Botany Practical Record Book

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BOTANY
PRACTICAL DIARY
PRACTICAL DIARY
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Prepared by:
Abu Raniya
HIGHER SECONDARY COURSE
Name of School
BOTANY PRACTICAL RECORD

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Examiners : 1) 2)
INDEX
Page
Sl. No. Topics Date
No.
STUDY OF MICROSCOPES
1 Compound microscope
MONERA
2 Bacteria
3 Oscillatoria
4 Nostoc
FUNGI
5 Rhizopus
www.bankofbiology.com 6 Yeast
7 Agaricus
8 Lichen – Usnea
ALGAE
9 Spirogyra-vegetative filament
10 Sargassum - thallus
BRYOPHYTES
11 Funaria - sporophyte
12 Funaria - Protonema
PTERIDOPHYTES
13 Nephrolepis - sporophyte
14 Nephrolepis - prothallus
INDEX INDEX
Page Page
Sl. No. Topics Date Sl. No. Topics Date
No. No.
GYMNOSPERMS 31 Adventitious root – Stilt root
15 Pinus - Male cone 32 Adventitious root – Prop root
16 Pinus - Female cone MODIFICATION OF PLANT PARTS- LEAF
ANGIOSPERMS 33 Leaf tendril
17 Dicot plant 34 Leaf hook
18 Monocot plant 35 Phyllode
MODIFICATION OF PLANT PARTS- STEM 36 Pitcher
19 Rhizome TAXONOMY
20 Stem tuber
www.bankofbiology.com 37 Fabaceae
21 Bulb 38 Solanaceae
22 Stem tendril 39 Liliaceae
23 Thorn ANATOMY
24 Phylloclade 40 Dicot stem
25 Cladode 41 Monocot stem
MODIFICATION OF PLANT PARTS- ROOT 42 Dicot root
26 Storage root- Carrot 43 Monocot root
27 Storage root – Radish CYTOLOGY
28 Storage root - Beet root 44 Prophase
29 Storage root - Mirabilis 45 Metaphase
30 Breathing root- Avicennia 46 Anaphase
INDEX INDEX
Page Page
Sl. No. Topics Date Sl. No. Topics Date
No. No.
47 Telophase PHYSIOLOGY
VEGETATIVE PROPAGULES 62 Osmosis – Thistle funnel expt
48 Stem tuber 63 Plasmolysis in Onion bulb peel
49 Rhizome 64 Imbibition by raisins
50 Bulb 65 Ganong’s potometer
51 Runner 66 Hydrilla experiment
52 Offset 67 Study of distribution of stomata
53 Sucker 68 Chromatography
EMBRYOLOGY
www.bankofbiology.com 69 Bacteria in root nodules
54 CS of Anther 70 Anaerobic respiration
BIOTECHNOLOGY 71 Yeast fermentation
55 Bt cotton
56 Cloning vector
57 Bioreactor
ECOLOGY- ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS
58 Mutualism
59 Commensalism
60 Parasitism - Cuscuta
61 Parasitism - Loranthus
PARTS OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
• Base: It supports the weight of microscope.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
• Arm: It can be tilted at any angle. It carries a body tube.
• Body tube: It has an eye piece at its upper end and nose
piece at the lower end.
• Objective lenses: Two or three objectives with different
magnifications are placed at the lower end of the body
tube on nose piece (low power 10X & high power 45X).
• Eye piece: It is a lens system situated at the upper end of
the body tube.
• Coarse adjustment: Large screw for approximate
focusing.
• Fine adjustment: Small screw for exact focusing.
• Stage: It is a platform with a central circular hole. The
object is placed on it.
• Condenser: The condenser lens system collects and
focuses light on the object. It carries an adjustable
diaphragm that regulates the amount of light falling on
object.
• Mirror: It is an adjustable plano-concave mirror fitted
below the stage. It reflects light to the object through
diaphragm.
PLANT GROUPS
Identification: BACTERIA (LACTOBACILLUS)
• The given material is Lactobacillus bacteria.
Taxonomic Position
Identification features: Kingdom : Monera
Group : Eubacteria
• They are rod shaped, non-motile bacteria found in Family : Lactobacillaceae
Genus : Lactobacillus
curd.
• They are unicellular and prokaryotic.
• They reproduce by binary fission.
Identification: OSCILLATORIA
• The given material is filaments of Oscillatoria. Taxonomic Position
Kingdom : Monera
Identification Features: Division : Cyanobacteria
Order : Oscillatoriales
Family : Oscillatoriaceae
• Oscillatoria is a simple filamentous prokaryotic Monera.
Genus : Oscillatoria
• It occurs in fresh water ponds, pools, ditches and on the
banks of streams.
• The filament is long and unbranched.
• Some cells are dead, biconcave, mucilaginous discs
called necredia.
• Filaments show oscillating movement.

Identification: NOSTOC
• The given material is Nostoc. Systematic position
Kingdom - Monera
Identification features: Division - Cyanobacteria
Order - Nostocales
• It is free living, fresh water, filamentous and colonial Family - Nostocaceae
Genus - Nostoc
cyanobacterium.
• It is a prokaryotic Monera.
• Several filaments enclosed in a mucilaginous mass
forming a colony.
• Some cells are barrel shaped, large, and are called

heterocysts and are special cells meant for nitrogen
fixation.
A few filaments under

low power microscope A single filament
Identification: RHIZOPUS
Systematic position
• The given material is Rhizopus with sporangia.
Kingdom - Fungi
Identification Features: Division - Eumycota
Class - Zygomycetes
Order - Mucorales
• The fungal hyphae is highly branched, colourless and Family - Mucoraceae
coenocytic (aseptate). Genus - Rhizopus
• Hyphae is differentiated in to rhizoids, stolons and

sporangiophores.
• A sporangiophore consists of a sporangium.
• A number of spores are produced inside the sporangium.

Identification: YEAST
• The given material is Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Systematic position
Kingdom - Fungi
Class - Hemiascomycetes
• It is a unicellular fungus. Order - Endomycetales
Family - Saccharomycetaceae
• Fungal body is ovoid or spherical in shape. Genus - Saccharomyces
• Asexual reproduction is by budding.
Identification: AGARICUS
• The given material is Agaricus with basidiocarp Systematic position
Kingdom - Fungi
Class - Basidiomycetes
• It consists of a fruiting body called basidiocarp. Order - Agaricales
Family - Agaricaceae
• It consists of rhizoids, a stipe, and a cap. Genus - Agaricus
• A number of gills are present at the lower side of the

cap.
• A number of basidiospores are produced in gills.
Identification: LICHEN – USNEA
• The given material is a lichen, it is Usnea. Systematic position
Kingdom - Plantae
Identification Features: Division - Lichen
Class - Ascolichen
• Lichen is the association of fungi and algae. Type - Fruticose
Genus - Usnea
• Fungal partner is called mycobiont and the algal partner
is called phycobiont.
• Reproductive bodies are disc shaped apothecia seen at
the tip of branches.
• The thallus is highly branched and pendent.

Identification: SPIROGYRA-Vegetative Filament
• The given material is Spirogyra filament. Systematic position
Kingdom - Plantae
Identification Features: Division - Chlorophyta
Class - Chlorophyceae
• Spirogyra is a filamentous fresh water green algae. Order - Conjugales
Family - Zygnemaceae
• Each cell consists of a ribbon shaped spirally arranged Genus - Spirogyra
chloroplast.
• The filament is unbranched.
• Nucleus and pyrenoids are also present in the cell.
Identification: SARGASSUM-Thallus
• The given material is Sargassum. Systematic position
Kingdom - Plantae
Identification Features: Division - Phaeophyta
Class - Cyclosporae
• It is a brown algae. Order - Fucales
Family - Sargassaceae
• The plant body consists of hold fast, primary lateral, Genus - Sargassum
secondary lateral, air bladder and receptacles.
• The main axis bears richly branched Primary laterals of
unlimited growth called long shoot.
• Receptacles are studded with fertile flask shaped

conceptacle.
Identification: FUNARIA: Gametophyte with Sporophyte
• The given material is Funaria with gametophyte and Systematic position
sporophyte. Kingdom - Plantae
Division - Bryophyta
Class - Bryopsida
Identification Features: Order - Funariales
Family - Funariaceae
• The plant body consists of gametophyte & sporophyte. Genus - Funaria
• The gametophyte of Funaria consists of root like, stem

like and leaf like parts.
• The sporophyte is differentiated in to foot, seta and
capsule.
• Spores are produced inside the capsule.

Identification: FUNARIA - PROTONEMA
• The given material is Protonema of funaria.
Identification Features:
• Protonema is juvenile form of gametophyte developing as

a result of germination of spore.
• Protonema is green, multicellular, autotrophic, branched

filamentous structure.
• Rhizoids are produced from the lower side which serve
for fixation and absorption .
• At certain point, along the protonema, buds are

produced which grow in to erect gametophyte.
Identification: NEPHROLEPIS-Sporophyte
• The given material is Nephrolepis sporophyte. Systematic position
Kingdom - Plantae
Identification Features: Division - Pteridophyta
Class - Filicopsida
• The sporophyte of Nephrolepis is differentiated into Order - Filicales
Family - Polypodiaceae
roots, rhizome and leaves. Genus - Nephrolepis
• The leaves are pinnately compound.
• The mature leaves bear sporangia and are called
sporophylls.
Identification: NEPHROLEPIS (Fern)-Prothallus
• The given material is prothallus of Nephrolepis.
Identification features:
• Prothallus is heart shaped green, photosynthetic flat

structure.
• Prothallus is independent in growth.
• It is the haploid gametophyte.
• Its lower side bears rhizoids, antheridia and archegonia.
Identification: PINUS – Male Cone
• The given material is the male cone of Pinus. Systematic position
Kingdom - Plantae
Identification Features: Division - Gymnospermae
Class - Coniferopsidae
• It consists of an axis, and microsporophylls are arranged Order - Coniferales
Family - Pinaceae
spirally on it. Genus - Pinus
• Each microsporophyll bears two small microsporangia on

the lower side.
• Each microsporangium contains pollen grains. The pollen
grains are winged.
Identification: PINUS – Female Cone
• The given material is the female cone of Pinus.
Identification Features:
• It consists of an axis and megasporophylls are arranged

spirally on it.
• Each megasporophyll has two ovules.
• Each ovule contains a megasporangium.
Identification: DICOT PLANT - Cleome
Systematic position
• The given material is a dicot plant.
Kingdom - Plantae
Division - Phanerogamae
Identification Features: Class - Dicotyledonae
Order - Parietales
• It has a tap root system. Family - Capparidaceae
Genus - Cleome
• The stem is differentiated into nodes and internodes.
• The stem is usually branched.
• The leaves show reticulate venation.

• The flowers are pentamerous.
• Dicots have two cotyledons on their embryo.

Identification: MONOCOT PLANT - Paddy
Systematic position
• The given material is a monocot plant.
Kingdom - Plantae
Division - Phanerogamae
Identification Features: Class - Monocotyledonae
Order - Glumales
• It has a fibrous root system. Family - Poaceae
Genus - Oryza
• The stem is cylindrical, erect and with hollow internodes.
• Leaves have a sheathing leaf base.
• Leaves show parallel venation.

• The flowers are trimerous.
• Fruit one seeded caryopsis.

MODIFICATION OF
PLANT PARTS - STEM
Morphological features: RHIZOME - Ginger
• It is underground stem modification.
• It grows horizontally under the soil.
• It has nodes, internodes, scale leaf, axillary bud,

terminal bud and adventitious roots.
• It is thick and fleshy due to food storage.
• Functions: Storage, perennation & vegetative

propagation.
Morphological features: STEM TUBER - Potato
• It is underground stem modification
• The tip of underground lateral branches modified to

swollen fleshy tubers due to food storage.
• Adventitious roots, axillary buds and scale leaves are

developed at the nodal portion.
• Nodes are represented by small depression called eyes

of potato.
• Axillary bud seen in the depression, scar of fallen scale
leaves resembles eye lashes.
• Function: Storage, perennation & vegetative

propagation.
Morphological features: BULB - Onion
• It is underground stem modification.
• Stem is highly reduced into a disc like structure.
• Several fibrous adventitious roots arises from the

nodes and grows downwards.
• Leaves are modified in to thick and fleshy due to the

storage of food materials.
Scale leaves protect axillary buds.

•
Morphological features: STEM TENDRIL - Grape vine
• It is an aerial stem modification.
• Terminal bud is modified into thin elastic slender,

leafless and spirally coiled structure called tendrils.
• Tendrils helps the plant to climb on support.
Morphological features: THORN - Bougainvillea
• Axillary bud is modified into sharp pointed, woody

structure called thorn.
• Function: Protection against grazing animals. Helps in

the reduction of transpiration.
Thorn
Morphological features: PHYLLOCLADE - Opuntia
• Stem is modified into fleshy, flattened green succulent

(water storing) structure called Phylloclade.
• Leaf is reduced into spine.
• Plylloclade is a xerophytic adaptation.
• Functions: Photosynthesis, water storage and reduction

of Transpiration.
Morphological features: CLADODE- Eg. Asparagus
• Cladode is a phylloclade with one or two internodes.
• Leaf is reduced into spine or scales.
• Cladode arise in clusters and are sickle shaped, green

leaf like structures consisting of only one internode.
• Cladode is a xerophytic adaptation.
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Functions: Photosynthesis and reduction of
transpiration.
MODIFICATION OF
PLANT PARTS - ROOT
Morphological features: TAP ROOT- STORAGE ROOT
• Carrot is a tap root modification.
• Tap root is modified to perform storage of food.
• It has conical tuber.
• Conical tuber is swollen above, tapering gradually

towards the lower end.
Carrot – Conical tuber

• Radish is tap root modification.
• Tap root is modified to perform store food.
• It has fusiform tuber.
• Fusiform tuber is swollen in the middle and gradually

tapers toward both ends.
• Beet root is tap root modification.
• It is modified to store food.
• It has napiform tuber.
• Napiform tuber is almost globular and tapers abruptly

towards the lower end.
Beetroot – Napiform tuber

• Mirabilis (4’O clock plant) has tap root modification.
• Tap root is modified to store food.
• It has tuberous root.
• In Tuberous root, primary root becomes thick and

fleshy and it has no definite shape.
4’O Clock plant –Tuberous root

Morphological features: TAP ROOT- Pneumatophores
• Avicennia is a mangrove plant that has Pneumatophores. (Respiratory Roots)
• In this, tap root is modified to perform respiratory
functions. So they are also called respiratory roots.
• The primary root produce horizontally growing lateral

roots called cable roots.
• Pneumatophores are negatively geotropic (grow

vertically).
• They bear many small openings called pneumatothodes,
through which gas exchange occurs.
STILT ROOT
ADVENTIOUS ROOTS FOR
Morphological features: MECHANICAL SUPPORT
• Adventitious root is modified for mechanical support.
• Stilt roots arise from the basal nodes of stem.
• They form obliquely downwards to the soil.
Stilt root of Pandanus

PROP ROOT
ADVENTIOUS ROOTS FOR
Morphological features: MECHANICAL SUPPORT
• These are the aerial roots modified for mechanical
support.
• They are produced from the horizontal branches of the

main stem.
• Prop roots grow vertically downwards and penetrate

the soil.
• Prop root act like pillars giving the branches additional
support hence also called Pillar root.
Prop root of Ficus

MODIFICATION OF
PLANT PARTS - LEAF
Morphological features: LEAF TENDRIL- Gloriosa
• It is a leaf modification.
• The leaf apex is modified in to thin slender elastic

coiled structure called tendril.
• It helps the plant in climbing on support.
Morphological features: LEAF HOOK - Bignonia
• The terminal leaf lets may be modified in to three

sharply curved structure called hooks.
• Hooks are stronger than tendrils.
• It helps the plant in climbing on support.
Morphological features: PHYLLODE- Acacia
• It is a xerophytic adaptation for preventing

transpiration.
• The rachis of pinnately compound leaves are modified

into flat green leaf like structures called phyllode.
• Function: Photosynthesis and reducing transpiration.
Morphological features: PITCHER - Nepenthes
• It is a insectivorous pitcher plant.
• The leaf blade is modified in to flask shaped structure.
• The leaf apex is modified in to operculum and lid.
• The inner wall of the pitcher secrete digestive enzyme

which digest the prey.
TAXONOMY
Floral characters: FABACEAE
• Inflorescence: Simple raceme.
• Flower: Complete, bisexual zygomorphic, pentamerous,
perigynous and cyclic.
• Calyx: Sepals 5 gamosepalous.
• Corolla: Petals 5 polypetalous and papilionaceous- 1
large standard petal 2 lateral wing petal, 2 anterior
keel petal.
• Androecium: Stamens 10 diadelphous with 9+1
arrangement.
• Gynoecium: Monocapellary,unilocular and half inferior
ovary with marginal placentation.
• Fruit: Legume or pod.

Floral formula:
Ф ⚥ K(5) C5 A (10) G(1)
Floral characters: SOLANACEAE
• Inflorescence: It is axillary cyme.
• Flower: Bisexual, pentamerous..
• Calyx: Five sepals, valvate and fused.
• Corolla: Five petals present, petals are fused, twisted

aestivation.
• Androecium: Five stamens, epipetalous.
Gynoecium: Superior ovary , Ovary is twisted,
bicarpellary with many ovule, axile placentation,
placenta is swollen
• Fruit: Fruit is a capsule.
Floral Formula:
Floral characters: LILIACEAE
• Inflorescence: Solitary cymose.
• Flower: Actinomorphic, bisexual.
• Perianth: Tepals six,(3+3), often united into tube,

valvate aestivation.
• Androecium: Stamen six (3+3).
• Gynoecium: Tricarpellary, syncarpous, trilocular,

superior ovary.
• Fruit: Capsule.
Floral Formula:
ANATOMY
Identification: DICOT STEM
• The given material is Dicot stem.
Identification features of Dicot:

• The limited number of vascular bundles.
• Vascular bundles are open. Ground plan
• Pith is present.
• Xylem is arranged linearly.
Identification features of Stem:

Presence of conjoint collateral vascular bundles.
• Xylem is Endarch.
• Cortex is heterogenous.
• Presence of chlorenchyma in the cortex.
Report:
• So the given material is dicot stem. A portion enlarged
Identification: MONOCOT STEM
• The given material is Monocot stem
Identification features of stem:
• Vascular bundles are collateral and conjoint.
• Xylem is endarch. Ground plan
• Presence of chlorenchyma below epidermis.
• Sclerenchymatous hypodermis present
Identification features of monocot:
A number of vascular bundles are seen
• Vascular bundles are closed without cambium
• Xylem is arranged in ‘Y’ shaped or ‘V’ shaped
• Ground tissue is not divided into cortex and stele.
Report:
• So the material is monocot stem. A portion enlarged
Identification: DICOT ROOT
• The given material is dicot root
Identification features of Root:
• Xylem is exarch.
• Vascular bundles are radial, i.e. xylem and phloem in Ground plan
different radii.
• Cortex is homogenous.
• Presence of root hairs.
Identification features of Dicot:
• The number of xylem and phloem are 3 to 5.
• Pith is reduced.
• Xylem is polygonal in section.
Report:
• So the given material is Dicot root. A portion enlarged
Identification: MONOCOT ROOT
• The given material is Monocot root.
Identification features of Root:
• Xylem is exarch.
• Vascular bundles are radial. Ground plan
• Cortex is homogenous.
• Root hairs are present.
Identification features of Monocot:
A number of vascular bundles are seen.
• Pith is prominent.
• Xylem is found round in cross section.
• Cortex may contain air cavities.
Report:
• So the given material is Monocot root. A portion enlarged
CYTOLOGY
PROPHASE PROPHASE
Identification:
• The given stage is Prophase of Mitosis
Reasons:
• Chromosomes are thickened and distinct.
• Spindle fibers start to originate.
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus starts disappear.
METAPHASE
Identification: METAPHASE
• The given stage is Metaphase of Mitosis.
Reasons:
• Chromosomes are arranged at the equator of the cell.
• The spindle fibers are attached at the centromere of
chromosome.
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus absent.
• The arms of the chromosomes are directed towards the
opposite poles.
ANAPHASE ANAPHASE
Identification:
• The given stage is Anaphase of Mitosis
Reasons:
• The chromatids separate.
• Chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell.
• The arms of the chromosomes are directed towards the
equator of the cell.
TELOPHASE
TELOPHASE
Identification:
• The given stage is Telophase of Mitosis
Reasons:
• The two sets of chromosomes reach at opposite poles
of the cell.
• The chromosomes are grouped and forms into two
daughter nuclei.
• Nucleus and nuclear membrane reappear.
VEGETATIVE
PROPAGULES
STEM TUBER STEM TUBER
• Name of vegetative Propagule: Stem tuber.
• Modified part: Underground Stem.
• Stem tubers are fleshy, swollen, rounded or oval

structure developed at the tips of underground
branches of the stem.
RHIZOME RHIZOME
• Name of vegetative Propagule: Rhizome.
• Rhizome is a thick fleshy horizontally growing

underground stem.
BULB BULB
• Name of vegetative Propagule: Rhizome.
• In Bulb, the stem is reduced in to a disc like

structure and the leaves become thick and fleshy
due to storage of food materials.
RUNNER
RUNNER
• Name of vegetative Propagule: Runner.
• Modified part: Sub aerial Stem.
• It is a creeper with long and slender internodes. The

slender stem grows horizontally on the surface of
soil.
OFFSET OFFSET
• Name of vegetative Propagule: Offset.
• Offset is type runner with short, stout and thick

internode.
SUCKER SUCKER
• Name of vegetative Propagule: Sucker.
• In sucker the internodes are short and stout. It

arises a lateral branch from the basal underground
portion of main stem.
EMBRYOLOGY
Identification Features: C.S OF ANTHER
• The given material is the cross section of an anther.
• Anther or microsporangium is covered by four wall

layers.
• The wall layers are epidermis, endothecium, middle

layers and tapetum.
• The outer three wall layers are giving protection

and help to dehiscence of the anther to release
pollen.
• The inner most wall layer is known as tapetum. It

nourishes the developing pollen grains.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Identification: The given material is Bt. Cotton. Bt COTTON
• Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis have proteins
that kill insects like coleopterans (beetles),
lepidopterans & dipterans.
• B. thuringiensis forms an insecticidal protein (Bt

toxin) crystal during a phase of their growth. It
does not kill the Bacillus as it exists as inactive
protoxins.
• When an insect ingests the toxin, it becomes active

due to alkaline pH of the gut which solubilise the
crystals. Toxin binds to surface of mid-gut epithelial
cells creating pores. It causes cell swelling and lysis
and death of the insect.
• Bt toxin genes were isolated from B. thuringiensis

and incorporated into crop plants such as cotton.
• Identification: The given material is cloning vector CLONING VECTOR
pBR 322.
• It is a plasmid vector.
• It consists of ori site, recognition sites, antibiotic
resistance sites and rop site.
• Ori site: The site for starting the replication of
Plasmid.
• Antibiotic resistance sites: They include ampR
(ampicillin), tetR (tetracycline) genes, HindIII, EcoR
I, BamH I, Sal I, Pvu I, Pvu II, Cla I, and Pst I
restriction sites of pBR322.
• Restriction endonuclease enzyme make cuts at the
restriction sites.
• Rop Site: It codes for the proteins involved in the
replication of plasmid.
• Identification: The given material is bioreactor. BIOREACTOR
• These are the vessels in which raw materials are
biologically converted to specific products,
enzymes etc., using microbial, plant, animal or
human cells.
• Bioreactors are used to produce large quantities of

products. They can process 100-1000 litres of
culture.
• A bioreactor provides the optimal growth
conditions (pH, temperature, substrate, salts,
vitamins, oxygen) to get desired product.
• The most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring

type (stirred-tank bioreactor).
ECOLOGICAL
INTERACTIONS
Identification: MUTUALISM - Lichen
• This ecological interaction is mutualism in lichen.
Description:
• Mutualism is the interaction in which both organisms

get benefit (+ + ).
• Lichen is the symbiotic association of fungi and algae.
• Fungal partner is called Mycobiont and the algal

partner is called Phycobiont.
• The algal partner prepare food by photosynthesis and
providing it to fungi and in turn fungal partner gives a
moist shelter for algae.
Identification: COMMENSALISM - Vanda
• This ecological interaction is commensalism in Vanda.
Description:
• Commensalism is the interaction in which one organism

gets benefit and the other neither gets benefit or harm
(+ 0).
• Vanda is an Epiphyte. It grows on other plants only for

support.
• It does not take nutrients and water from the host.
• Specialised roots are present in this plant and are

called velamen roots.
• Velamen roots absorb water and nutrients from the

atmosphere.
Identification PARASITISM - Cuscuta
• This ecological interaction is parasitism in cuscuta.
Description
• It is an example for parasitism.
• Parasitism is the interaction in which one organism gets

benefit and the other is harmed (+-).
• Cuscuta is a total stem parasite. It lacks green colour.
Nutrients and water are absorbed from the host plant
by using specialised root called haustoria.
Identification: PARASITISM - Loranthus
• This ecological interaction is parasitism in Loranthus.
Description:
• It is an example for parasitism.
• Parasitism is the interaction in which one organism gets

benefit and the other is harmed (+-).
• Loranthus is a partial stem parasite, because it can

perform photosynthesis but is dependent on the host
plant for materials required for photosynthesis.
• The parasite absorbs nutrients and water from the host

plant by using specialised root called haustoria.
PHYSIOLOGY
STUDY OF OSMOSIS BY THISTLE
FUNNEL EXPERIMENT
Aim: To demonstrate osmosis by using thistle funnel
experiment.
Materials required: Egg membrane, beaker, water, string,
sugar solution, Glass thistle funnel, stand etc.
Procedure: Take a glass thistle funnel and close its wide
mouth tightly with an egg membrane. Through the narrow
stem of thistle funnel, a strong solution of sugar is carefully
poured into it, up to the level just above the neck portion.
The mouth of thistle funnel is dipped in water in the beaker.
The thistle funnel is clamped vertically with the help of a
stand. Keep the set up undisturbed for sometime and
observe the change.
Observation: The level of the sugar solution in the thistle
funnel rises up.
Inference: The rise in level of sugar solution is due to the
increase in osmotic pressure of sugar solution as compared
to water in the beaker. So water molecules rapidly diffuse
from the beaker into the thistle funnel through the egg
www.bankofbiology.com membrane. This diffusion of water is called osmosis because
egg membrane is a semi-permeable membrane.
STUDY OF PLASMOLYSIS IN BULB ONION
BULB PEEL
Aim: To demonstrate plasmolysis in plant cells.
Materials Required: Onion bulb, slide, watch glass, cover
slip, brush, needles, blade, forceps, blotting paper,
dropper, glycerin, NaCl solution, microscope etc.
Procedure: Take a piece of onion bulb. Using forceps, peel
out three transparent segments from the lower surfaces of
onion scale. Put the peel in saffranine and wash it with
water. Place the peel on the clean glass slide contain a top
of glycerin with help of brush. Put a cove slip over it.
Observe under low power of compound microscope. It can
be seen the cells become fully turgid. Prepare a
concentrated (hypertonic) NaCl solution. With the help of a
dropper put it through the sides of cover slip so that it
reaches the peels. Keep it for sometimes. Observe under
microscope.
Observations: The protoplast is found to be detached from
www.bankofbiology.com the cell wall.
Inference: The protoplast where detached from the cell
wall due exosmosis. This is called plasmolysis. As a result
the cells become shrunk leads to death. Exosmosis is the
osmotic outflow of water from the cells in to the medium.
STUDY OF IMBIBITION BY RAISINS
Aim: To study the phenomenon of imbibition by raisins.
Material required: Raisins, petri dishes, Water etc.
Principle: Imbibition is the absorption of water molecule by

insoluble and hydrophilic cell wall constituents without
forming a solution.
Procedure: Place a few raisins in a petri dish. Take

another petri dish containing water and also place a few
raisins in it. Keep the petri dishes for 5 - 6 hours.
Observation: The raisins placed in the petri dish containing

water will swell up. The raisins placed in the petri dish
without water remains as such.
Inference: The raisins swell up due to imbibition of water.

The hydrophilic colloids present in the fruit wall of raisins
absorb water.
GANONG’S POTOMETER
Aim: To measure the rate of transpiration using Ganong’s
potometer.
Materials required: Ganong’s potometer, a fresh plant twig,
beaker, water, etc.
Procedure: Ganong’s potometer consists of a horizontal
graduated capillary tube, with one end is curved upwards
carrying a plant chamber. The other end is bent
downwards. The capillary tube is attached to a reservoir,
which is provided with a stopper arrangement. With the
help of a cork, a leafy twig is attached to the plant
chamber. The whole apparatus is filled with water, the
joints are made air tight. A small air bubble is introduced
at the downward end of the apparatus, which is dipped in a
beaker containing coloured water. Keep the apparatus in
sunlight.
Observations: As transpiration proceeds, the bubble moves
through the horizontal tube. In different environmental
conditions, the time taken by the air bubble to cover the
same distance is varied.
Inference: The rate of transpiration is indicated by the
www.bankofbiology.com rate of movement of air bubble in unit time. Rate of
transpiration is maximum under bright light and minimum
under dim light.
HYDRILLA EXPERIMENT
Aim: To study evolution of oxygen during photosynthesis.
Materials required: Hydrilla plant, water, funnel, test tube,

beaker etc.
Procedure: Insert some branches of Hydrilla plant into the

glass funnel. Its cut end should be firmly introduced into the
tube of the funnel. Invert the funnel and fully immerse in
water in a beaker. Now its stem is directed upwards. Invert
a test tube filled with water, over the stem of the funnel.
Keep the apparatus in sunlight and observe the changes.
Observation: Air bubbles come out continuously from the cut

ends of Hydrilla and are collected at the top of the test
tube by downward displacement of water. On testing this
gas, it is found to be oxygen.
Inference: The branches of Hydrilla carries out

photosynthesis and liberates oxygen.
STUDY OF DISTRIBUTION OF
STOMATA
Aim: To study the distribution of stomata on upper and
lower surfaces of leaves.
Materials required: Fresh dicot leaf, forceps, needle, blade,

brush, watch glass, stain, petri dish, slides, microscope etc.
Procedure: Remove upper and lower epidermal peels of a

dicot plant (e.g. Hibiscus) into separate watch glass
containing water. Take a square piece of each peel and
stain them. Each peel is mounted on separate slides and
observe under microscope. Count the number of stomata in
upper and lower epidermis.
Observation: In dicot leaf, the number of stomata present

in upper epidermis is less than the number on the lower
epidermis.
www.bankofbiology.com Inference: In dicot plant, usually the number of stomata in
lower side of the leaf is more than that in the upper side.
STUDY OF PLANT PIGMENT BY PAPER
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Aim: To separate the photosynthetic pigments by paper
chromatography.
Materials required: Petroleum ether, acetone, Whatman’s
No. 1 filter paper, glass rod, measuring jar, split cork, leaf
extract etc.
Procedure: Take 2 ml of running solvent (petroleum ether
and acetone in 9:1 ratio) in a large measuring jar. It is
closed tightly with a split cork. Cut one end of Whatman’s
No. 1 filter paper to prepare a ‘V’ shaped tip. A pencil line
is drawn about 2cm above the tip. Prepare a leaf extract
by grinding green leaves with acetone. Apply the leaf
extract at the marked region of filter paper. Dip the lower
end of the filter paper in the solvent and fix the upper end
in the split cork in the jar. Place the set up for 20-30
minutes.
Observation: The pigments of the extract get separated
due to their differential solubility in a moving phase.
Different colours are developed in the paper.
Inference: The lower most layer is chlorophyll ‘b’ (yellow
www.bankofbiology.com green), then chlorophyll ‘a’ (blue green), Xanthophyll (yellow
orange), and Carotene (orange red) respectively.
STUDY OF BACTERIA IN ROOT NODULES
Aim: To isolate and study the bacteria in root nodules of

leguminous plant
Materials required: Roots of legume plant, methylene blue,

glycerin, glass slide, watch glass, cover slip, blade,
microscope etc.
Procedure: Take the root of leguminous plant. Wash it

thoroughly and collect the root nodules. Cut a section of
root nodule and stain with a drop of methylene blue. Slightly
warm the slide for few seconds. Wash the section with
www.bankofbiology.com water and mount it in glycerin. Observe under low and high
power of the microscope.
Inference: The cells of root nodule contain bacteria. The

blue stain is absorbed by the bacterial cell wall and
numerous bacteria can be seen under microscope.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN
GERMINATING SEEDS
Aim: To demonstrate the anaerobic respiration in
germinating seeds.
Materials required: Test tube, petri dish, mercury,
geminating seeds, KOH, forceps, etc.
Procedure: Take few seeds, remove the seed coat after
soaking in water. Insert the seeds into the mouth of a test
tube filled with mercury. It is inverted into the mercury
taken in a petri dish. The seeds will reach the base of the
inverted tube. Keep the apparatus for some time and then
observe.
Observation: A gas collected at the base of the inverted
tube and level of mercury falls. If a pellet of KOH is
inserted into the tube through its mouth, mercury is found
to be rising again.
Inference: The gas collected at the base of the test tube is
absorbed by KOH. Since it absorb only CO2, it is inferred
that CO2 is formed by the respiration of germinating seeds
www.bankofbiology.com in the absence of free oxygen. Thus the experiment
demonstrates anaerobic respiration in germinating seeds.
YEAST FERMENTATION AND
PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL
Aim: To demonstrate fermentation by yeast.
Materials required: 10% glucose solution, Baker’s yeast,
KOH, conical flask, test tube, glass rod, lime water, etc.
Procedure: Take the glucose solution in a conical flask and
add a pinch of Baker’s yeast into it. Add a few drops of oil
over the surface of the solution to cut oxygen supply to
yeast. Insert one end of the delivery tube into conical flask
above the solution through a one holed cork. Insert the
other end into the lime water taken in a test tube. Make the
apparatus air tight by applying Vaseline. Keep the whole
setup undisturbed for 2 days.
Observation: The lime water turn milky white in colour. The
glucose solution will be fermented and an alcohol smell is
come out.
Inference: Yeast contains the enzyme zymase and it convert
the glucose solution into alcohol and CO2. Glucose solution
become alcoholic. The CO2 gas reach in the test tube
www.bankofbiology.com through the delivery tube and react with lime water to form
white precipitate of calcium carbonate.

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BOTANY PRACTICAL RECORD

www.bankofbiology.com Name ………………………………..……………..……

I Certified that this is the Bonafide Record of Practical work

Date : …………………… Teacher in Charge

• They are unicellular and prokaryotic.

• They reproduce by binary fission.

• The filament is long and unbranched.

• Filaments show oscillating movement.

• Several filaments enclosed in a mucilaginous mass

• Some cells are barrel shaped, large, and are called

A few filaments under

• Hyphae is differentiated in to rhizoids, stolons and

• A number of spores are produced inside the sporangium.

• Asexual reproduction is by budding.

• A number of gills are present at the lower side of the

• Reproductive bodies are disc shaped apothecia seen at

• The thallus is highly branched and pendent.

• The filament is unbranched.

secondary lateral, air bladder and receptacles.

• The main axis bears richly branched Primary laterals of

• Receptacles are studded with fertile flask shaped

• The gametophyte of Funaria consists of root like, stem

• Spores are produced inside the capsule.

• Protonema is juvenile form of gametophyte developing as

• Protonema is green, multicellular, autotrophic, branched

• At certain point, along the protonema, buds are

• The leaves are pinnately compound.

• The mature leaves bear sporangia and are called

• Prothallus is heart shaped green, photosynthetic flat

• Prothallus is independent in growth.

• It is the haploid gametophyte.

• Each microsporophyll bears two small microsporangia on

• It consists of an axis and megasporophylls are arranged

• Each megasporophyll has two ovules.

• Each ovule contains a megasporangium.

• The stem is usually branched.

• The leaves show reticulate venation.

• Dicots have two cotyledons on their embryo.

• Leaves have a sheathing leaf base.

• Leaves show parallel venation.

• Fruit one seeded caryopsis.

• It grows horizontally under the soil.

• It has nodes, internodes, scale leaf, axillary bud,

• It is thick and fleshy due to food storage.

• Functions: Storage, perennation & vegetative

• The tip of underground lateral branches modified to

• Adventitious roots, axillary buds and scale leaves are

• Nodes are represented by small depression called eyes

• Function: Storage, perennation & vegetative

• Stem is highly reduced into a disc like structure.

• Several fibrous adventitious roots arises from the

• Leaves are modified in to thick and fleshy due to the

Scale leaves protect axillary buds.

• Terminal bud is modified into thin elastic slender,

• Tendrils helps the plant to climb on support.

• Axillary bud is modified into sharp pointed, woody

• Function: Protection against grazing animals. Helps in

• Stem is modified into fleshy, flattened green succulent

• Leaf is reduced into spine.

• Plylloclade is a xerophytic adaptation.

• Functions: Photosynthesis, water storage and reduction

• Cladode is a phylloclade with one or two internodes.

• Leaf is reduced into spine or scales.