Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Communications- Infrastructure,
Networking and Security, 7/E 7th
Edition William Stallings, Tom Case
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CHAPTER 2 BUSINESS
INFORMATION
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
2.1 A digital communication system uses a sequence of discrete,
discontinuous values or symbols to represent information. Analog
communication systems use a continuous signal to represent either
continuous or discrete information sources; voltage may be used
because it can take on a continuum of values to represent information.
2.2 Discrete information has a finite “alphabet.” Examples include letters,
numbers, icons, and binary data (which represent one of two states as
“on or off,” “yes or no,” etc.). Continuous (analog) information sources
include sounds, music, and video.
2.3 The audio signal’s amplitude is sampled at a rate that is at least twice
its maximum frequency. For voice of telephone quality, a sampling
rate of 8000 samples per second is used. After sampling, the signal
amplitudes are put in digital form, a process referred to as
quantization. Eight bits per sample are usually used for telephone
quality voice. The audio signal is considered “digitized” after each
sample is converted to a fixed-length string of bits.
2.4 With lossless compression, receivers can reproduce an exact digital
duplicate of the original data transmitted by the sender by
expanding/decompressing the file that is received. When lossy
compression is used, irreversible changes are made to original file
that diminishes the quality of the original data when the receiver
decompresses the file.
2.5 The PBX is an on-premises telephone switching facility. With a hosted
IP-PBX, the switching, even between extensions in the same office, is
done at the host’s location. Another important difference is that voice
over IP (VoIP) and other IP-based voice-oriented communication
services is supported by an IP-PBX; an on-premises PBX may or may
not support VoIP and IP-based voice communication services.
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2.6 In the International Reference Alphabet (IRA) each character is
represented by a unique 7-bit pattern; thus 128 different characters
can be represented. ACSII is the IRA-based character set that is the
most common format for English language text files. Text files, files
saved with a .txt extension do not support formatting such as
boldface, italics, or underline. UTF-8 (the UCS [Universal Character
Set] Transformation Format)-8 is an 8 bit code that is backward
compatible with ASCII. Because it allows for variable-length encoding,
which allows multiple bytes to be used to represent characters in an
alphabet or character set, UTF-8 is capable of representing symbols
and characters used in all the major languages spoken around the
world. UTF-8 allows characters and symbols to be represented by one,
two, three, or four bytes and is therefore capable of representing more
than a million different characters or symbols. UTF-8 is the dominant
character-encoding scheme on the World Wide Web. Unicode is
another character-encoding scheme that is supported in numerous
programming languages, including Java, Microsoft’s .NET Framework,
and XML. It is also supported by the operating systems used on most
computing and communication devices. Unicode is a 16-bit code that is
backward compatible with IRA/ASCII that, like UTF-8, allows for
variable-length encoding.
2.7 Lossless compression algorithms are used for business data
compression because it is critical for destination devices to receive
exact duplicates of the characters and symbols transmitted by
senders. These are also used for to compress business data for storage
because exact duplicates of original business documents and data are
needed to ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.
2.8 Lempel-Ziv encoding algorithms are the most widely used data
compression schemes for both data storage and data communication
over networks. For example, Lempel-Ziv algorithms are employed to
“zip” files into compressed files/folders with .zip extensions that can be
sent as attachments to e-mail message. V.44 is an ISO standard for
data compression that uses Lempel-Ziv encoding to compress a data
stream being transmitted across a communication line.
2.9 In vector graphics, an image is represented as a collection of straight
and curved line segments. Simple objects, such as rectangles and
ovals, and more complex objects are defined by the grouping of line
segments. In raster graphics, an image is represented as a twodimensional
array of spots, called pixels, which may take on the values
black or white, or may be gray scale.
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2.10 The most widely used format for compressing raster-scan images is
referred to as JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group). Both 8-
bit grayscale and 24-bit color are supported and the JPEG standard is
designed to be general purpose, meeting a variety of needs in such
areas as desktop publishing, graphic arts, newspaper wire photo
transmission, and medical imaging. JPEG is appropriate for highquality
images, including photographs and is widely used to encode
photo images. Another format that is often seen on the Web is the
Graphics Interchange Format (GIF), an 8-bit color format that can
display up to 256 colors; it is useful for non-photographic images with
a fairly narrow range of color, such as company logos. TIFF (.TIF)
files are widely used by commercial printers and publishers; it is a
format of choice for storing/archiving important documents because it
is excellent for high-resolution photographs and high-quality graphics,
logos, line art, and documents when its lossless compression option is
used. It supports 24-bit or 48-bit color and 8- or 16-bit grayscale.
Relative to other image formats, .TIF files are very large; this
essentially rules them out for use on Web pages because they can slow
the download process. PNG (Portable Network Graphics) support
the same color and grayscale ranges as TIFF. It uses lossless ZIP
compression and like TIFF, it can be used to store or archive highquality
images of photographs, logos, graphics, documents, and
master copies of data. PNG files on average are 25% smaller than TIF
files.
2.11 PDF and Postscript are popular document formats for documents that
include text and images. The Portable Document Format (PDF) is
widely used on the Web, and PDF readers are available for virtually all
operating systems. Postscript is a page-description language that is
built into many desktop printers and virtually all high-end printing
systems.
2.12 Interlacing – odd and even scan lines are scanned separately. By
separating the scans, the screen is refreshed twice as often (60 times
per second vs. 30) and flicker is avoided.
2.13 CRT monitors are inherently analog devices that use an electron gun
to “paint” pictures on the screen. The gun emits an electron beam that
scans across the surface of the screen from left to right and top to
bottom. For black-and-white television, the amount of illumination
produced (on a scale from black to white) at any point is proportional
to the intensity of the beam as it passes that point. Thus at any instant
in time the beam takes on an analog value of intensity to produce the
desired brightness at that point on the screen. Further, as the beam
scans, the analog value changes. Thus the video image can be thought
of as a time-varying analog signal. Liquid crystal display (LCD)
-11-
televisions and computer monitors, are better known as flat panel or
flat screen monitors, are inherently digital devices. These screens use
thin sandwiches of glass containing a liquid-crystal material to display
images. Electric current causes the molecules of the liquid-crystal
material to change their alignment to either block or transmit light and
create images. Each pixel in LCD displays is composed of red, green,
and blue subpixels. Because LCDs are digital devices, they fit well with
digital video sources and transmission by helping to ensure that
captured and transmitted images are received with no signal loss or
corruption.
2.14 Digital video refers to the capture, manipulation and storage of video
in digital formats. If an analog video camera signal is digitized and
then transmitted or stored in a digital format, it may be considered
digital video. However, the term is more typically applied to video
content that is initially captured with a digital video device. Digital
video cameras capture moving images digitally. In essence, this is
done by taking a series of digital photographs, at a rate of at least 30
frames per second. Digital video cameras use either interlacing or
progressive scan, in which all the lines of each frame are drawn in
sequence. Progressive scan is used for computer monitors and most
HDTV (high-definition television) schemes.
2.15 Discrete cosine transform (DCT) is the video compression
algorithm that underlies JPEG, MPEG, and H.263 video file formats. It
samples an image at regular intervals, analyzes the image’s frequency
components, and discards the frequencies that do not affect how the
human eye would perceive the image.
2.16 The MPEG (Motion Pictures Expert Group) is an ISO/IEC working
group that develops standards for digital audio and video formats.
Several MPEG standards are widely used including: MPEG-1 (for
moving pictures and audio), MPEG-2 (for digital television set top
boxes and DVD compression), MPEG-4 (for multimedia and Web
compression).
2.17 H.263 is an ITU standard for two-way video communication (video
conferencing). It is one of the most important VTC standards and is
widely supported in unified communications systems.
2.18 The time is takes for a system to respond to a given input.
2.19 Research suggests that workers are often more productive when
response times are short. In general, in order to increase productivity,
system response times should be kept to 2 seconds or less. For the
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World Wide Web, site response time should be 3 seconds or less to
ensure user interest levels are kept high.
2.20 It used to be widely accepted that a response time of 2 seconds or
less, was acceptable for most interactive applications because the
person was thinking about the next task. However, it now appears that
productivity increases as rapid response times are achieved.
Normally, the response time for a business application should be as
fast as possible. However, it is also important to ensure that the
system does not react so fast that the user cannot keep up. For
example, if the response to a user action is not displayed long enough
for the user to read or react to, potential productivity gains from rapid
response times cannot be realized. Today, if the application reacts in a
tenth of a second (0.1 s) or less, the user perceives the system as
reacting instantaneously. Users notice a delay of 1.0 second, but it is
not enough to interrupt their flow of thought. Hence, response times
between 0.1 and 1.0 second are good for interactive applications.
2.21 Determinants include: computer processing power in clients and
servers, competing requirements, network traffic volumes,
presence/absence of QoS mechanisms.
2.22 Quality of Experience (QoE) is a subjective measure of the user’s
perception of the overall value of the network application or service.
QoE can be affected by the extent to which QoS is used to improve the
performance and user engagement with the application or service.
There are many network elements that can degrade the quality of the
service as it is experienced by the end user including encoding
processes, WAN infrastructure components, the business LAN or home
network, and the user’s computing device. Network elements that
facilitate flexibility, security, cost, mobility, and personalization may
contribute positively to QoE for users of a particular network
application or service.
2.23 Throughput has numerous meanings within the business context
including the productivity of a machine, process, system, or procedure
over a given time period. In business networks, throughput is the
average rate of message delivery over a communication channel or the
network as a whole. It can be thought of as the total bandwidth
capacity of a communications channel or network and can be
measured in various ways including bits per second, bytes per second,
or packets per second. Throughput can be affected by numerous
factors including communication media, media access control
protocols, switch and router capabilities, security mechanisms,
network congestion, the configuration of end devices, and appropriate
use of QoS mechanisms.
-13-
2.24 Growing reliance on converged networks to carry all categories of
business applications (voice, data, image, and video) has made
throughput an increasingly important factor in enterprise network
design. Investment in network infrastructure and business software
upgrades is often driven by the need for greater throughput, improved
QoS, and perceived QoS (or QoE). Increased throughput can
contribute to improved response times and enhanced worker
productivity.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
2.1 Answers will vary. The grading rubric should include presence of
descriptions of IVR benefits realized by three or more businesses and
the reasons why IVR was implemented. It should also include a
general description of IVR use by businesses.
2.2 Answers will vary. The grading rubric should include identification of
multiple IP-PBX capabilities and the business benefits of these
capabilities. The rubric should also include presence of multiple
new/future IP-PBX capabilities.
2.3 a. The required data rate for each channel is 8 (bits per sample) ×
8000 (samples per second) = 64,000 bps.
b. The required data rate for transmitting the 24 telephone channels is
24 × 64,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps.
c. For storing each of the 3-minute audio messages, the data storage
space needed is 180 s × 8000 smp/s × 1 byte/sample = 1,440,000
bytes = 1.37 MB
2.4 a. 5 bits (25 = 32)
b. 4 bits [24 = 16]
c. 8 bits [28 = 256]
d. 14 bits [27 × 27 = 214 = 128 × 128 = 16,384]
e. 32 bits [28 × 28 × 28 × 28 = 232 = 4,294,967,296 = 4.3 × 109].
2.5 B: 1000010
C: 1000011
D: 1000100
7: 0110111
e: 1100101
with odd parity:
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B: 10000101
C: 10000110
D: 10001001
7: 01101110
e: 11001011
2.6 a. We allow one extra character per word for spaces and punctuation.
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