sc is s a o f t h t p in t
a F ind o . t he q
e u at io of t he n
curve .

Ex 5 . . A p art ic l e ng
s t art i at re s t f ro m a po i nt Pm ov e s u nd er t he
n
a ct io of a f o rce s uc h th at t he l
ac c e e rat io n ( cf . Ex . 1 4 , p 1 1 1 ) a t e ac
. h
in t n
s a t o f t im e nl
is pro po rt io a t o ( is k t im e s ) t he s q u are ro ot of t h e t im e .

H o w far will l
t he part ic e m o ve in t he t im e t ?

1 64 tegration of fun ction s of s everal variables W he n

. In .

f u c tio n s of t w o o r m o e v a i abl e s are u n d r c o s i d erati on

n r r e n ,

t h e pro c e s s of d i ff e r e ti atio n c an in ge n e r al be p e rf o m e d
n r

with re s p e c t to an y o n e of t he vari abl es w hile t h e othe rs ,

are t e a te d a s c o n s t an t d u i n g t he difi e e n t iat ion

r A rep e
r r .

titio n of thi s p o c e s s gi v e s ri s e t o t h e n oti on of s u cc es s ive

r

p arti al di ffe r e n ti atio n with r e s pe c t to on e o s e ve al of t h e r r

va ri abl e s i n volv e d in t he gi v e n f u n c tio [ C f A t s 68 n . . r .

,

T h e r e ve s e pro c e s s r e a dil y s u gge s t s it s e lf an d p e s e n t s

r , r

t he p obl e m r Given a p a ti l ( fi s t
: hig h ) d iv tive f
r a r , or er er a o a

fu n ction f s ev ra l v ri bl s with r sp e t to n e o m r f th s e
o e a a e e c o r o e o e

n d t he orig n a l fu n ct ion
va ia ble s to
r
fi ,
i .

Th i s pr o bl e m is s o l v e d by m e a s o f t h e o d i n a y pro c e s s e s n r r

of i n t e g ation but t he a dde d c o n s t a t o f i n t e g atio n has a

r ,
n r

n e w m e an i n g Thi s c an be m a de cle a r by an e x a m ple

. .

S u ppo s e a is an u n k n ow n f u n c tio n of x an d y s u ch that

an
2x + 2y .

dx

I n t e g r at e thi s with r e s p e c t to x alo n e tr e ati g ,

n
y at t he

s am e ti m e as t ho u gh it w e re c o n s tan t Thi s give s .

in whi ch 4 is an adde d c o n s t a t of i n te gr atio n B u t s i n c e

) n .

is re gar d e d as c o n s t an t d u ri n g th i s i t e g ati on t h e re is n r
3
)
n ot hin to preve nt 9 6 fro m d epe n di n
g on it T hi s d epe n d
g .
29 0 IN TE G RAL GA L GUL Us ( on . vm .

wherein P an d Q a re fu n ction s of x an d
y d oe s t here ex is t
,

a fu n ction u f t he
o s a me va ri a ble s ha ving ( 1 ) for it s tota l
dilfe r en tia l ?

I t is e as
y to see t hat in ge n e r al s u ch a fu n c tio n d o e s n ot
e x is t Fo
. r, in o r d e r t h a t ( 1 ) m ay be a tot al d i ffe e n t ial o f a r

f u c tio n u
n , it is evi d e n tly n e c e s s ary that P an d Q have t h e
form
(in au
2
dx dy

W h at relatio n the n , e x is t b e tw e e n P an d Q in or de r
, m ust
th at t he c o n ditio n s ( 2 ) m ay be s ati s fi e d ? This is e as ily
fo u n d as follows D iffe re ti at e t he fi s t e qu atio n o f ( 2) wit h
: n r

re s p e c t to y an d t he s e c o n d with r e s p e c t t o x T hi s give s
, .

GP 6 2
11 6 Q z
d u
’ ’
ay ayax dx az ay
f o m whi ch follows
r

aP aQ
dy dx

Th i s is t he relatio n s o u ght
‘

The n e x t s t e p is to fi n d t h e f u n c tio n u by i n t e gratio n . It

is e as ier to m ak e th i s pro c e s s c le a r by a ill u s t a ti on n r .

Giv e n ( 2 2 + 2 y+ 2 x + 2 ) dy ,

fi n d t h e f u n c t io n it h avi n g thi s as it s total d i ffere n tial .

Si nce

it is fo u n d by d ifi e re t iat ion that

n

an d h e n c e t he e s s ar y rel ation ( 3 )
n ec is s atis fi ed .

F ro m 2
( ) it follow s t h at
 s u c cE s s I VE I N TE G R A TI ON 2 91

In te gr a ti n g t hi s with r e s pe c t to x a lo n e ,

= 2x
‘

u y
x

It n ow r e m ai n s to d e t e r m i n e t he f un c ti o n ¢ ( y) so t ha t

39

D i ffe r en ti ate 4
( ) with re s p e c t to y a lo n e, wh e n ce
da
2
ay

wh e r e p ( y) d e n o t e s t he d e iv ativ e of qS( y) with re s pe c t to

(
’
r

Th e c o m p a ri s o n o f t h i s e s u lt wit h ( 5 iv
y.
) g e sr

or 2a 2,

whe n ce , by i n t e g ati n g with r e s p e c t

r t o y,

in w h i ch 0 is an a rbitr a r
y c o n s t a t with re s pe c t to both
n

x an d y .

H en c e
It is to be r e m ark e d t h at in i n t e g r ati n g ( 6 ) w e i n te g r a te
e x ac tl y t ho s e t e m s i Q w hi c h d o n o t c o n t ai n x H e n c e
r n .

t h e followi g r ul e m ay be f o m u l at e d for i n t e g ati g a tot a l

n r r n

d i ffe e ti al
r n

I n teg ra te P wi h t res
p e ct to x a lon e, t re a ting y a s con s t a n t .

Then in t egra te with p re s e ct t o y t hos e t erm s f Q

o which con

t a in y bu t d o n o t c on t a in x, a n d a dd t he re s u lt , t og e t her wit h

an a rbit ra r
y con s t an t C, t o t he
'
t erm s a lre a dy obt a in e d .

I t is e v i de n t
that it wo u l d be e q u ally w e ll t o fi rs t in te
g r a t e Q wit h r e s p e c t t o y a d t h e n i n t e g r a te t h o s e
n ter m s

o f P w h i c h c o t ai n x alo n e wit h re s p e c t to x an d ad d t h e
,

n ,

two re s u lts .
 IN TEGRA L CAL GUL US ( an . v 1 11 .

E X ERC IS ES

D e te rm i n e in e ac h of t he f ll w in g
o o c ases fu n c t ion it havin g t h e
giv e n e x pre s s io nf or it s t ot a l diff t i l ere n a

1 .
y dx x dy .

2 s in x c os d c os x s in
.
y x y dy .

3 .
y dx x dy .

4 .

my

(3 x ) ( g
2
5 . 3 ay dx 3 2
3 ax) dy .

y d x x dy
6 .
2 2 2 2
°

x + y y + x

7 .
—y) dy .

8 .
( x 4
+ y +
4
x
2 —2 xy + y

2
6 a
M ultiple in t egrals . i n tegr atio n 0 f
T he w s a
dx dy
c o n s i dere d in Art 1 6 4 . . I f E ( x y) be writte n for t he gi v
, en

f u n c tio n t he requ ir e d
, i n te gration will be r e pre s e n te d b \

t h e s ym bol
u
ff F ( x, y) dx dy,

an d f u n ctio n s o u ght will be c alle d t he

t he d ou ble in t eg ra l of
E ( x y) with re s p e c t to x a d y
, n .

L ikewi s e ff E ( x, y, x clx
) dy dz

will be c all e d t he trip le in t eg ra l of E ( x y z ) , , . It repre s e n ts

3
6 u
t he f u n c tio n u w h o s e t hi d p a rti al d eriv ativ e r is t h e
dx dy dz

g iv e n f u n c tio n E ( x y z ) I t will b e u n d er s too d in w hat

, , .

follow s t hat t he o r d er of i n t egr atio n is fro m ri ght to l e ft ,

that is w e i n te grate fi r s t wit h r e s pe ct to t he ri gh t han d vari

,

able 2 th e n wit h re s pe ct to y an d las tl y with re s pe c t to x

, ,
.

S u ch i n te gr al s ( d o u ble triple e t c ) will be referre d to in , , .

g e n eral as m u ltiple i n te r als

g .
2 94 IN TEGRA L GA L G UL v s [Cm V III .

X
E ERC IS ES

Ev a l u a te t he f ll win g in teg al
o o r s

£ 1
2
1 . se c
( xy ) d x dy .

Hl f

jj
“ 2

I f} 12
71 a z t
.

21 1
51
2 . r? s in 9 d 9 dr . 4 . .

1 68 . Pla n e area s
e in te gration T he are a bo u n de d
by d oubl .

by a pl a e c u v e n v e al c u r v e s ) c an be r e adily e x
r
( or b
y s e r

p e s s e d in t h e fo m of a d e fi n it e d o u ble i n t egral An illu s

r r .

t a t iv e e x a m pl e will e x pl ai n t h e m e th o d
r .

Ex 1 . . F in d by d ou b l int
e e grat io n t he a re a o f t he c irc le
( x a
)
2

2 2
(y b) r

I m agi n e t he give n are a div ide d i t o n rec t a n gl es by a s e rie s of li n es

l l t th
p aral e o e y
-ax s i at

e q l di t n
ua s a ces Ax, an d

i
a se r es o f l in es paral ll e

to t he x -ax is at e q l ua

d is t a n c es Ay .

Th e area of on e of

t h es e re c t an g e s l is Ay
Ax . T is is h ca ll ed t he
l
e em e nt of are a . T he
s u m o f all t he r ec t a n gl es

n
i t e rio r t o t he c irc e l w ill
be le ss t hn a the are a

re q u ire d by t he a m o u n t
co n n t ai e d in t he s m al l
FI G 79
s u b d iv is io n w hi h b
s c or
. .

d er t he i
c rcu mf n e re ce o f

t he c ir c le . B y a m et h o d e x a ct ly n l g a a o ou s to t h at u sed in Art 1 4 9 , it .

is e as y to s h ow t h at t he su m f th o e se n e g ec t e d l port io n s has a z e ro

lim it w h n e Ax an d Ag a re b th m d t
o a e o a pproac h z e ro .

T o fi n d t he l t h l im it f t h m f ll t h
v a u e of t n gl wit h in e o e su o a e re c a es

t he i l it i
c rc e n n i n t t fi t dd t g t h ll t h w h i h
s co ve e o rs a o e er a os e c are c o n

t ain e d b tw n t w en t i p ll l L t P P b
ee o f th co sec u ve ara e s . e
1 2
e on e o ese

p ara ll l h ing t h di t i n f t h
e s av i Th n y m in e n t nt rec o o e x-ax s . e re a s co s a
16 7 S UC CE S S I VE INTEGR A TION 29 5
l
wh il e x va rie s f ro m a V r2 (y b
-
)
1
( t he l
v a ue o f t he abs c iss a at P1)

z ero o f t he s u m o f re c t a ngl es in t h e s t rip f ro m PP 1 3 e v id e ntly

s/ fl —(v—bfl
( 1) l
Ag [ im it o f su m (Ax Ax m
)] r: Ay
af

—(v—b) 2
dx .

N o w fi n d t he im it l of t he s u m o f a ll s u c h s t r ip s c o n t a i n ed w it h in t he
c irc e l . T is h re q u ire s t h e d e t e rm i n at io n lim it f t h m f t m
o f t he o e su o er s

su c h as
( )
1 fo r t he d iffe re t n l
va u e s o fy p n din
c orre s
g t t h d iff n to o e e re

st r ip s . Si n ce y be g i s a t t h e o n lw e st p n t A w it h t h
i o l b d e va ue r, an

i n cre as e s to b r, t h e v a ue re a c l h ed at B t h fin l , p i n f
e th a ex res s o or e

are a is
—( y —b ) 2 b+ r a-
I r2 —
( y b) 2

I—
b r
d
a — —
( y b) 2 I— b r a —Vfl —(y—bfl
n
I t e grat i g n fi rs t w it h re s
p ec t to x,

T ish re s u l t i t h n in t
s e e grat e d w it h re s p ect t o y, giv i g n

If t he s u m m at io nh ad n byb e gu a dd i ng t h e re c t a ngl es in a s t rip a

p ar l
le l t o t h e y-ax is , a n d e t h n dd in g a a ll o f th e se s t rip s , t he e x pres s io n for
t he are a w l
ou d t a e t he k f o rm

J
l t is s ee nf ro m h t is la s t re s u lt t h t t h d
a e or er o f n
i t egrat io n i d bln a ou e

n
i t e gra c an be c l h nga ed if t he lim it f int g s o e rat io nb e p ro p ly m
er d ifi d o e

at t h e s am e t im e .

Ex 2 . . F ind t h e a re a wh i h c is i nl c u de d be t w n th
ee e t wo p arab o l as

y = 9 2
x an d y
2 z 72 —9 x .

Ex 3 . . F in d t h e are a co m m o nt o t h e t wo c irc e s l
x
2 —8 x + y
2

x
2 —8 x + y
2 —4 y +

1 69 . Vo lum es . Th e vol u m e bo u n de d by o n e or m or e
f
s u r ac e s c an be e x p es s e d as
r t ipl e i n t e g a l wh e n t he
a r r

e
q ua tio n s of t he bo u d i g s u fac e s are giv e n
n n r .
29 6 IN TEGRAL GALCUL as ( 0 11 V III
. .

Q
L et it be requ ir e d to fi n d t he volu m e bo u n d e d by t h e
su rfa c e AB C ( Fig 8 0). wh o s e equ atio n is z = f ( x y) an d , ,

by t he th e e c o b d in at e pl an e s
r r .

Im agi n e t h e fi gu r e d ivi d e d i n t o s m all equ al r e ct an gu l a

-
r

p a all e lopip e d s by m e an s o f thr e e s e ri e s of plan e s t he fi s t

r , r

s eri e s p a r all e l to t he yz pl an e a t e q u a l d i s ta n c es Ax
- th , e

e o
s c nd paral l e l to t h e xz -pl an e at equ al di s ta n ce s Ag an d ,

t he t ir
h d p ar a ll e l to t h e x y
-pl an e at e q u al d i s t an c e s A2 .

The v o l u m e of s u ch a re c t an g u l a r s oli d is Ax AyAz ; it is

c alle d t h e ele m e n t of vol u m e . T he li m it o f t h e s u m of all
s u c h e l e m e n t s c o n t a i n e d in OAB C is t h e vol u m e r e q u ire d
'
,

p rovi d e d t h a t t h e bo u n d i n g s u rf a c e AB O is
’
c o n ti n u o u s .
 2 98 INTEGR A L CAL G UL Us ( On . V II I 1 6 9 . .

The im it s l of in te gra t io n w it h re s p e c t to y a rebe yf nd t

ou 0 ( t he o

l
v a u e at t he x-a x i s ) , an d y V a? x
2
( t he v a u e of l
y at t he c ircu m e r f
e n ce of t he c irc le a
2
x
2
y
2
0 , in wh h ic t he s p ere is c u t by t heh
xy-pla n) e .

F in lly a , t h e lim it i g n va ue s l fo r x a re z e ro a n d a , t h e lat t e r be i g t he n

di t n f
s a ce ro m t h e o ri i
g nt o t h e po i t in n wh i h t h c e h n
s p e re i t e rse c t s t he

x -ax is . Hn e ce

Va 2 —x2
5; l
a2 y:
l h
a

V v o u m e of s p e re
) 8
o
dx dy dz .

n
I t e gra t i g n fi rs t w it h re s pe c t to z,

V= 8 a
2 — x2 — y2 dx dy;

t h n w it h
e re sp e ct t o y,

2
—x —y a
[g E
a
a
dx /
\ a 2 2 2
+ s in
“

4 7rd 3

5;
“
4 3 2 _
5
4
( a
3

Ex 2 . l. F in d t h w dgt he t f m v o u m e of on e of e e es cu ro t he cy il nd er

x
2
y b y t2
h pl n a
2
0 d m e a es z an z x .

Jt h m di wh
E 3 F i
e sa
nxd t
. h l
. m
e ra
m
in t
m n t t w ig
t t igh t n gl
us a
ht i
e l vo u

os e ax e s
e co

e rs ec
o o

a r
o r

a
c rc u ar c y

es .
lin d e rs of

E 4 F in d t h l m f t h ylin d (
x . .
(y
e vo u e o e c er x l
1 im it e d
by t h pl n e 0 d t h h yp b li p
a e z b l id y , an e er o c ara o o x z .

E 5 F ind t h l m f t h llip id
x . . e vo u e o e e so

2 2 2
x 2

E
+
t +
a .
L

Ex 6 . . F in d t h e v o u m e of t l h at p o rt io n o f t he e llipt i c p a rab o o id l
2 2

2 2
a 6
wh i h i c s cut off by th e p ln
a e z 0 .
 AN SW ERS

Pa ge 2 0 . A rt . 9

1 . 2 913 - 2 . 2 . 6 x —4 . 3 . 4 . 4 x3

Pa ge 2 5 . A rt . 11

1 . 15 y 2 - 2 . 2 . 1 4 1 —4 - 33 1 2
. 3 . 12 u 2 —2 . 4 . 4 2 - 5 .

Pa g e 2 8 . A rt . 13

In c . f rom 00 to 5
1 ; d ec . f ro m to l ; in c . f ro m . 1 to 00 ; g an d 1 .

T wo . 4 .
i ta n
Pa ge 2 9 . A rt . 14

—
(
2
1
2 0
2 (6 u 4 )6x 02 4 6 u
.

u
. .

Pa ge 3 7 .

0
1
H
Y —x2
5 T
0 3 8 9
2 x(l
-
1

4 a i + 3 x i
0
0

l
3 00 A N s WE R s

2 x3 4 x

(1 mai n x vi

(7 u
2
6 0 u5 ( l + 112)Si Q
E
23
ht ngl
.

dx 35 . At rig a es at (3 , ; t

Pa ge 4 3 .

n + 1 .

n- l n -I
nx log x x
‘

nx
n r
l log xm mx n“ l

x
2
x 1

1) x a n x
log a .

+ x ( 3 x +2 )
 AN S W E R S 3 03

2 2
2 x v+ 3 y
3 x2 + l
26
j3 y2
.

+ 1

1 — 2 xy - x2

Fo r all v alu e s .

21 .

x
x, y are d e t e rm i n ed f ro m

22 . 1
G M l b
; ;
2
x an d e q u a t io n of

cu rve .

23 2 t au x m “
t an x
. e s ec x .

x = x1r i —
1r
o

4
24 .

2 V2
2 -1
ax y 34 . t an .

Pa ge s 5 4 —55 . E x e rc i s e s on C h ap t e r I I I

19 m
(mx
g)
"
. c os n .

(m 1 ) l (a m+ ”
x )

(a
x
e ex

2 l og x 3 .

2 2
8 t an xs e c x ( 3 ec x
s

2
2 c ot x cs c x .

16 s in x cos x .

24
e
r
a

i i .
3
231
,

3
(2 10
—1
32 . 2 71
n !

1 1

( x
2 ( 2

(l

)
36 . 2 "- 1
co s 2 x M
( x 2
3 04 A N S WE R S ,

Pa g e 6 4 .

3 4 (x 1)
2 1 + (w
—8 + 4 y
(

Pa g e 6 7 .

3 2 1 7
1 . x +
x
+ — x5
+ — x7 R .

3 l5 315
2 3 3 4 ll x 5
x x x
6 1 + +
9
’

2 3 8 30 .

2 5
x x3 3 x
7 a
: + -
+ R 10 x4 + 7 x3 + 1 1 x2 — 16 x —41
2 3 40
. .

Pa ge s 7 5 —7 6 . E x e rc is e s on C h ap t e r I V

2 3
—h sm — h 71
1 c os x x c os x +
§
.

é
2 .
+ 3 ta n 2
h) +
3
2
h h h3 h4
10 g x + + + R
x 2 x2 3 x3 4 x4

y+
x5 4
10 x3 2 3 4 5 2
5 .
+ 5 x y + 1 0 x y + 5 xy + y .

Pa g e s 7 9 —80 . A rt . 47

3 .

Pa g e s 8 3 —
84 .

8 .
—4 . 16 . 1 .

17 . 1

8 7—88 . A rt . 52

9 . 0 . 12 .

10 . O or 00 ac cord i ng a s n O .

or O
13 g
.

. ,

14 . 1 .
306 A N S WE R S

Pa g e 1 1 1 . E x e rc i s e s on C h ap t e r V I I

00 1 4 5 9 2 ab
16
. . .

. 3

li 10 i 2
m iles per h ou r .
. .

a
11 5 1r. 17
16
.

T h e ro w t ( 3 .
6 ) 12 . 2 .
19 .
4 1 6 , q
: 12 f ee t

At 6 0 °
13 . 1 an d 5 .
pe r s eco nd .

Pa g e 1 1 6 . A rt . 68

4 .
( a: y) cos my .

Pa g e 1 2 0 . A rt . 71

i
f
4 .

3
has by + f 21

Pa g e s 1 2 7 —1 2 8 . A rt . 76

z
8 .
d y
2
y 0 .

du
‘

3 . R z
g
2
d x
fi
dx
” z 0

)
d dy

( 2 2 x y
+
d y3 d yz
‘

2
(1 7
d z
Z 12 2
—
'

2
cos z + 2
2
dx
d 2 dz
u
z
u 0 1 Z
2 2 z _

d oc
dy

Pa ge s 1 31 -1 33 . A rt . 79

4 .

y 2 £13 3 a 0 .

— 111 ( 13 )
ill xl ) ‘

2xi 3
ys
i .

= x
—3 p‘

y .

2 y: 9m 5 3 . 6 . 4 \ /l 7 .

( ) 05 Parallel at poi tsn of i nt n with

e rs e c t io kg; ax O .

n
Perpe d icu lar at p o in t s o f int t i n w it h he rs ec o as by O .

3
3 /2
( 6 ) Parallel at
’
a a\
p p n di l t er e cu ar a a: 0 .

2
s
ndi
?)
Parallel at 2‘ a c u lar at ( O, ( 2 O)
(7 ) ; pe rp e a . .

3
 AN S W E R S 3 07
I
1
l 1 1
' '
is . h
t ey m u s t b e co nf o c al.
a b a b

19 .
(2 p ,

Pa ge s 1 3 6 —137 . A rt . 82
1
3! 0 .

2
Polar s u bt a n g nte Polar n orm al v a2 p
”
, Polar s ub n o rm al a
0.
1r
S u bt a ge t n n n n a
3 1
x1 2 0, p c o t 2 0, T a ge t
5
.

2 s in 2 0
S ub n orm al
a

P
.
2 ,
2 a si n 2
an e
g w .

2 2 2

7 . T h yh e ave a c o mm o n t ng n t a e at t h e p ole e ls e wh e re

Pa g e 1 4 2 . E x e rc i s e s on C h ap t e r X I

1 .

\l a

a:
x
,
2 V a m, 4 1r \ / ar2. a m, 4 r am . 2

2
b 2
s ec 23 . 5 . 7r -
2
( a
a
” a2a"
2
6 .
mm ( log a )
2
.

Pa ge 1 5 1 . E x e rc is e s on C h ap t er X I I

y O, a: a , a: a . 8 . a: z 0 t wi ce on e p arabolic
—a br n °h

3y
°

x x
.

9 0 0
y z : a, y a
0
tWO i m agi n ary
. z

z
7 y
n
10 .
y a
s ; t w o im agi ary .

x = C t W I Ce
n
.

11 t w o im agi ary
°
. .

y x
.
(
l t wo im agi ary n . 12 .
y a; O t wo im agi n ary .

3
13 -
y
n
. .

a; 1 on e p arab olic b ra ch .
14 .
y x, y a: t w o im agi n ary .

a: —a , y=
—a . 15 . x+ 2 y= 0 , x + y: 1 , x —yz —l .

Pa g e 1 5 8 . E x e rc is e s on C h ap t e r X I II

1 . An in fi ex ion at x y 2 .

3 . 6 . x —4 a2y = 0 .

x é
f 2 x/ 3 . 2
7
n n n nding h ng
,

a
8 Po i t o f in fi e x io n a t
( a ga ) t a ge t is a: y B e c a es
y
. .
, ,

f
ro m n e gat ive t o p o s it ive .
 308 AN S WE R S

Pag e s 1 6 2 —1 6 3 . Art . 1 02
Firs t . 5 .
y 12 a: 10 .

Th yd e o n ot t ou c h . 6 . Se co d n .

Thi d r .
7 . a 1 .

3 x x ( a ) : a (y a ) .

Pa g e A rt . 1 08

5 ,
s . 3 ( axy) i .

u ( n l ) xy a x ) ?

x/ E

Pa g e 1 7 0 . A rt . 1 09

1 .
5 ,

2 2
a a
2
3 p

9 6 c os 0

Pa g e 1 7 6 . A rt . III
1 . 06 : 0, fi z o .
i
f _ g
x — ci — e
g
‘ "
4 . a z
5 : 2y .

5 .
( a B) ? ( a B) i
. . t 9 g s 6 m
( oi ( s)
a ? (a ?
15 y
.

a a y
2
’ B 4
.

6 a y 2 a 7 .

Pa g e 1 8 6 . E x e rc is e s on C h ap t e r X V

1 .
(O , ax ; ; l by O . 6 . Two n od e s at infinity t he
as ym p t o t e s are a: y i 1 a: i: 1
2 .
(O , O) c us p of fi t kind y O
rs , .

— a) ;
.
y .

7 .
(O, a , O) ; a , 0)

3 . Fou r c u s ps o f fi t kind rs t h e t a ge t s are , n n res pe c t ively,

4 .
(O , co nj g tu a e pom t Wl t h
2 — a) V3 y
real c om c i d e n t ng nt (
x :
l
:: .

ta 0
e s, y .

8 . a, co nj u gat e p oi t n .

5 .
( ,
O a ) =
; y a+x ; cu s p o f s e co nd 9 .
( ,
O x 0, y O .

n
ki d . 10 .
( 0 , O) is a t ac od e n y 0 .
31 0 A N S WE R S

Pa g e s 2 0 6 —2 0 9 . A rt . 1 27
-1
%( sm x )
2
14 . log t a n
2

1 x L t an
-l z x -l- l
mn _1

1 3 x —1
l s ec 1 g l
_
1
t an
9 1
"

or
"

C OS
a a
’
a V I4
a: 2

g
x a l
v e rs
"
1
,
o r s in
-1 13 i og x 1
a
-1
19 1
s in ( 3 a:
lo g (96 V23 i 1
a
2
) .
.
3g

1 x —a 20 . c os (3 x 2)
log
fi x -f a
a
2 -1- bcc —a
log ta n fi 21 10 3
2 V a + bx +
2
a

Page s 2 1 3 2 1 4 . E x e rc i s e s on C h ap t e r I

a
7 . V ar

2 (x + 1 )

2=
l og ( 6
‘ ’ -
14 .
4
+ v e
c

V 1 V2 + V x 2
+ 2
15 . log
33

gt an
2

§ lo g ( 6 x3 12 2:

i
’i
x t an
‘
l x — gfi x i -l-
‘

fi y xz

x log 2 t an
-1
x .
 A N S WE R S 31 1

log lo g 2
[2 2 a
: a ( 96 a ) ] .

1
23 . log ( a c os 2 a: bs in 2

9 2 (b a )
2 24 .
%[ x log ( s in a; c os

“ a
s 1 .

§
-
x §
- % x i xi

-1
30 . t an l
( g
o

1
31 .

b (a b tan x )

fi a
z

V2 z
.

d
33 . 2 : ve rs a x .

Pa ge s 2 1 9 - 2 2 2 . Ex e rc i s e s on C h a p t e r II

x —a
2 2 a.

5 . T he arra ng eme n t whi h

s c c an be u s e d are
[ B ] , [ C ] [B ] , [ C ]
, , an d

[B ] [B ] ,

6 l
a: 1
t an 4 2
8
—
l 2

2 56 —1 4 -1 2 x_ 1
t an
3 06 2
V3
— 2 x 2 x
s a —x + - 2 ar
s §n
§ 3 a
2 / z
\ x + a
2 a

——
3 4
a
mz + a
2
+ -
8

— ax — x2 + —s in
31 2 AN S W E R S

l ) x/ 1 —2 x— e 2 + s in
- 1 95 + 1 .

x/ z

Pa ge 2 2 6 . A rt . 1 33

M
2
4 ,
“
3
4x + § 10 g .

2 2 x + 1
b
5 log ( a: b)
x x ( — 1)
. a:

g
2 + ‘
fl g ( o x 2

x —c
1
x + -

l — a

—1
] o
13 .

g
x5 1 ax —b
l l0 g
— ar:) 5 2 ab ax + b
a: 1 ( x _ Ih /g — log a —x — x2)
s in 1
+ V2
“

x z

—x 2 \/ x2 + 4 2 +

Pa g e 2 2 7 . A rt . 1 34

x
x + a

3 . x —5 1 g ( o z o
) x+ l log - log x]
m_ 3
.

3m
1
l bx 1
2 (a 2 — x2 ) .
fi log
a ' '

2
a 2: ac
t
—1
2 log [ x — 2 x -l- 2 ]
V2 az (m

2
+ log x x 1 2
2 $ +x

a) 2 — a? c
c —l
13 log ( x — a) +
— x) 2
.
31 4 AN S WE R S

Pa g e s 2 3 6 E x e rc is e s on C hapt er IV

1 3 1
2 % (x a ) 3“
x
.

3
2 2
( 0 + 1

x 4 . log (x V 2; 1) t an
-1 2

l) /
x 3:2
2

fl ai l
a3s 1 lo g ( a: V 56 2

2 0 0
5532
+ 2

7 . a: 3 c )( c mi .

2
a2
8 . 6 log ( x% 3 336 IO n

9 % 2 6 xii il
l -l
x 6 ,

(
1
1 + a:
Pa ge 2 3 9 . 1 42

} a
4
t n 3 x t an (3 . cos e c3 x c ot x g c o t3 x .

§ c ot 3 x c o t as . —6 4 [ c ot 4 x § co t 3 4 x ] .

3 n5 x
t an x § t a n x § t a . 1
log t an
2
3 2 t
1 28 [ c ot 2x + co t 2x an a:

+ § c ot 5 2x+ % c ot 3 x i cot;5 x .

Pa g e 2 4 0 . 1 43

% m &x —% m fi m 5 .
4
s e c 11: s ec 2
a: log s e c 113 .

}
. c o s e c7 x g
5
cos e c a:
s ee n —1
x s e c" 3 95

c o s e c3 x . n —l n —3
l (; 4
s e c5 ax g
3
s ec ax s ec ax ) . log s e c at.

( s in a: 4; c os e c x ) . log cos e c x .

Pa g e

—
—1 1
t an 2
ax -- '

log se c ax .

2 a a

2
5 .
1 ta n 7 x
3 .
%( t an a: c ot
2
x ) —t an x + x .

4 log ( s in 2: c os x ) .
 A N S WE R S 3]

Pa g e s 2 4 2 —2 4 4 . A rt . 1 45

16 .
I h ( 5 a
c + § s in 3 2x — s in 4 x

log s in x 17 .

18
g oo s
.

— c ot 3 x
— cos z ) % — c os x) % 19 .
% .

20 log t an 2 x
i— c o t 3
. .

% z .

— gx
oot 3 a: c ot 5 x 21 . t an x + i s in 2x .

co t x
\ g §
22 . 2 cot x s in 2 x .

cot 5 a
2
; ( 1,
1
} co t x) .

—% 3 — 2 c ot x 1
c ot x + t an x .

2
3 “M m” 3 m ”
—$in
4
x

5
2 -l
24 .
(2 x
t am
- 1 x n +1
ta n x 8 a
+
— s ec
*
1

%x — 1 sm 4x 2 05 95
2 2 2 a
3
a
3§ .

Pa g e s 2 4 5 - 2 4 6 . A rt . 1 46

g)
—
b l

x/ g t an
( x
; 2)
1 t an x —2
t an x —2 + x/ 3

5 1
a ( a ta n z b)

( )
-1 t an x
i tem
i
( )
2 -1 t an x
t an — .

n w « 2
[ J
°
-1 1 r .

i ta 2 t an ,

2
.

Pa g e 2 4 7 . E x e rc i s e s on C h ap t e r V

( n Z2
)
8 . e
§ si c os 3 3

2
1,
9 . e
-z
( s in x c os x ) . V

10 s in 2 a: c os 2 x)
5 i t al] ? (b ( 2 tan ? )
.
x
.
. .

— § s in
6 .
1
+ 10 g t an
x 1,
11 .
i
z
e ( s in x + cos x 3 x

S in a
i:

7 . t an 2 a: s in a
c
si n n + 1 a: s in ” + 3 a:

n 1 n 3

(
t an
‘

9+
0g
2 4 16 .
g ra ? n a: 2 \/c o t x .
318 AN S WE R S

Pa ge s 2 8 7 -2 8 8 . A rt . 1 63

4 .
y = kx (log x

Pa g e 2 9 2 . A rt . 165

ing
/ + 0 . 2 .
—cos x cos y+ 0 . 5 . x3
+ y 3

Im po s s ible 4 log 9 C 6 t an
-1 £ 7
. .

11
. .

y .

3 x 3
+ x 2
y + 5x + w
- kw
5
+ xy4
+ i w3

Pa ge 2 9 4 . A rt . 167

2 .
§ a
3
. 3 . 6 b“ .

Pa ge 2 9 5 .

Pa ge 2 9 8 . A rt . 169

3 .
1 9 613
3
. 4 . 1r. 5 .
g r a bs .
 IN D E X

( Th e n u m b ers re er f t o p age s )

Ab s olu t e v alu e , 59 . Con t nt 1

s a , . Ellips e , a re a o f, 26 3 .

Ab s olu t e ly co v er g e t , 59 n n . f t 3 1 1 99
a c o r, ,
. n
le g t h o f a rc o f, 27 4
f in t g t i n
.

Acce le ra t io , 1 1 1 n . o e ra o , 200 . e v o lu t e o f, 1 7 8 , 28 4

C n t t 1 59
.

Ac t u a l v e loc ity, 1 05 . o ac . E llip s o id , v o lu m e , 280

n n
.
,

Ar c , l e n g t h o f, 26 9 . o f o dd an d e v e o rd e r , E v e l op e , 1 8 7 .

Are a , by d ou ble i t egra n 16 1 . E p icyc lo id , l e g t h o f, 27 3 n

n n
.

C o t i u it y, 1 3 , 1 1 3 . E q u ian gu la r s p iral , 282,

d e riv a t iv e o f, 23 . n n
C o t i u o u s fu c t io , 1 3 n n . 2 84 .

fo rm u la fo r , 25 5 , 256 . C o n v e rg e c e , 5 7 n . E v alu a t io , 80, 8 1 n .

in p o l a rc o ii rd in a t e s 26 8 , . Co n v e x , 1 5 7 . E v o lu t e , 1 7 0 .

n
in rec t a g u la r co brd i
'

t o t h e ax is , 1 57 . o f e l lip s e , 1 7 6 , 27 1 , 2 84

n
.

a t e s , 260 . C rit ic al v a lu e s , 93 . o f p a rab o la , 1 75 .

As ym p t o t e s , 14 3 . C ub ic al p arab o la , 26 2 . E xp a n s ion o f fu c t io s , n n
Av e rag e cu rv a t u re , 1 66 . C u s p , 1 82 . 56 .

Cyclo id , le gt h o f, 27 3 n . E x t e rio r rec t an gl e s , 25 4

nd i n
.

B e d ire c t io n o f, 1 5 2
ng, . s u rfac e of re v olu t io ,
Fa m ily o f c u rv e s , 1 87
B in o m ia l t h e o re m , 7 3 27 7
n
.
. .

Fo rm u la fo r in t e g ra t io

C a rd io id , a re a o f, 26 8 . D e c reas in g fun c t io , 25 n .
by p art s , 203 .

n
C a t e a ry, 1 68 , 283 . De fin it e in t eg ral , 25 1 .
Fo rm u la s o f d ifi e ren t ia

n
le g t h o f a rc , 27 1 .
g e o m e t ric m e a i g o f, nn t io n , 4 9 , 50 .

v o l u m e o f revolu t io n , 25 3 .
o f in t eg ra t io n , 1 9 8 , 2 1 0

n
.

m ul t ip le i t e g ral , 29 3 n o f re d u c t io , 2 1 7 , 21 8

n n
.

n
.

C at e o id , 276 . n
D e p e d en t v ariab le , 1 .
Fu c t io , 1 .

C au ch y s form o f re m a i
’
n D e riv a t ive , 1 9 , 20 .
H yp b li b n h 1 43
er o c ra c es , .

d e r, 7 1 o f a rc , 1 3 8
pi l f 26 9
. .

s ra a rea o ,
.

H yp y l id
,
C en t e r o f c u rv at u re , 1 63 o f a rea , 23 , 1 42
f 26 3
. .
oc c o , a re a o .

l ng t h f
,
C h an g e o f va riab le , 1 24 o f s u rfac e , 1 40
. .
e f 27 1 27 3o a rc o , .

l ti n f
,
C ircle , a re a by d o u b le in o f v o lu m e , 1 40 .
l m
vo u f e o re vo u o o
t e g ra t io n , 295 .
n
D e t e rm i at e v a lu e , 7 8 .
27 8
,

o f c u rv a t u re , n 1 63 . D e v e lop m e t , 56 , 80 .
.

Ci id 1 6 8
sso ,
. D iffe re n t ials , 1 1 0 , 1 96 Im p lic it fu n c t io n 1 20 .

n n
.
,

f 26 6
a re a o , . i t eg ra t io o f, 289 . Im p o s s ib ilit y of red u e
C mpo t l it y 1 07
on e n v e oc . t o t al , 1 1 7 t io n 21 8
C n
, .

n n ing f n t i
,

o 1 52
ca v e , . D iffe re t ia t i g o p e ra t o r, In c re a s u c on , 25
t w d
.

o i 1 57
ar ax s ,24 . In c re m e n t , 1 3 , 1 5
C d i i n lly n g nt
. .

on t o aD iff nt i t i n 24
co ver e , e re a o . I n d e p e n d e n t v a riable , 1 .

f l m nt y f m
,

59 .
o e e e ar or s, 49 I n d e t e rm in a t e fo rm , 77
C n dit i n nt t D i t i n f fi n it
.

o f o s or t co ac , rec o o c u rv a u re , In e, 2
fi it
.

161 . 1 64 In n elim it s o f in t eg ra
C nj g t p in t 1 84
.

o u a e Di nt in f n t i
o sco u ou s u c o n , 14 t io n , 25 7
C n id 28 1
.
, . .

o o , Di .
g t i 57 ve r e n s er es , . o rdin a t e s , 1 45 .

3 19
3 20 IN D EX

In fi n it e s im al , 2 . n
M i im u m , 91 S ph e re , v ol u m e
by t riple
n
.

I t e g ra l , 1 95 n
M u lt ip le p o i t s , 181 n
i t eg ra t io n , 29 7
fin
. . .

de it e , 25 1 . S ph e ro id , o blat e , 276 , 278 .

d o u b le , 292 . N a t u ral lo g a rit h m s , 40 p ro la t e , 276

n
. .

m u lt ip le , 292 . N o n-u iqu e d e riva t ive , 25 . Sp ira l o f Arch im e d e s , 1 36

,

n
.

o f s u m , 1 99 . N orm al , 1 29 .
e qu ia gu l ar, 1 37 , 28 2 ,
t rip le , 286 , 292 n
N o ta t io fo r ra t e s , 1 08
n n
. .

I t eg ra t io , 1 95 .
h yp e rb olic , 26 9
n n
.

by i s p e c t io , 1 97 . Obliqu e a s ym p t o t e s , 1 47 log arit h m ic , 27 2

n
. .

by p a rt s , 203 . O rd e r o f c o t a c t , 1 60 n
S t a d a rd fo rm s , 1 98 , 21 0
n
.

n n
.

by ra t ion a liz a t io , 231 . o f d if fe re t ia t io , 1 2 1 S t a t ion a ry t an g e n t , 1 5 3

n n fin
.

n n
.

by s u b s t it u t io 205 238 , , . of i it e s im a l, 8 S t ep s in diffe re t ia t io

s

n
.
,

fo rm u las o f, 1 9 8 , 2 1 0 . o f m ag it u d e , 7 . 24
n n
.

of ra t io al frac t io s . O s c u l a t in g c ircle , 1 63 . n
S t irli g , 6 2
n
.

223 . O s goo d , 5 7 S u b o rm a l , 1 30
n
.

o f t o t al d if fe re t ial , 289 . S u b t an g e t , 1 30 n .

s u cc e s s iv e , 286 . Pa rab ol a , 1 7 1 . S u m m at io , 251 n

n
.

s u m m a t io , 24 8 . s e m i-c u b ical , 262 S u rfa c e o f rev o lu t io n 1 40

n
.
, .

I t e rio r re c t an gl e s , 251 . Pa rab o lic b ran ch es , 1 43 a re a o f, 274

n n n
. .

I t e rv a l o f c o v e rg e c e , Pa rab o l o id , 28 3 .

57 . Pa ralle l c u rve s , 1 75 Tac n od e , 1 82

In
. .

v o lu t e , 1 70 . Pa ra m e t e r , 1 88 . n
Tan g e t , 21 , 129 .

o f c irc le , 274 , 285 . Pa rt ial d e riv a t iv e , 1 1 4 . Taylo r, 6 2 .

n
Po i t o f in fl ex ion , 1 5 3 . Taylo r s s e ries , 66
’
.

n
Lag ra g e s fo rm o f re
’
Po lar c o iird in a t e s , 1 33 . n
Te s t s fo r c o v e rg e c e , 5 8 n .

m a in d e r , 70 . n
s u b o rm a l , 1 35 . To t al c u rv a t u re , 1 66 .

Le m n is c a t e , a re a o f, 26 8 . s u b t an g e n t , 1 35 . d iffe re n t ial , 1 1 7
n
Le g t h o f a rc , 26 9 Prob le m d iffe re t ial
of n Trac t rix 28 1 , .

n
.

o f e v o lu t e , 1 7 3 ca l cu l u s , 1 6 l e g t h o f, 285 .

n
. .

p olar c o iird in a t e s , 27 1 . n
o f i t egral c a l c u lu s , 1 95 . s u rfa c e o f re v o lu t io o f,

re c t an gu l a r c o fird in a t e s ,

26 9 . R adiu s o f c u rv a t u re , 1 64 . v olu m e o f rev o lu ti n o o f,

R a t e s , 1 05 2 85 .

n nd n t n
.

c h an g e o f, in d e finit e in n
R at io al frac t io s , i t e n n Tra s ce e al fun c t io s,

t e g ral , 29 5 g ra t io n o f, 223 38 .

f n ti n
.

n n
.

Lim it s , i nfi n
it e , fo r d e fi Ra t io aliz a t io , 23 1 , 233 T rig o n o m et ric u c o s,

n n
.

n n
it e i t e gral , 25 7 . Re c t an gles , e x t e rio r an d i t eg rat io o f, 238 .

Log arit h m , d e riva t iv e o f, n

i t e rio r, 25 4 .

39 . n
R e d u ct io , c a s es o f im p o s Va riab le , 1 .

Lo ga rit h m ic c u rv e , 26 3 s ib ilit y o f, 2 1 8 V o lu m e o f s olid o f rev olu

n
. .

n
S p iral , le g t h o f a rc 27 2 fo rm u l ae , 2 1 7— 2 18 t io , 27 7
n
. .
,

Re m a in d e r , 6 1 . Vo l u m e s b y t rip le i t e
M ac la u rin s s e ries , 63 R o lle s t h e ore m , 6 7 g ra t io n , 295
’ ’
.
.

M a x im u m , 91
n n
.

n
M e a v alu e t h e o re m , 75 , S i gu l ar po i t , 1 7 9 . W it ch , a re a o f, 26 3 .

25 7 S lo p e , 2 1 . v ol u m e of re v o lu t ion

M ea s u re o f cu rv a t ure 1 66 , . S olid o f rev ol ut io , 1 40 n . o f, 27 8 , 279 .