The integumentary system

The skin is the heaviest organ of the body accounting about 16% of total body
weight .

The skin Functions:

1- The skin Functions as a receptor organ in continuous communication with

the environment & protect the organism in bact and friction in juries .

2- Melanin, a pigment produced and stored in the cells of the epidermis

provide protection action against ultraviolet (uv) rays.

3- Glands of the skin, blood vessels & adipose tissue participate in

thermoregulation, body metabolism, and the excretion of various substances.

Structure of skin: The skin composed of the:

1- epidermis ,an epithelial layer of ectodermal organ
2- dermis , a layer of C.T of mesodermal organ.

 Basal on the comparative thickness of the epidermis, thick & thin skin can be
distinguished.
 The junction of the dermis & epidermis is irregular and projections of the
dermis called papillae interdigitate with evaginahons of the epidermis.
 Beneath the dermis lie the hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue, a loose C.T it
bind skin loosely to the subjacent tissue.
A- Epidermis
The epidermis consists of st-sq- k- epith, but it also contains three cell type :
melanocytes , langerhans cell, and merKel’s cell.
The keratinizing epidermal cells are called keratinocytes.
The skin of found in the palms& soles are thick, and the thin skin or haring
found on the body.

The epidermis consists of five layers:

1- Stratum germinativum:
 It consist of a single layer of columnar cells resting on B.M at the derma
Epidermal junction: desmosome bind the cell of this layer together in
their lateral & upper surface.
Hemidesmosome found in the basal layer which help bind these cells to
the basal lamina .
 This stratum contain stem cells, is characterized by intense mitotic activity
and is responsible in conjunction with the initial portion of the next layer, for
constant renewal of epidermal cells. Depending on age , region of the body
and other factors.

2- Stratum spinosum
 It consist of slightly flattened cell with a central nucleus and a cytoplasm
which filled with bundle of keratin filament.
 The cells are firmly bound together by the filament –filled cytoplasmic spine
& desmosome that punctuate the cell surface providing a spine-studded
appearance .
 The filament play an important role in maintaining cohesion among cells.
 The epidermis of areas subjected to continuous friction and pressure (sole
and plan ) has a thicker stratum spinosum.
 The stratum germinativum and spinosum are called malpigtian layer.

3- Stratum granulosum
Consist of three to five layers of flattened polygonal cells , Whose
cytoplasm is filled with coarse basophilic granule.

4- Stratum lucidum
Found only in thick skin it’s a translucent, thin layer of flattened
epidermal cells.
The organelles and nuclei are no longer evident, the cytoplasm consists
of densely packed keratin filament .
Desmosome are still evident between adjacent cells.

5- Stratum corneum
Consist of a many layers of flattened non-nucleated keratinized cells
whose cytoplasm is filled with keratin .
After keratinization, the cells consist of only fibrillar and amorphous
proteins and thickened plasma membrane , they are called horny cells.
During keratinization lysosomal, hydrolytic enzyme play a role in the
disappearance of the cytoplasmic organelly .
 These cells are continuously shed at the surface of the stratum corneum.

1- Melanocytes :
It’s responsible for the color of the skin and hair.
Eumelanin is a dark brown pigment produced by the melanocytes a
specialized cell of the epidermis found beneath or between the cells of
the stratum basal and in the hair follicle, the melanocytes are derived
from neural crest cells.

2- Langerhans cells
Star-shaped cells, found mainly in the stratum spinosum of the epidermis
represent 2-8% of the epidermal cells.
They are bone marrow derived carried to the skin by the blood and
capable of binding processing and presenting antigens to T-lymphocyte,
thus participating in the stimulation of these cells.
They have a significant role in immunological skin reaction, langerhans
cells are antigen- presenting cells.

3- Merkel’s cells
Generally present in the thick skin of palms and soles, somewhat
resemble the epidermal epithelial cells have small dense granules in their
cytoplasm.
Free nerve ending that form an expanded terminal disk are present at the
base of merkel’s cells.
 These cells serve as sensory mechanoreceptors.

B- Dermis
1- The dermis is the C.T that supports epidermis and binds it to the
subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis)
2- The thickness of the dermis varies according to the region of the body .
3- The surface of the dermis is very irregular and has mainly projection
(dermal papilla ) that interdigitate with projection (epidermal pegs) of the
epidermis.
4- The dermis contains two layers with in distinct boundaries, The
outermost papillary layer and the deeper reticular layer.
 The thin papillary layer is composed of loose C.T and C.T cells , from this layer
special collagen fibrils bind the dermis to the epidermis and are called “
anchoring fibrils”.
 The reticular layer is thicker composed of irregular dense C.T and therefore
has more fibers and fewer cells than the papillary layer
The dermis contains a network of fibers of the elastic system.
The dermis also contains epidermal derivative such as: hair follicle and sweat &
sebaceous glands, There is a rich supply of nerve in the dermis and blood
vessels.

 Subcutaneous tissue:
Consists of loose C.T that binds the skin loosely to the subjacent organ.
 The hypodermis often contains fat cells that vary in number according to the
area of the body and vary in size according to nutritional state.

 Vessels that supply the skin:

The C.T of the skin contains a rich network of blood & lymphatic vessels.
The arterial vessels that nourish the skin from two plexuses , one is located
between the papillary and reticular layers, the other is located between the
dermis and the subcutaneous tissue.
The branches leave these plexuses and vascularized the dermal papilla, each
papilla has only one arterial ascending branch and one venous descending
branch.
Veins are disposed in three plexuses two in the position of arterial vessels and
the third in the middle of the dermis , lymphatic vessels closed to the papilla
of the dermis in form of two plexuses.

 Skin sensorial receptors :

1- The skin is the most extensive sensory receptor in addition to numerous
free nerve endings in the epidermis, hair follicle, & cutaneous glands
encapsulated and expanded receptors are present in the dermis &
subcutaneous tissue.
2- They are more frequently found in the dermal papilla.
3- Free nerve ending are sensitive to touch –pressure , tactile reception high
&low temperature pain, itching and other sensations.
4- The expanded ending includes Ruffini endings, meissner and Krause
corpuscle there receptors are not necessary for cutaneous sensation , their
distribution is irregular , with many areas of skin containing only free
nerve endings.
 5- The expanded & encapsulated receptors respond to tactile stimuli,
functioning as mechanoreceptors.
6- The pacini corpuscle & Ruffini ending also found in the C.T of organs
located deep in the body, they are sensitive to movement of internal organs
and to pressure of one organ over another.
 Hair
 Are elongated keratinized structures derived from invaginations of
epidermal epithelium ,their color ,size and diposition vary according to
race, age, sex and region of the body.
 They found everywhere on the body except on palms ,soles, lips, glans
penis, clitoris and labia minora.
 Hairs grow discontinuously and have periods of growth followed by
periods of rest.
 This growth does not occur synchronously in all regions of the body or
even in the same area, rather it tends to occur in patches .
 The duration of the growth and rest periods also varies according to the
region of the body .
 Thus ,in the scalp, the growth periods (anagen )may last for several years,
whereas the rest periods (catagen and telogen) average 3 months.
 Hair growth in such regions of the body as the scalp ,face and pubis is
strongly influenced not only by sex hormone especially androgen but also
by adrenal & thyroid hormones .
 The follicle has a bulbous terminal expansion with a dermal papilla.
 The papilla contains capillaries and is covered by cells that form the hair
root and develop into the hair shaft.
 The central cells produce large vacuolated , moderately keratinized cells
that form the medulla of the hair , the cells that produce the cortex of the
 hair are located laterally ,Cells forming the hair cuticle originate in the next
layer .
 The peripheral epithelial cells develop into internal and external root
sheaths.
 The external root sheath is continuous with the epidermis, whereas the
cells of the internal root sheath disappear at the level of the openings of the
sebaceous gland ducts.
 Each hair arises from an epidermal invagination the hair follicle that during
it growth period has a terminal dilatation called a hair bulb.
 At the base of the hair bulb, a dermal papilla can be observed , the dermal
papilla contains a capillary network that is vital in sustaining the hair
follicle, loose of blood flow or loose of the vitality of the dermal papilla
will result in death of the follicle.
 the epidermal cells covering this dermal papilla form the hair root that
produce and is continuous with the hair shaft, which protrude beyond the
skin,
 the arrector pili muscle originate in the C.T sheath of the hair follicle and
inserts into the papillary layer of the dermis , where it ends.
 During periods of growth,the epithelial cells that make up their bulb are
equivalent to those in the stratum germinativum of the skin
 They divide constantly and differentiate in to specific cell types
 In certain types of thick hairs, the cell of the central region of the root of
dermal papilla produce large vacuolated&moderately keratinized cells that
form the medulla of the hair.
 Root cell multiply &differentiate in to heavily keratinized completely
grouped fusiform cells that form hair cortex
 Toward the periphery the cell produce hair cuticle, the cells are cuboidal
up the bulb,then become columnar ,thes cells form a layer of
flattened ,heavily keratinized cover the cortex
 The cuticle cell are the last cell type in the hair follicle to differentiate
 The outer most cell give rise the internal root sheath, which completely
surrounds the initial part of the hair shaft,the internal sheath is a transient
structure whose cells degenerate and disappers above the level of the
sebaceous glands
 The external root sheath is continious with epidermal cell, near the surface
show all the layer of epidermis.
 Near the dermal papilla , the external root sheath is thinner and composed
of the cell corresponding to the stratum germinativum.
 Separating the hair follicle from the dermis is non cellular hyaline layer,the
glassy membrane which results form a thickening of the basal lamina.
 The dermis that surrounds the follicle is denser forming a sheath of C.T
 Bound to this sheath and connecting it to the papillary layer of the dermis
are bundle of smooth muscle, the arrector pili.
 They are disposed in the in an oblique direction and their contraction result
in the erection of the hair shaft to a up right position.
 Hair color is created by melanocyte located between the papilla and the
epithelial cells of the hair root
 The epithelial call produce the pigment found in the medullary and
cortical cells of the hair shaft.
 Nails :
Are plate of keratinized epithelial cells on the dorsal surface of each distal
phalanx .
The proximal part of the nail, hidden in the nail groove, is the root.
The nail plate rest on a bed of epidermis called the nail bed only the stratum
germinativum & spinosum are present in the nail bed , the proximal end
extends and move distally forming the proximal part of the nail plate.
Forward over the nail bed , the disal end of the plate become free of the nail
bed and is worn away or out off .
The nearly transparent nail plate and the thin epithelium of the nail bed
provide a useful window on the amount of oxygen in the blood by showing
the color of blood in the dermal vessels.

 Glands of the skin

1- Sebaceous glands :
Are embedded in the dermis over, most of the body surface except thick
skin.
They are branched alveolar opening into a short duct, this duct usually end
in the upper portion of hair follicle in certain regions, the glands in lips,
glaus penis and clitoridis opens divectly onto the epidermal surface .
 The sebaceous glands are holocrine gland, there gland begin to function at
puberty.

2- Sweat glands:
Are widely distributed in the skin except glans penis .
a- Merocrine sweat glands are simple ,coiled tubular glands whose ducts open
at the skin surface.

The secretory part of the gland is embedded in the dermis, it contain two type of
cells:

1- Dark cells are pyramidal cell that line most of the luminal surface of
the gland.
2- Clear cells are devoid of secretory granule their basal lamina has
numerous invaginations involved in trans epithelial salt and fluid
transport , the duct of these glands are lined with st. cuboidal
epithelium , it’s found in auxillary it help in cooling the surface , in
addition to eliminating unnecessary substance from body .

b- Apocrine are much large than merocrine embedded in the dermis &
hypodermis and their duct open into hair follicle , these glands produce a
viscous secretion that is initially odorless but may acquire a distinctive
odor as a result of bacterial decomposition.