EASA PPL Training Flight Preparation Aeroplanes Technical literature for the theoretical training of Private Pilots and Light Alrcratt Pilots Publisher: Peters Media Publishing Author: Meters Software GmbH ISBN 978-0-88487-003-6 Rom Number 10471046 Version 081 v.t.1 Peters Software GmbH Cologne, Germany‘These materials are to be used only for the purpose of individual, private study and may not be reproduced in any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted, or adapted in whole or in part without the prior written consent of Jeppesen GmbH. Copyright in al matorialo bound within thove covers oF attached hersto, excluding that material which ie ulead with the permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to Jeppesen GmbH, Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of Peters Software GmbH. This book has been written and published to assist students enrolled in an approved JAA/EASA Private Pict Licence (PPL) course in preparation for the JAA/EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of thie hook ie ta ha intaenratad ae canstiting instruction or advice retating to practical flvna, THESE MATERIALS ARE PROVIDED “AS |S" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND. Students preparing for the JAN EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute for the JAA/FASA PPL. (A) theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of "JAR/EASA FOL Flight Grew Licensing (Aeroplanes)" (the Syllabus), ‘The Svilabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in a JAA/EASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is entitled to enter himsetf/herself for, the IAAFASA PPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled ina training school which has been {granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA/EASA PPL (A) training. Contact Details Sales and Service Department Jeopesen GmbH Frankfurter Strasse 233, (63263 Neu-Isenburg Germany Tol: +49 (0)6102 5070 E-mail tra-services@jeppesen.com ror further information on products and orvioes from Jeppocon, vieit our wob cite at wwe jeppesen.com © Jeppesen Sanderson Inc., 2014 ‘Al Rights Reserved Printed in GermanyForeword ‘Wen you are tying you can not just “pull over” to look in the map as if you have all the time in the world. Therefore requires ‘each fight, whether by visual or instrumental fight rules, an intense planning and careful monitoring, where the occurrence (of smaller problems are factored. This textbook covers the subjects of Mass and Balance, Aircraft Performance and Flight Planning and makes you familiar with all the important points that play a role inthe preparation and conduet of a fight. This includes first of all the determination of the aircraft mass and balance. The pilot in training will leam how to check in the fight manual if the mass and balance isin the allowed range with the hel of charts and granhs Before each flight it must also be examined whether the performance of the aircraft is sufficient to perform the planned fight safety. For this, vl unly Ure rss Of le alfcrart Is relevant, Dut also external contions such as the air pressure, ‘temperature or the wind. The learner should be able to evaluate the influence of these parameters on the planned flight. ‘Then wo deal with the fight planning for fights according to visual fight rules. We will focus on terrestrial navigation, hence ‘the comparison between tha map and the overfiown terrain. We consider tha calculation of the needed fuel. Part of the flight preparation is also the assessment of the conditions. Itis mainly a matter of recognising the limitations ofthe usability ff iplannec) approached aitporte or navigation dovioso on the traci and to aaseae the predicted meteviuluyiual warriors ‘obtained from the meteorological documents. A separate chapter has been devoted to the creation and purpose of an ATS flight plan. Finally, wo doal with the actual conduct of the fig. Publisher Peters Media Publishing Several tips relating to the use of QR codes ‘To make even the most complex and dynamic processes easily understandable to the reader, the corresponding figures hhave Deen complemented by QR codes. The two-dimensional code pattem originaly developed to mark components and ‘assemblies in the automotive manufacturing industry, may be scanned with an iPad, iPhone or smart phana after rewn- loading freely avaliable software from the intemet. When a code patter is scanned, the software automatically directs the reader to the videos that Peters Software has provided for the readerIndex Purpose of Mass and Balance Considerations 1 Mass Limitations 1 Centre of Gravity (CG) Limitations 3 Loading HH Z 9 ‘Terninnwhoyy 9 Mass Limits a 7 Mass Calculations “ Fundamentats of CG Calculations 16 Definition of Centre of Gravity 18 Conaiitions of Equilibrium 7 Basic Caloulations of CG 1 Mass and Balance Details of Aircraft 2 Contents of Mass and Balanoe Documentation 22 Determination of Aircraft Empty Mass and CG Position by Weighing 25 Determination af C6 Position 20 Methods 28 Load and Tin Sirest 31 General Performance Theory 33 Stages of Flight 33 Effect of Arroratt Mass, Wind, Altitude, Runway Slope and Condition 43 Gradients 52 Single Engine Aeroplanes 56 Definitions of Terms and Speeds 56 ilmb and Descent Performance 58 Climb and Cruise Performance 65 Flight Planning for VFR Flights - 76 VFR Navigation Plan 76 Fual Planning 115 General i 115 Calvulatn of Ue Required Fuel Berore the Fiignt if 116 Pre-flight Preparation : 124 ‘AIP and NOTAM Briefing 124 Meteorological Briefing 127 ICAU Flight Pian (ATS Flight Plan) 136 Incividual Flight Pian 198 ‘Submission of an ATS Flight Pian (FPL) 146 Flight Monitoring and In-flight Replanning 148, Flight Monitoring 148 In-flight Re-planning in Case of Deviation from Planned Data 185 Keyword Index 159wiPurpose of Mass and Balance Considerations Mass Limitations 1 031 01 09.00 Purpose of Mass and Balance Considerations According to JAR-OPS 1, Subpart J, an aireraft will only be operated with the approved masses and within its permitted ‘centre of gravity range . These parameters are specified in the fight operations manual and have to be checked by the pilot during flight proparation. Mass and Balance is, therefore, primarily concerned with determining the correct waight ('mass") af the aitraft and verfy- ing the correct centre of gravity position (“balance”) of an aeroplane or helicopter at various loading conditions - loading, flight and landing, Mass and Balance Perma nena ney Cee) Pecan Muay of the CG on Image 1: Overview ofmass an baance Ihe aim of determining mass and balance is to avoid overloading the aeroplane and, therefore, exceeding the structural limits, while at the same time, through purposeful load positioning, obtain appropriate handling characteristics for the safe ‘and economic conduct of fight. 031 01 01 00 Mass Limitations 031 01 01 01 Importance in Regard to Structural Limitations ‘An aeroplane inflight is subjected to bending stresses particularly atthe wing roots. These forces become stronger with Increasing weignt or ne aeropiane. Image 2 Doveloamentf te bending moment the wina rots2 Purpose of Mass and Balance Considerations While taxing bofore take off, oopacially during turne, the mase of the aeroplane ie highast and the landing gaat is heavily stressed. The same goes for the touchdown impact where strong vertical forces act. In adcition to mechanical loads, components are exposed to environmental influences such as temperature fluctuations, pollutants and improper handing. Over the course of time these stresses can lead to fatigue causing in the worst case a ‘otal failure (etress fracture) of a component that might have fatal consequences. Replacerient cycies fur aeroplane eunpurials are based on @ calculated normal stress. i components are permanently overstressed (for example by overloading), they occasionally tend to premature fatigue and failure. Considering this a so-called design limit load (DLL) has been caloulated for every component of an aeroplane's structure. ‘The DLL thus determines a value for tha maximum load under recurring stresses in normal operation. ‘Maximum structural masses for each aircraft type are published by the manufacturer in the aeroplane fight manual. They ‘must not be exceeded as this may cause damage to the aeroplane structure. ‘Tho most important structural macs limits are: 031 01 01 02 Importance in Regard to Performance ‘The aeroplane mass not only affects the structural stability of the airframe, but also its performance capability (such as take-off and climb performance). The mass distribution in turn affects not only the aorodynamic fight characteristics (ma- nootvrabiliy), hit alen tha inharant stahilty ofthe transverse axis (longitudinal stability). which is the ablity of the aircraft to return to the normal fight attitude after minor disturbances without further control inputs. Toe ed reedContre of Gravity (CG) Limitations 3 Besides the structural maximum masses, which take into account tha hearing strength af the aoroplane structure, flight performance limits have to be observed 2s limiting factors for the maximum mass for take-off and landing. This includes, {or example, tha density altitude (pressure altitude and temperature) of the respective aarodrome and restrictions duc to the given runway length and specific climb requirements related to the topography of the surrounding area during startup, {go-around or en route over mountainous terri Thus, an aeroplane may comply with all structural limit masses, but stil be unable to achieve the minimum climb perfor- ‘mance required for a safe fight due to, for example, summer temperatures at a high-altitude airfield, As a consequence, the total weight of the aeroplane may have to be reduced until the reauired fight performance can he obtained ‘The same applies to the fight in general. The aeroplane’s total weight can be determined at any point in time to detect, oroplane performance limits. This information provides a basis for decision making when acaressing questions such as: What climb performance can be expected with the current mass? How far does this affect the alternatives for further action in terms of routing? Therefore, apart from maximum stnichial maesee, performance limite alee have to be observed. The performance limited take-off mass (PLTOM) and the performance limited landing mass (PLLM) can be distinguished as follo Performance Limited LEU Sey Image Ovenew of pertorance fied maximum masses 031 01 02.00 Centre of Gravity (CG) Limitations 031 01 02 01 Importance in Regard to Stability and Controllability ‘The centre of gravity (CG) represents the average position of a collection of one or more objects, through which gravity Is. ‘concidered to act. In an aeroplane gravity (in the form of aeroplane weight) attacks al te vente uf yravly. The Gls UF gravity is the point: ‘Through which longitudinal, transverse and vertical axes pass + In balance (a force attacking at the centre of gravity has no moment arm) ‘+ That moves along the fight path * Around which the aeropiane turns. ‘The centre of gravity position of an empty aeroplane is constant once it has been bult; however, the overall centre of grav- lty changes with arrangement of the useful lad. This inckides, + Number, mass and positioning of occupants (passengers and crew) ‘+ Wight and position of baggage and cargo + The carried amount of fuel and its position4 Purpose of Mass and Balance Considerations ‘The aoroplane’s oontro of gravity fe net conetant, but changes during the flight ae 2 functian af fuel cansumptian and movement of persons within the aircraft, as well as with the operation of landing gear and flaps. ‘The permitted centre of gravity range Is published in the fight operations manual, which also provides information as to how the centre of gravity is determined. Improper loading can cause the centre of gravity to shift outside the permitted range, both on the ground and in the al. Ii Ute case Uf te M11 shiowtt in Ue pity Leiow, the offloading of pallets in the frontward area led to a shift in the CG ‘behind the aft limit, towards the stil-ioaded rear. The result was that the aeroplane tipped over backwards. mage Contre of arty range Inflight the CG determines how longitudinally stable or manoeuvrable an aircraft is. A loading outside of the permitted Ci range can lead to adverse or uncontrollable flight characteristics. ‘To be able to manually control an aeroplane the so-called longitudinal stabiity is an important prerequisite. The longitudinal stability describes the stabilty of an aeroplane about the lateral axis. Longitudinal stabilty existe if the acroplane roturne to its orginal stable flight attitude without any plot actions following a disturbance (turbulence or control input). To achieve Jongituainal stabinty in a convenotel weroplare Ue OG las to be lovated forwatd vf Ue ou-valled neutral pvint at any time. ‘A relocation of the CG toward the aircraft nose improves the longitudinal stabilty, while the manoeuvrability decreases. A ‘movement af tha CG towards the aircraft tal reduces longitudinal stability, while increasing manoeuvrability. A high longitu- inal stability requires large control surface inputs from the pilot to manoeuvre the aeroplane. ‘The following figure shows the forces acting on an aeroplane in level fight. These forces include weight, it, thrust and drag. While thrust and drag act on one axis longitudinal axis), weight and lift are offset from each other. Weight acts through the ‘centre of gravity in the direction of the geocentre. Lift acts at the so-called neutral point and counteracts weight (at least in horizontal flight. As welaht and lit do not usually act through the same point, the moment arm that occurs between the respective points of attack is either a so-called tal-heavy or nose-heavy moment, depending on the position.Contro of Gravity (CQ) Limitations 5 mage 7: Forces on an asroplane ioe! ight longitudinal sabe If the CG (mass point of attack) is located forward of the nautral point (ft point of attack), a noee-heavy moment results For level fight this nose-heavy moment obviously has to be compensated for by an opposite (tail-heavy) moment, other wise the aeroplane would permanenty “dip” ite noes. Thio oompencation io achieved by a lft acting downvvatd, which is generated by the horizontal stabiliser, ‘As the moment arm of the horizontal stabiliser - with respect to the neutral point - is significantly larger than the balance arm between the CG and neutral point, a rather small downward force is sufficient to counterbalance the nose-heavy mo- ment. Flying into turbulence (e.g. convective air mass) with this configuration (CG forward of neutral pol resus n a succession of different ettects. ‘+ The wing angle of attack increases due to the entry into the convective air mass. ‘+ More wing itt 1s proguced because ot the higher angle of attack. 1+ The incroass of wing lift alee inoreaoce the nose heavy moment. ‘+ This increased moment lowers the aeroplane nose, ‘+ Lowering of the nose wil in turn decrease the wing angle of attack. ‘+ The reduced angle of attack causes a smaller amount of wing lif. ‘+ ine aecrease in wing it then decreases the nose-heavy moment. + Busto the reduced noce heavy moment the aeroplane nose wil rise again. Bottom line: Regardless of the turbulence, the original level fight is automatically restored without the pilot having to give active control inpute, This behaviour is called “stable”. Longitudinal Inetability If, however, the CG is located behind the neulral point (see following figure), a tall-neavy moment will result. lo achieve horizontal fight inthis configuration the tal-heavy moment has to be compensated by a nose-heavy moment. This com- pensation is obtained by an upward lft of the horizontal stabilser (control stick pushed down) If fying into turhulanca (ag) canuartive air mass) in thie configuration (CG behind the noutral pein), a dfferont ouescasion of events will occur.6 Purpose of Mass and Balance Considerations = Duc to ontry into the oonvective ar mace the wing angle of attack increases. ‘+The higher wing angle of attack produces more wing lt. ‘©The tall-heavy moment is increased by the larger amount of wing lift. + The aeroplane's nose will start to rise as a resut ofthe greater tall-heavy moment. ‘© Because of the nose-up attitude the angle ot attack is rurtner increased. + Wing lft increases due to the larger anglo of attaok. ‘+The tall-neavy moment increases. Bottom line: With @ CG located behind the neutral point the explained succession of events wil, without corrective pilot action, lead to ‘an ever increasing daviation from a horizontal light attitude. This behaviour is called “unstable” and is not acceptable for ‘manually controlled aeroplanes. 11s, inerefore, necessary 10 specity a forward and eft lint of acceplable poston Uf Uke CO aluny Ure lunyiludinal exis, ‘The forward CG limit is characterised by the fact that just enough manoeuvrability is ensured with the CG at this position. ‘The more nose-heavy an aircraft gets, the more negative lift is required at the horizontal stabiliser to compensate for that moment. Limits are obviously determined by the size of the elevator The aft CG limit, in contrast, is characterised by the fact that a certain amount of positive longitudinal stability has to remain ‘even with the CG at that position. This is always ascertained as long as the CG is located forward of tne neutral point. Inat ‘means the aft CG limit is always slightly forward of the neutral point for conventional aeropianes. ‘mage 8: Forces on an aeroplane nv ight logtudnsy nstable Ifthe CG isin front of the forward mit, the following effects on stability and manoeuvrability will result: ‘+ Inoreased longitudinal stability and control forces, reduced manoeuvrability: With an increase in longitudinal stabil- ity the control forces that must be applied to achieve a change of right anttuae (prc up, pitch Gown) wil increase. ‘The aeroplane will be more dificult to manoeuvre. A higher force is required for rotation during take-off. ‘© Reduced tendency to spin: In the case of a stall the aeroplane wil lower its nose due to the centre of gravity post ‘ion being forward ofthe centre of lit and it thus can build up opood. As tho airflow re-attaches to the ailerons the aireraft will soon become controllable again. The tendency to spin is, therefore, reduced. ‘+ Increased drag: The nose-down moment caused by the CG forward of the neutral point has to be counterbalanced by negative lift at the horizontal etahilicar This nagativa lif in turn has tn be compensated by a larger amount of postive lift at the wings, thus creating a higher drag and, therefore, increased fuel consumption.Contre of Gravity (CG) Limitations T ‘Reduced endurance and range: Dua to the higher ful anneuumptinn anduranca and range ara decreased. ‘Increased speeds: The speeds V,, V,, V,, and V,, will be higher. Control Forces T Manoeuvrability | Drag f Range | Fuel Consumption fT vst wt mage ne asim on oronwar it 031 01 02.02 Importance in Regard to Performance Not only dogs the stability and manoeuvrability of an aeroplane dopend on the CC position, but s0 does its performance: Capability. If the CG is displaced toward the aeroplane's nose, the drag increases due to the compensating nose-down ‘moment. Ac a ceneoquence the fuel cenaumption wil increase and the endurance will deuivase. The highs Urey, wits ccan be compared to a higher weight, increases the speeds V,, VV, and V,. A forward CG position has @ negative impact (on performance. If the CG Is shifted towards the tail the drag decreases due to the reduced nose-down moment. As a rasult the fuel con- ‘sumption will decrease and the endurance will improve. The lower drag, which can be compared to a lower weight, will cause lower speeds V..V,..V, and V,, An aft CG nastinn le hanefcial for performance. Duo te this it can often be coon with tong-haul aeroplanes that fuel is transferred from the forward tanks to the aft tanks (tai) ofthe aeroplanes to obtain more faveurahla parfarmance charactoreties.Purpose of Mass and Balance Considerations Influence on eee CG - Front CG - Behind of forward Limit Elia mis Drag tT Drag), Fuel Consumption fT Fuel Consumption | Range] Range? Vs t Vs | wt wy nage Tle fect of CG on seeplane poroomarceTerminology 9 a1 92 nn an Loading ‘As described above, the weight of an aeroplane not only affects the structural stability of the airframe, but also its fight Performance (e.g. take-off and climb performance), aerodynamic fight characteristics (manoeuvrability) and longitudinal tabilty. Knowing this the individual acroplane weights will wy Uestibed i 1or8 Uetall 1 erable the plot NOt only tO Fecog- rise structural imitations, but also to derive the actual weight of the aeroplane at any stage of flight operation 031 0201 00 Terminology fat ng nt at Mass Terms Empty Mass (EM) Empty mass is the basic mass af an empty aaroplana and is eampnced af the following individual masses: + Aircraft structure (e.g. fuselage and landing gear) + Engine * Equipment (e.g, seats) + Unusable fuel © Non-ddrainable liquids (a 9 cil, hyrteautie fey Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM) ‘The zero fual mass corresponds to the empty mass plus the load. The individual componente of load are explained later. Gross Mass ‘The gross mass is composed of the zero fuel mass and the fuel that is on board at the time of interest. Special gross masses are the ramp, take-olt and landing masses. Ramp Mass ‘The ramp mass ie the maze of the aeroplane as jt starte to tani from ito parkid position. It corresponds te the ero fuel mass augmented by the usable fuel in the tanks at the parked position. For smaller aeroplanes (@.g. C172, PA28) the taxi {uol is often neglected because the taxi distances on small airfields are often manageable. ‘Take-Off Mass ‘The take-off mass is the total mass of the aeroplane when itis ready for take-off atthe take-off nosition. It's equal to the taxi mass less the taxi fuel, or the zero fuel mass plus the take-off fuel. Landing Mass ‘Tho aotual landing mass is the take-off mass of the acruplane less the fuel buried et 1UUle (ny fuel TP.10 (091 02 01 a2 Load Terms (Including Fuel Terms) Load Load deceribes the eum of the maseae of: Pilot Passengers Baggage us! Drainablo eit ‘The fuel on board an aircraft can be subdivided further. Block Fuel {ne block tuel contains tax! Tuet, inp Tue, extra Tuel ana ine prescribed reserve fuel an is on bow whit! Ure wire Feaves its parking position. Taxi Fuel Loading Fue! for engine start and taxiing from the parking position at the departure airfield to the take-off position on the runway. ‘Take-Off Fuel (TOF) ‘Tako off fuol le tho ueablo amount of fusl that fe on beard when beginning the take-off run. It fs eampneest if the trp fl and the reserve fuel Trip Fuel (TF) ‘Tip fuel is the fuel used in flight from the departure airfield to the destination. Recorve Fuel Reserve fusl is 30% of the trp fuel and has to be carried on VFR fights. Landing Fuel Landing fual is the take-off fuel lass the tip ful batt) Block Fuel = Landing Fuel mage 2: FoamsMace Limite 1 Extra Fuel Extra fuel is the amount of fue! that is carried in addition to the minimum required take-off fuel, This fuel amount is at the discretion ofthe pilot in command. 031 02 02 00 Mass Limits In principle we can ditlerentiate four mass terms: ‘1. Maximum masses - determined by the bearing limits of the aeroplane structure 2. Performance-imited maximum masses 3. Regulated mass- which is the actual limitation resulting from the above two masses 4. Actual mass Seen) es Perey ce) eae fete peters ‘mage 1: Overew of masses 031 02.02 01 ‘Structural Limitations ‘Structural maximum masses are publiched in the Airoraft Fight Manuel by the aircraft manufacturer forall aeroplane types. Exceeding any structural maximum mass can lead to structural damage of the aeroplane. The most important structural maximum masses are separated below. Imago 14 Oveniew of maximum strats! masses2 Loading MZFM ~ Maximum Zero Fuel Mass {he maximum zero fuel mass is the highest structurally alowable mass of an aircraft without usable fuel. Especially when flying in turbulent ai or with high g loads, strong bending forces act upon the wing roots (connection of the wing to the fu- selage). The heavier the fuselage, the greater are these forces. The highest Dending load is applied at the maximum weight of the fuselage. Therefore, the zero fuel mass is limited to prevent overstressing and damage to the aeroplane's structure. MTM - Maximum Taxi Mass ‘The maximum taxi mass is the highest structurally permissible mass at which the aeroplane is allowed to start taxiing from the parking position. It is limited to prevent overstreasing the landing goar. Tho aoroplane maee ie transferred onto tha ‘ground via the tyre surface. The MTM includes the fuel for engine start and runup, as well as the actual tax. It is also called ‘Marian StruGlUrel ramp 14s OF MRITUN RAI ss MSTOM - Max Structural Take-Off Mass The maximum structural take-off mass is the highest permissible mass at which the aeroplane may commence its take-off run, tis also referred to as maximum take-off mass (MTOM). MSLAM — Maximum Structural Landing Mace ‘The maximum structural landing mass fs the highest structurally permissible weight of an aeroplane at which itis certified ‘to land. The relevant weight is that weight at touchdown. Itis also known as maximum landing mass (MLAN). The maximum landing mass must be lower than the maximum take-off mass. For this reason an aeroplane may not be al- owed ta land immodiataly attor take-off. Hoover, if thie is raquieed, far avampla dia ta tachnical problems, the aeroplane and especially the landing gear have to be inspected for damage afer landing. 031 02 Performance Limitations When calculating the take-off and landing mazace, porformancs limitations have to be coneidered as limiting factors, in addition to structural maximum masses, to determine the maximum reguiated masses. This includes all factors that influence performance such as the density altitude (pressure altitude and temperature) of the respective aerodrome. as well as restrictions ofthe given runway lenath and soecifc climb requirements du tothe topog- raphy ofthe surrounding area fr startup, go-eround or en route over mountainous tern. Thus, an alrraft may comply with al structural init asses, but sill be unable to achieve the minimum climb performance required for a safe fight, for example because of summer temperatures at a high-altitude airfield. As a consequence, the total welght of tne aircraft wil ave to be reduced until this required fignt performance can be obtained. ‘Therefor, apart from maximum structural masses, performance lmilealen hava ta ha cancsered Hare the performance limited take-off mass (PLTOM) and the performance limited landing mass (PLLM) can be cistinguished. Performance Limited Take-Off Mass (PLTOM) The performance limited taka-off mass is the maximum possible take-off mass for performance reasons, taking Into ac- ccount all performance requirements of the take-off airfield. Performance Limited Landing Mass (PLLM) ‘The performance limited landing mass is the maximum possible landing mass for performance reasons, taking into ac count all performance requirements of the destination aerodrome,Mase Limite 3 Performance Limited LEU oe} Regulated Masses ‘The lower value of structural maximum mass and performance limited mass is then the actual limitation to be taken into avouurl fur ake-ur a lanidiny. The Getermined value Is alSO referred To aS regulated taks-or| mass (H|UM) and regulated landing mass (RLM), respectively. Structural Limited (ees Mone ane) ied Gee med Iage 16 Regulated macinum mass 031 02 02 03 Baggage Compartment Limitations ‘The fight manual of meny small aeroplanes contains mass imitations for objets tobe stored in the cargo compartment. ‘These mass limitations are due to structural limits and should naver he excasdad. In mast cases the baggage compart ‘ment also has corresponding labeling.4 Loading BAGGAGE LOADS AND LASHING [BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT [MANIAIM PERMISSIALE LOADS. Beacage Area @) =54kp Baggage Area @) = 18kp Beggege Aroa@)+@= 54 kp SE ray pi tr oguage ts ‘A baggage net is available for ashing baggage inthe baggage compartment. “The notified at six lashing points. Two rings are located on the floor immediately behind the backrests ofthe seats and one ring each can be found on both cabin ‘walls Sem above the floor onthe rear end of| ‘area(D. Two more rings are sttached to the upper rear end of baggage area @). At least four rings have to be used to secure the maximum permssible baggage load ot 54Kp. Peter otemare ono mage 17; Pemisoe baggage compartment nad Note: Adherence te the maximum meooes doce not automatically moan that the contre of gravity ie within the permie- sible range. Small changes in baggage mass can cause huge centre of gravity movements as the baggage compart- nye fo Ure patl of the ara that is farthest from the permissible ©O range, 031 02 08 00 Mass Calculations Maximum Masses for Take-Off and Landing The pilot ot an aeroplane should know by the time of departure If all limits are met in terms of allowable aeroplane mass. For this itis necessary to be able to determine the so-called allowed take-off mass (ATOM) forthe fight. It represents the Upper limit of the allowable take-off weight, considers all relevant constraints and serves as the basis forall urtner calcula~ tions. To determine the alowed take-off mass, the following maximum masses have to be found and the appropriate fuel com- ponents added! 1. Maximum zero fuel mass (MZFM) 2, Regulated take-off mass (RTOM) as the lower value of maximum structural take-off mass (MSTOM) and perfor- ‘mance limited take-ott mass (PLIUM) 9. Regulated landing macs (RLM) ae the lower value of maximum structural landing mace (MSLAM) and perfarmann= limited landing mass (PLM)Mass Caleulations 18 Example A single-engine piston aeroplane takes off from a high-elevation airfield on a hot summer day for a sightsweing flight. ts ‘maximum structural take-off and landing masses are identical at 758 kg. The performance limited take-off mass is 725 kg and the performance limited landing mass is 790 ky. The aeroplane's empty mass Is equal to 525 kg, the plot weighs 75 kg, and his sightseeing passenger weighs 80 kg. The fight requires 46 | of avgas that has a density of 0.78 kg/. What is the ‘maximum allowable mass of me passenger's photo equipment, which is the only cargo? The mass that is mast ractrintive le the performance limited take-off mace of 725 kg, ac the airoraft can never be heavior during landing than it was during take-off. Therefore, we add up all individual masses first and then subtract this value from the PLTOM. For that purpose the fuel mase has to be calculated from the valume and its density first @ 461x0.76kgM = 9588Kg TiSBBkg INis therefore possible to carry photo equipment of 8.12 kg. 031 02 03 03 Use of Standard Masses for Passengers, Baggage and Crew According to JAR-OPS 1.605 any aircraft operator is obliged to ensure that loading, mass in general and the position of the centre of gravity comply with the values specified in the aeroplane’s fight manual. The empty mass is determined by ‘weighing, but the mass of the pilot, passengers, and crew also have to be found. ‘The use of standard masses for the passengers is normally not applicable to private flying, as the aeroplane would have to possess more than 6 passenger seals ty allow this,16 Fundamentals of G Calculations ot 10 00 Fundamentals of CG Calculations oat a1 00 Definition of Centre of Gravity In physics the mass centre of gravity (CG) generally means the centre of the weight (or the average position of a number of weights) of one or more objects at which gravity is considered to attack in the direction of the geocentre. m*g © Gene of gravity = average postion of weights Uiough which yravily Is ssuned Wy aut «Weight = Mass* Gravitational force > F Tha canta of aravity is illustrated by a clecle that consists of two white and two black alternating trianales. x @ 9 Image 18 Conver graty In the case of an aeroplane the centre of gravity is the point ‘© Atwhich the asroplane's weight attacks, acting towards the geocentre ‘+ Through which vertical, longitudinal and transverse axes pass ‘+ Around which the aeroplane tums + That moveo along the fight path + Atwhich the batanee arm is equal to zero and the aeroplane isin balance For simplification, considering the aeroplane as a rigid object the centre of gravity would be the point to which a cable had to be attached to put the aeroplane into a state of equilibrium.Conditions of Equilibrium a Image 18: tuseston fer the centre of gray ‘The exact location of the centre of gravity depends on the empty mass centre of gravity, the arrangement of the load and the fuel. Thus, according to the loading and fueling status. the CG can be at different locations - it shifts Considering this itis necessary to determine the CG position dependent on aircraft and loading status and eneure that i is ‘ocated within the permissible range to attain the positive fight characteristics (e.g. longitudinal stably) of the aeroplane. 031 03.02.00 Conditions of Equilibrium Balance of Forces and Balance of Moments la person carries a weight with an arm that is extended avay from their body, this weight seems to be heavier than if the ‘nit ts kept close to tne Doay. With the arm axtancer, the weight pulls downwards with a “moment arm”. If the foree (weight of the hell object) io mult plied by the length of the moment arm (extended arm), then the so-called moment results at the shoulder joint. ‘The length of the moment arm is measured from a reference line (also called datum) and multiplied by the mass to find the moment. In principle, the position of the datum can be at any random spot, provided that all moment arms are calculated \with respect to the same datum,18 Fundamentals of CG Calculations Cereal ir anl mage a wove nse The following applies to the caloulation of moments: Mass* Moment arm ~ Moment ‘A mass alone only generates @ force, but does not cause a morent. Only in combination with a moment arm is a moment produced, This moment increases linearly with the length of the moment arm and the greatest moment is achieved at the osttion where the moment arm is at a maximum. Ini is tlustratea by tne mangle n me rigure above. “Tho lover rule can alee be underetaad considering the onorating principle af a wranch Ta lnnsan ar tighten a nuit a force has to be applied to one end of the wrench to generate a moment on the other end {the point of attack of the nut). To turn the nut a foree has to be applied to tho end of the lever. The longer the wrench at constant forea, the greater the moment acting on the nut,Conditione of Equilibrium 19 ‘nage 21: Generation ofa moment ‘A moment is composed of two dlimensions (units): © Mass (e.g. kg or Ib) = Moment arm (e.g. m or in) IF both dimensions are muttipli by one another, the reeult ie the unit of a moment (e.g. kgrn or inl). Example ‘Tho moment arm io oqual to tm ond the mage 10g. Moment arm x mass = moment -> 1m x 10kg = 10 kgm Example ‘The moment arm is equal to 10m and the mass 1g. Moment arm x mass = moment -> 10m x 1 kg = 10kgm ‘Ae wo oan €00, tho momenta from the above two examples are equa. If several individual masses and their moment arms are given the centre of gravity (CG) position can be calculated. In the centre of gravity all moments compensate for one another, which is referred to as a state of equilibrium. The centre of grav- iy itself has no moment arm and extemal forces cannot generate moments here. ‘To determine the centre of gravity position by the calculation of several moments, itis important to: ‘use consistent dimensions. If, for example, values given in kilograms and pounds have to be taken into account, they hava tn he converted ta nne eamman dimension (meaning enly Miagrame or only pound). Tho came applioe to units of length, express all moment arms with respect to the same datum. + observe the arrangement of masses left and right of the datum with the orientation of their moments, *Amass rlaht ofthe datum will cause a clockwise mament ta the right and will ha markad nasitive ‘+ Amass left ofthe datum will cause an anti-clockwise mornent tothe lft and therefore be marked negative.20 Fundamentals of CQ Calculations [Moment] [Moment] Force] ® Force) Anti-Clockwise Moment Clockwise Moment mage 22: Moments Looking at the wrench example again, the positive and negative moments can be computed and transferred to the CG Negative fe \ Positive => 1 metre Tmetre Reference Line Moment 4 mx 10 kg = 10 kgm simi 884 Pelee tt tier atts At the centre of gravity the positive and negalive moments counterbalance one another and are in a state of equilibrium, Computational Determination of the Centre of Gravity ‘Tha ealeaiaton is performed with the help of the moment equation. which states that a moment is equal tothe product of ‘moment arm () and mass (F). Depending on the location ofthe datum, those moments are positive or negative. The unit cof a moment is usually Newton metre; Newton as the unt of force and metre as the unt of length. lfinches and pounds are Used, the respective unit of the moment changes. Moment M, = (F)*()=(N) *(n) ‘Tho total momont ie ealoulatod ae tho cum of all moment. Total Moment M = M, + M, +. Total Mass F =F, +F, +. ‘The centre of gravity can then be found by dividing the sum of all moments by the sum ot all masses. CG = Total Moment/Total Mass,Basic Calculations of GG 2 a1 93.93.00 Basic Calculations of CG The calculation of GG can be wrapped up in four steps: 1. Definition ofthe datum from which moment arms are measured. 2. Determining moment arms and masses, calculating the moments using the formula: ‘mass x moment arm = moment (paying attention to their direction), 8, Adding up the moments, as wel as the masses. 4. Computing CG position according to the formula: CG = Total Moment/Total Mass For determining CG location, itis advisable to make a table and record all relevant data within it. For example, four welahts are aistrouted around a datum. Calculate their common centre of gravity ‘Animaton 1: Cataion f2 Mass anid Balance Details of Aircraft (091 04.00 00 Mass and Balance Details of Aircraft s.94.o1 an Contents of Mass and Balance Documentation 031 0401 01 Datum, Moment and Arm Legal requirements Prior to any flight it has to be ascertained (e.g. with the help of a load and trim sheet) that not only the maximum aircraft masses are observed, bul aisu le Genie of yravily, taking into account that loading is always located within the approved limits during the entre fight, “The data required for determining of the centre of gravity position is provided in the Aeroplane Flight Manual inthe form of tables or diagrams. Thoy ean he found in the fallawing chaptoes: Operating Limitations ‘© Mass Limitations + Contre of Gravity Limits © Mass and Balance Dats Mass and Balance Data and Equipment List ‘+ Mass and Balance Definitions ‘© Aeroplane Welghing Procedure (to establish the Basic Empty Mass (BEM) + Moment Tables + Centre of Gravity Limits ‘+ Mass and Balance Computation Forms = Mase and Dalance Record of Changes in Otructure Modification Moreover, the current weighing report has to be used. ‘The permitted CG range is defined along the longitudinal axis of an aeroplane by a datum line. The location of the datum Used for calculations can be chosen freely and, therefore, may be found in front of the aeroplane - within ite physical di- ‘mensions - or behind it. Usually the datum is defined forward of the aeroplane nose, mage 24° Canto ofsravtyContents of Mass and Dalance Documentation 23 Stations Load in the form of fuel, caigo, passengers arid baggage can be stored in different places within an aeroplane. If the posi- tions of the loading places are related to the datum line, they are referred to as stations (STA) or balance arm (GA). Each ‘lation fs measured and defined as its distance to the datum line where the unit of cistance (metre, centimetre, Inch etc), {88 well as the location of the datum line, is individually specified and marked for every aeroplane and unambiguously de- Scnibed in the aeroplane tight manual, (ago 28: Datum ie and stations Moment Arm ‘The distance from the datum line tothe station represents a mamant arm A farna (tha mae af the load) acts at the loading station (end of the moment arm). ‘The positions of te datum line ang stations ana, mererore, ihe corresponaing moment arms can be obtained from the oplane fight manual. This information is given as follows: (= ‘mage 26: Datum ino 031 04.01 02 CG position as distance from datum ‘The CG position of an aeroplane at its basic empty mass (BEM) Is determined by weighing and is documented in the so- called weighing report. Its contained in Uwe documentation at delivery of the aeroplane, After a renewed weighing, a cur- rent weighing report is created. Apart from the BEM this document (Aircraft Weighing Report) also states the location of the ‘verre of gravity witn weight, moment arm ana moment. An example ot a weighing report is given later.24 Mass and Balance Details of Aircraft BEM C0: 4.104 ‘BEM MOMENT: 767.99 kgm mage27: Beco Determining the GG itself Is conducted by weiahina. For this purpose the nose gear and both main gears are placed on scales and the force with which they press on the ground is measured. Since the moment arms between the datum line {and tha rasnactiva gear i known the centre of gravity can be caloulated. Image ae Lancing gear momentams ‘To attain manoswrabilty ot the aeroplane, the centre of gravity has to be located within an exactly specied range along the longitudinal axis. This range is defined by its permissible forward (FWD) and aft (AFT) limits. These values can also be found in the fight marual. The aeroplane now has to be loaded in such a way thatthe centre of gravity of the oaded aero- plane is always located within that range.Determination of Aircraft Empty Mass and CG Position by Weighing 25 age eas umes The position ot the centre of gravity is commonly given in relation to the datum, but can also refer to any other reference line. 031 04 03 00 Determination of Alrcratt Empty Mass and GG Position by Weighing Weighing of an aeroplane has to be performed by an aeronautical workshop (‘Luftfahritechnischer Betrieb"; LTB). It serves as the basis for determining the empty mass or dry operating mass and the correspanding CG position Generally the intervals for determining the empty mass and corresponding CG are specified by the appropriate manufac- lure Uf ine aeroplane (see maintenance manua), + The first aeroplane weighing procedure is carried out in the empty delivery state before commissioning. The deter- ‘mined weight is either the empty mass (EM) or the basic empty mass (BEM). * Weighing is repeated at least every four years or after major repairs or modifications, Weighing has to take place in non-cir conditioned, closed spaces and with a clean aeroplane to prevent efroneous mea ‘surements. The aeroplane is aligned with its longitudinal and transverse axes horizontal and placed on thrae points of ‘meaaurement (usually nose year left and righ ait yeas). A daturt laste fs Ure defined and the ulstarices from this pane to the scales is determined. mace 90: Aker weaning ‘The sum of the masses measured at the individual ecalee ie the mass of the empty alreraft. The cum of the moments (total moment) that resutt from the moment arms from the datum plane to the scales and the found masses is divided by the total ‘mace to give the moment arm of the aeroplane’s centre of gravity. The moment aim of Ure aeiuplane (ven uf yravily, CQ) is also related to the datum plane.26 Masss and Balance Details of Aitraft ‘The weighing rooult fo documented in tho woighing roport. The data gathored by the LTB are then stamped, dated and signed by the authorised examiner. ‘Outside of the regulated weighing all additional aeroplane fitings are carefully noted with weight anc location and the new Gis determined in a moment equation Unscheduled weighing may be necessary for bigger, not precisely calculable alterations, ori fight performance is impaired da Ibis suspected thal Ure existing nes Uae is (ally. ‘The following figure shows a typical weiahing reoort (also refered to as weiahina schedule). ‘The weighing report contains information as to how the aircraft shall be positioned for the weighing procedure. Moreover, We fing a table nto which the respectively determined masses ar lo be entered. The column “Tara” takes into account po~ tontially used auxiliary devices (such as chocks used to prevent the aeroplane from roling away). These additional masses that do not belong tothe aeroplane itself are then subtracted ftom the measured (gross) masses to find the net mass, The corresponding moment arms are also specified in the weighing schedule. In our example the determined empty weight (mass) is 520kg and the empty weight moment is 148 kgm.Determination of Aircraft Empty Mass and CG Position by Weighing DA 20 Flight Manual Weight & Balance Figure 6.1: Weighing Report Mode! 04.20 em: 12045, Registration: D- Data in aocordance with TCDS and Flight Manual Reference Datum: Lead ip Horizontal reference ine: it Level Ral ‘by.a57 mm spacer as shown below Weighing Conditions: Equipment List dated EXAM. Reason for Weighing: initial weiahina— at front including Urake fui, lubricant, coolant and unusable fue! (1.5 kg (3.31 Ibs) Suppo = Tas] awa pases {eg} (fos) _feahitos}) _| _fuail fide) _| Nose 60 kg = Wi= 60 kg Tanta —[ ar ae Ber wienright | 229 fizz Sep Wa WWW ae aa Oa) Empty Weight Moment M=Wy x Dy + W. xD, + Wax Dy 148 mig fone I sa eal lalal| eae ga csr 285 PME CO Poon a | mt eee ites acs ‘Maximum Permissible Useful Load: Maximum Weight [kg] (Ibs]) + 750 kg Emly Wei bl es) Bon Max usefl Lead eg] Ces 230 kg Dabs eerd noite Fgh Manat so pape 65 Empty Weight [kg] (bs) ] Empty- Weight-Moment [kg-n] ([indbs]) 520 kg z 148 mkg Place / Date Inspector's Stamp [ri ‘Signature Tat REN ere aes inn OT Asroved mage St. Win report Oren Katana ‘The data for the respective centre of gravity positions refer to the datum line. Ifa daviatinn frnm the empty mass standard as described in the flight manual arooo, for example due to addtional eqjuip~ ‘ment such as life jackets or dinghies, the standard values have to be adjusted accordingly.28 Determination of CG Position 001 06 00 00 Determination of CG Position at ns nt. an Methods 031 05 01 01 Arithmetic Method ‘The arithmetic method lists the individual masses and moment arms in a table and calculates the individual moments from these. Ine tables (loading plans) are contained in the Hiot's Uperating HanaDook (POM). ‘Such a table ie shown in the fallowing figura. The basic empty mass (RFM) and all ralevant moment arms are already given. rans Da) Penn} ve Cee ee Geeta oeeeur ee ae ead ere eee ee) Passengers (Centre Seats or Petre ce ue eel a) Cer eecoee dn Baggage Zone 4 (100 Ib max) Pooh eee foe eka) ite ie eee) Image 2° Loading pan, bik ‘The current individual masses are then entered into the form according to the intended loading. Thereafter, all masses are multiplied by their moment arme to determine the Individual moments. To define the centre of gravity for various masses (basic empty mass, zero fuel mass, ramp mass, take-off mass), the respective total moment is then divided by the corre- ‘sponding total mass to find the © position, ‘The completed loadina plan is shown in the followina figure.Methods 28 ea) Datum (in) in( eee Ce eu) ‘mage 8: Example ofa lasing pan (031 06 01 02 Graphic method Instead of the mutiplication of mass and moment arms, so-called “loading graphs" are often employed. The loading graph is used alternativaly to tha tahla tn dlatarmine the individual memonts. The information ean eimply Bo road from thom and ‘applied. Each line represents a certain moment arm (loading position).30 Determination of CG Position Bozces oor (MOMENT / 1000 (POUND- INCHES) nage 36 Loading Graph ‘The further aft a mass is located within the aircraft, the greater the moment for equal mass and the shallower the slope of the appropriate straight in the loading araph. That way the individual moments can be determined graphically, entered into the corresponding form and added up. Examplo Pilot and front passenger lave @ total weight of $40 Ib. A moment of 28.1 Ibin/1000 can be derived from the loading graph. If the centre passengers have a total mass of $20 Ib, the resulting moment is 98.6 Ib-in/1000. All masses and moments determined in this way are entered into the corresponding form and the total moment is computed by addition of the ind- vidual moments. The total mamant ic then divided hy tha tntal mass to calculate the position of the CG.Load and Trim Shoot 3 031 05 02.00 Load and Trim Sheet 031 05.02.01 General considerations ‘The practical preflight preparation is conducted using so-called “Load and Trim Sheets", These are forms in which all relevant masses are entered in a standardised format and then their moments are calculated. Ths is performed either ar- Ithmetically or graphically as described above, ‘Thereafter, the centre of gravity can be calculated using the already known equation that divides the total moment by the total mace. 031 05 02 02 CG Envelope for Light Aeroplanes and Helicopters ‘The next step is to confirm that the respective CG position ofall relevant masses is located within the specified limits. The rolevanl mesos ate Uiose at Which te alrcram can De alroome. Hence, the heaviest relevant mass is the take-off mass (TOM, while the ightest would be the zero fuel mass (ZFM) at which the aircraft might theoreticaly still be aitbome. The plannac tanaing mass is somewnere between the TOM and ZFM. The CG position forthe calculated landing mass is often also determined. Dedicated diagrams are used for this purpose, the so-caled “OG envelopes". The following figure shows the diagram corresponding to the above loading plan.Stages of Flight 93 032.01 00 00 General Performance Theory 032.01 02.00 ‘Stages of Flight Any flight, regardless of the type of aircraft used, can be divided into five phases, ‘The fist phase of fight is take-off and it begins when power on the runway is increased to commence the take-off run and ‘ends when the ecreen height after lito io reached. ‘At this point the aeroplane begins its climb, which lasts until the aircraft has reached and maintains its frst planned alti ‘ude. During climb the flaps and, if possible, landing gear are retracted and power is reduced from take-off power to climb power, The part of climb that is flown with take-off power is called take-off elim andl i usually limitad to 5 minutes to pre vent engine overload. Thereatter we speak of cruise climb, because the aeroplane is flown in cruise configuration. Level fight or cruise folows, The power is reduced to the desired cruise power setting. The aeroplane wil ty the majority ofits journey in this phase. Descent bogins at the point where the aeroplane leaves its cruise altitude for approach to its destination. Power is reduced to lose attitide Nanancing nn the type of aeroplane, speed may already bo reduced and landing flapo may be partially deployed. Luring approach the speed 1s gradually reduced to target speed (V,,) and the aeroplane Is configured for landing (tull ‘extension of flaps and, if possible, gear) If everything goes as planned, then the approach results in a landing. Landing begins at the screen height and ends when the aeroplane hae decelerated to a stop or loaves the runway after touchdown, Unpredictable events such as an aircraft lining up on the approach runway without oermission or a sudden wind shear ‘might make a landing impossible. In this case the aeroplane has to go around. A go-around is officially part of the ap- ‘proach, as the aeroplane will not normally go below screen height.General Performance Theory cAUISE TAKE-OFF naga 9 Th on phan of ht Unaccelerated Level Flight A body icin a state of equilibrium if apposing forces are aqual in magnitude A hady will than not he suibject to accelara- tion, meaning that direction and speed of movement will remain constant. In the case of an aeroplane we refer tot 19 steady oF unaceclerated fight. Forces in Horizontal Flight If an aeroplane moves at constant speed and does not change its altitude or heading, the lift produced by the wings acts vertically upwards and opposes the mass acting inthe direction of gravity towards the geocentre). Thrust acts in the drec- tion of travel and has the same value as the total draq opposing it.Stages of Fight 3% arr Sania cet Image 2: Fares acting en an aeroplane horisona soa igh Climb and Descent ‘The equilibrium of forces during climb or descent is slightly more complex. We will examine descent frst. ‘To descend at a constant speed the mass of the aeroplane must be compensated by a resulting force F,. The mass can be broken down into a component in the direction of the flight path, the ¢o-called downhill force, and a component at right, ‘angles to the flight path, the normal force. The downhill force tries to accelerate the aeroplane in the diraction of fight. ts vvalua ie the mace of the aoroplane times the sine of the descent angle y (gamma). It is opposed by the total drag. The ‘normal force perpendicular to this is mass timas the cosine of y and is compensated by the lft. During descent the itis los than the mass of the aeroplane. ‘Thnust is not necessary for a descent because as we have seen the crag is cnuntaractad hy tha dawmhill farce. A descent without any thrust is called a glide,General Performance Theory Horizontal o CIN 7) inl ore Image 28: Forces acting onan seaplane ape ‘Naturally, an aeroplane can also descend with a certain amount of thrust. In this case the equilibrium of forces is achieved ifthe total drag of the aeroplane is equal to the downhill force (mass times the sine of y) plus the existing thrust iim is somewhat similar to descent. The mass of the aeroplane is also broken down into the components of normal and downhill foree. In climb the normal force mass times cosine y is counteracted by the lift. The lift is less than the mass of the ‘aeroplane. In contrast to descent, during a cllmb the downhill force arid dray act in the same direction. The drag must be compensated for by part of the thrust (F.); the rest (F,,) counteracts the downhill force. Thrust has to be greater than total drag in a climb.Stages of Flight sr aiid fear) ae ow” Horizontal ‘Thrust ana power Relationship between Drag and Thrust ‘The total drag of an aeroplane is comprised of the parasite drag and the induced drag. While induced drag decreases with the square of the speed. parasite drag increases with the square of the sped. Tha rasuiing total crag ie curve that hae 2 ‘minimum ata certain speed. As we have already seen, the required thrust is only dependent on crag in unaccelerated level flight. Consequently. the required thnist alsa frrms a evra ofthis shape.38 Gerreral Performance Theory Thrust and Power Thrust Required and Power Required Because power is defined as force (here: thrust) times speed (here: TAS), a similar curve results for the power required. The relationship between power and airspeed is a cubic one (because thrust is dependent on drag that changes with the square of speed). The Dower reauired curve falls again for lower speeds and passes through the origin (because zero speed times any force is always zero). This need not be considered in our examination of power required as it happens well below stall speed a $ S ere re ate _ —» Power requiredStages of Fight ‘As we have seen, the curves of the thnist and pawer reqjired have a minimum. For epeede above thie minimum, the thruct and power required increase with increasing airspeed. The speed of the aeroplane Is stable, This means that following @ disruption (acceleration) the plane will return to its original state {epeed) without any pilot action. For speeds below the minimum drag speed, a lower airspeed requires more thrust and power. Ths is due to the Increase in induced drag at low speods. The alrepeed ie unetable. tor a disruption the aeroplane will depart further from its original state if no action is taken. This range of the curve is called the “backside of thrust/power curva”. d Instability . 4 H iH S % ee eee ay me hd en SCR) Image 1: Speed stabity40 General Performance Theory Thrust Available and Power Available For a propeller aeroplane the avallable thrust decreases with increasing airspeed, as the propeller efficiency decreases. if the respective curve is muttiplied by the airspeed the result wil be a curve with a maximum at a certain speed. See om Maat oi NETL) Seem dA) Ld Usable Speed Range ‘As we have already found out, an aeroplane has to use thrust to compeneate for drag during lovel fight. Because drag is equal to the required thrust, an aeroplane in level fight can only use the speed range for which maximum available thrust (iieariing wilt enyines al eaxinun ivau) is at least euual lo required thrust. The upper limit of the operating range cor responds to the speed at which available thrust (T,) and required thrust (T,) - meaning total drag - is identical, and is called maXiMUM SD€60 V,,. BECAUSE Power IS denned 2s thrust thnes Speed, Power avallable (P,) aud puwer reyuled ,) ae alco identical at V,. Theoretically, the same would apply to the lower speed limit. However, the corresponding value is located below stall Spee, so V, represents the lower mit of the usable speed range. Between stall speed and maximum speed the aeroplane possesses power reserves that can be used, for example, to accelerate (up to V,,) and/or to climb. If the power setting - meaning available thrust and power - is kept constant an acceleration would reduce the excess thrust ‘and power, because the increase in drag reauires more thrust and power. Therefore, a lower amount of thrust and power can be converted into climb and the climb performance decreases. Climb Speeds ‘An aircraft can achieve its steepest climb with greatest excess thrust. The speed that gives the best climb angle/gradient is, therefore, the one corresponding to the maximum of (T, ~ T,), Its called best angle of climb speed or V,.. Due to the ‘oGcrease in propeller emciency wit increasing alrspeeu, (7, ~ Ty), 210 Vy, ae found just above atall specu,Stages of Flight 41 Image 0: Tua curves fr propa aeroplanes ‘To determine the best rate of climb speed V,, we have to consider the airspeed as well It can be derived from the power curves and corresponds to the maximum excess power (P, -P,),,.. Vy is always higher than V, ‘Speeds for Rast Fnduranca and Bast Range “Tho propollor officionoy deereaacs with higher elrepeeds. This prevents the complete conversion of engine power inly far- ‘ward speed. The fuel flow of a propeller aeroplane depends on P,, and the bast endurance can be achieved with minimum Power required. A horizontal tangent to the P, curve gives the speed for best enuurance V,... Its the minimum value of Tequired power and is also the speed for maximum rate of climb V,. The best range speed (V,,,,) is not only dependent on fuel flow, but also on the airspeed that is achieved. Hence, it will always be higher than Vit is feune as a tangant thenvigh tha avigin af the P, curve. Furthermore, the tangent thraugh the origin of the P,, curve corresponds to (C,/C,)nq, OF (Cy )ays Which Is already known from the principles of fight:4a Geniral Performance Theory et eran Peter Descent ‘As we have already seen, drag fe compensated by altitude loss in power-off descent (lide). The speed with minimum aaro~ dynamic drag, therefore, gives the least altitude loss per time; meaning the minimum descent rate Von, At this Speed Une aeroplane cali slay diLurie fur te loygsl period uf time. We find It by constructing a horizontal tangent te the curve Of required power. The diagram is the same as for climb and level fight. It has merely been mirrored along the horizontal axis to clarify the descent ‘The smallest glide angle y ("garwma") ocours at the speed for (,/c,),.. At this speed, called V,,, the aeroplane loses the least altitude per distance travelled, So it can glide the farthest. We gat this speed by applying 2 tangent out of ls origin of the curve. The angle between this tangent and the horizontal axis is the descent angle y. Without pilot action an aeroplane in glide will always stablise at the angle of attack and speed f0F(¢,/C,)nc The maso of an acroplane dove net influence ite glide angle, but the epsed V,,, to achieve this glide angle will narease because more mass requires more lift. However, the sink rate will Increase because minimum drag increases with higher aeroplane mass. Altitude will lao not change the glide angle, but V, will inoreaze dus to the higher TAS for the same IAS. Also, the rate of descent will increase. In the diagram below the curve will shift along the tangent. ‘lighter aeroplane fying at the V,,, of a heavier aoroplane will have a greater angle of descent and rate of descent; the lighter aaropiane will glide less far‘and reach the ground faster than the heavier one,Effect of Aircraft Mase, Wind, Altitude, Runway Slope and Condition 43 092 01 08 00 Effect of Airoraft Mace, Wind, Altitude, Runway Slope and Condition The required thrust and also the required power of any aeroplane in any stage ot fight are dependent on a number of vari ables. We will now have a closer look at some of them. Air Density Air temperature, airfield elevation, and humiity influence air density. For the evaluation of aeroplane performance, density altihure has haen intradiiced. It is defined as the altitude in ISA Standard Ameophere where air density is exual to the current value and can be obtained by correcting pressure altitude for temperature deviation from ISA. An increase infield levation, temperature or humidity will each cause an increase in density attude. When calculating aeroplane performance from graphs in the fight manual we make use of the airfield pressure altitude, \Which takes into account field elevation and QNH. Temperature is considered separately for obtaining density altitude. Any {decrease in air density has a negative effect on engine performance and aernciynamics af the aaplane. With inereasing density altitude aeroplane take-off performance deteriorates for two reasons. 1. Foner yorwrated by the engine decreases at nigher density altitudes. Aeroplane acceleration during take-off run will, therefore, be less at lower air pressure and higher ambient temperature. Due to lower acceleration the take-off stance required (TODA) wil increase, 2. An aeroplane of a given mass requires the same lift at any etitude, so it has to fly at the same indivated airspeed (WAS), Likewise, its stall speed (VS) and the mandatory take-off and landing speeds - expressed in |AS - remain the fame with increasing altitude. Howeve, wil Ueureasiny alt Uenisty/increasing density altitude the true airspeed (TAS) corresponding to that IAS will increase. Thereby, an increase in density altitude causes a high ground speed (99) for take-off aid faring. As a resurt the take-oM! run required (IUKH) and take-off distance required (TODA) increase with decreasing air density and increasing temperature.44 General Performance Theory “The sum of these factors can provoke a limitation on the take-off mass owing to runway length (field length limited take-off sunsss, FLL TOM) ‘The same applies to take-off climb where lower air density causes a smaller climb gradient due to reduced engine perfor- mance and, thus, a greater horizontal distance travelled to reach the same height. Maximum take-off mass may possibly have to be aducad to ensure satisfaction of the minimum requirement of take-off climb gradient. Note: Per 1000 f increase In pressure altitude or 10°C increase in ambient temperature, TODR (to screen height) is increased by 10%; ie. a factor of 1.1. ‘The same goes for landing: A higher density altitude causes a higher TAS and GS because the required IAS aunng ap- proach remains unchanged. The higher true touchdown speed results in an increased landing distance required (LDR). In Conditions of low air density the minimum climb gradient in a go-around might be accomplished only with difficulty, Note: Per 1000 ft increase in pressure altitude or 10°C increase in ambient temperature, LDR (trom screen height) is increased by 5%; Le. a factor of 1.05, Wind The element of wind velocity that acts parallel to the asropiane’s direction of travel is known as the along-track wind com- ‘ponent. I this wind component acts opposite to the direction of travel, i is known as a headwind component (WO), while ‘a component in the eame direction as the direction of travel is known as a tailwind component (TWC).. ‘A headwind component reduces the take-off distance required. For the aeroplane to become airborne it needs to reach lft off airepood. Suppose there ie 2 HWVC ef 20 lds, thon oven hofare the aaraplana hagins its take-off rin the relative airspeed is already 20 kts, The distance it has to travel before It reaches lftot speed Is less than under stil air conditions, because the groundspeed at lftaffalrapeed is lower. Furthermore, once airborne the gradient of climb flight path is greater with headwind and the ground distance to reach a certain height is reduced. This is because the aeroplane has the same rate of limb, but a lower groundspeed than instill ir.Effect of Aircraft Mase, Wind, Altitude, Runway Slope and Condition 45 AAtallwind comoonent has exactly tha reverse effect an tha raquired takeoff dletance. For example, with a TWC of 10 ke, the aeroplane must accelerate to a groundspeed of 20 kts to produce an airspeed of 10 kts. Hence, the distance to reach lito airspeed wil be greater than in stl air After iftof the groundspeed will be higher than in etl air, but the rate of climb will be the same. Consequently, the gradient of cimb fight path willbe reduced. \Note: For a tailwind that is 10% of the liftoff speed, there will be a 20% inorease in take-off distance required (to ‘Screen height} ea factor of 1.2. oa ae mage 4 nec of wind component on take-off Note: The occurs in the of the climb in relation to The climb aan eee eee ee eases ground is neglected. Similarly, a headwind component will reduce the landing distance and a tailwind component will increase it. This is be- cause with a headwind, groundspeed is less than true airspeed, wheraas with a tallwind groundspaed is greater than true airspeed. Note: For a talwind that is 1096 of the landing speed there will be a 20% increase in landing distance required (from ‘screen neignt}; Le. & FACTOr OF 1.2.46 General Performance Theory Image 4: Efecto te wind componan en lanaing During cruise, however, a tallwind component (TWO) is beneficial for performance; a headwind component (HW) is dis- advantageous. Ifthe air mass moves in the same diraction as the aeroplane (TWO) the distance the aeroplane has to fly to ‘move from one point on the earth’s surface to another Is less than in zero wind conditions. The wind transports the aero- plane in the iraotion of ito dootination without the aoroplano using a eingle drop of fusl (iio a balloon). The aeraplanols range is increased in a TWC, In a HWC on the other hand, the wind moves the aeroplane away from its destination. The Uiplarive Ue asruplaie has to fly increases and it uses up more of its fuel, lange la decreased in a HWC. hon aes Co cies Leila eee) Image $8: Infuenee of wind compere on range The speed for best range in ralation ta the ground Vp, corresponds to the hest ratio of ground speed (GS) to fuel flow (FF). We obtain this ratio via a tangent to the curve of required power from the point of zero GS. In zero wind conditions this point io the peint of origin, Ina TWC it moves to the lft (to a nogative airepaed) and the tangent becomes ehallower. Vina, is lower in a TWC, the corresponding fuel flow is lower and the range increases. In a HWC the point of zero GS shifts to the ‘iyi (u a positive airspeed) and the tangent becomes steeper: Vans, fora | IWC ia higher than in ati ar fuel flow inoreacoe and range deteriorates. As we can sea from the curve the influence of a HWG on range is greater than the influence of a TW of the sare magnitude.Effect of Aircraft Mace, Wind, Altitude, Runway Slope and Condition ar Image 5: Innvnceof wind component on best range seed V._. Endurance and V,.,, are not affected by the wind component as thay represent only the time an aircraft can stay airborne ‘without regard to'the distance it travels in that time, {ne component of wind velocity acting at right angles to the aeroplane's direction of travel is known as the crosswind ‘component. A crosswind affects directional (yaw) and lateral (ol) control of the aeroplane and for this reason thera are Published crosswinc component limits for take-off and landing, which can be found in the fight manual. Aeroplane Mass ‘An increase in aeropl this, ‘The force an engine can produce is independent of aeroplane mass. Physically, force is mass times acceleration, or ac- Cceleration is force divided by mass, For the same force and a higher mass. acnslaratinn Ie ahwlauely reduced. This effect is intensified by the fact that a higher aeroplane mass on the wheels increases tyre friction on the runway, which further hinders acceleration. in addition to the reduced acceleration capability, a heavier aeroplane has to produce more lit to sup Port its mass. its stall speed and thus rotation speed is increased and It has to accelerate to a higher speed. Bott effects together result n an increase in take-off run required (TORR). After lioff a higher mass reduces climb perfor- ‘mance. The horizontal distance travelled to reach screen height increases. In other words, the take-off distance required (100H) increases. 16 mace results in an increase in the required take-off distance. There are umber of reasons for Note: For a 10% increase in mass there willbe a 2096 increase in take-off distance required (to screen height); Le. a factor of 1.2.48 General Performance Theory Ine same prnoiple appiles to lanaing. A nigher stall speed means an Wicreased reference speed fur apprvach and, there fore, a higher speed at touchdown. Additionally, a heavier aeroplane has more kinetic energy than a light aeroplane of the same spead. This kinetic energy has to be absorbed by the brakes during deceleration. The landing distance required (LDA) i, therefore, increased in 2 heavier aeroplane. Note: For @ 10% ineroase in mace there will be @ 10% increase in landing dietance required (fram screen haigh!): | factor of 1.1. Image 2: The ect of mass on aring During eruise an aeroplane has to produce a lift force equal to its mass. Therefore, it has to increase Its airspeed for a higher mass, which in turn increases drag and, thus, fuel consumption. If the speed ic to be kept constant the aeroplane requires a higher lft coefficient, which is obtained in cruise by increasing the angle of attack. However, in this case drag is flso Increased (due to larger frontal are anid fuel flow incivases, ou lal sinlurance anc range decrease at higher speeds Vera 296 Vong: This effect can be minimised by selecting an aft centre of gravity position. This will be explained later.Effect of Aircraft Mase, Wind, Altitude, Runway Slope and Condition 43 Aeroplane Configuration ‘Tho flap soting atfects the aerodynamic drag of an aeroplane and thus ils abilily lo accelerate. A low flap setting creates low drag. Therefore, an aeroplane with the same mass and under the same external conditions will acoolerate faster with a low flap setting, which reduces the distance to reach a certain speed, However: the fap setting also changes the lt a wing penvunee at given spaed. A higher flap setting will generate moro lift ata given airspeed due to the increased lft coefficient. Thus, the stall speed (and with it the unstick speed) is lower for a highar flan cating Every aeroplane has an optimum flap setting that gives the shortest take-off run, With a lower flap setting the requirement to reach a higher speed fas more effect than the improved acceleration resulting from the reduced drag, which increases the take-off run. ‘A hiigher than optimum flap setting produces much more drag and gravely hinders acceleration, so that even the lower roquired opeed ean enly be obtained on a longer distance, ‘The additional drag of even a low flap setting reduces the lft-to-draa ratio ofthe aeroplane and. therafore, redices tha rate of climb, as well as the angle of climb (climb gradient). Although the required take-off run (TORR) can be shortened with limited use of the flaps, the take-off distance required (TODR), which is maasured up ta the screen height, is not raduced significantly. A higher flap setting, even though it would further reduce stall speed, would increase drag to a point where the limo performance becomes intolerable ‘Aigner fap serung (up to tne optimum) decreases the take-off run and at the same time reduces the climb gradient, Image 8: Etecto fap sting on ako run and cmb graciont During approach the aeroplane's path can be steeper without increasing airspeed because the additional drag uses up ‘energy. The landing rll is reduce dus to better deceleration perrormance, For cruise the decrease of stall sneed is no henafit haeaua tha aaroniane ie gaing fast enough anyway. The flape are ro- tracted to achieve the minimum drag (minimum fuel burn) configuration. {In contrast to the flaps, the landing gear only produces drag without having any beneficial effect. To inorease airframe ef- ficiency during cruise, most ofthe faster aeroplanes have retractable gear.90, General Performance Theory Aeroplane Centre of Gravity To ensure the stabilty of te aeroplane, its centre of gravity (CG) wil always be In front of the lift point of attack. Thus, the mass of the aeroplane causes a moment lowering the aeroplane nose. The elevator creates a counteracting moment hold- ing the aeroplane nose horizontal. Physically a moment is the attacking force times its balance arm. Witn the construction of the aeroplane the arm of the elevator is defined, and at a given aeroplane mass the force created by that mass is also fixed, So the only variables left are the elevator force and the balance arm of the centre of gravity. the centre of gravity 's shifted forwards. its balance arm in relation to the lit point of attack increases. To prevent the aeroplane nose pitching down the elevator force has to be increased. “Animation 2: Intvanes of he conte ofaaity othe reed levator force During unaccelerated level fight the lft of an aeroplane is equivalent to its mass plus the downward force of the elevator. this force has to be increased due to @ forward contre of gravity position, mor lift ie required. Airspeed has to be increased hence, drag and required thrust increase, causing a higher fuel burn. Endurance and range are reduced. ‘A forward centre of gravity position decreases endurance and range. ‘The more the centre of gravity is brought to its forward limit, the more stick force is required for rotation during take-off and for the landing far. Runway ‘Surface ‘An aeroplane achiaves its best performance on hard, level and dry surfaces. Other surfaces such as grass hinder accel~ eration and increase the required take-off distance via a longer take-off run. On wet grass the friction increases; also, the longer the grass the higher the friction. Noto: Day grasa up to 20cm). cry ground increanen the tke tance requed (up to sree height) by 20%; Le a Wet grass (up to 20cm) on wet ground increases the take-off distance (up to screen height) by 30%; i. a factor of 13, “The lating Ustance ona yrass rurmay is alou lager, allrough its fiction ls beneficial to deceleration. | lowever, because of a higher tendency for tyre blocking or skidding on grass runways, maximum braking often cannot be applied.Effect of Aircraft Mass, Wind, Attitude, Runway Slope and Condition 81 Note: ry gras (upto 20a) on dry ground neeases the landing dstance required (rom screen eight by 15%; Le afac- Wet grass (yp to 20cm) on wet ground increases the landing stance required (rom screen height) by 35%; @ 198 Runway Slope With 2 downward runway slope the downhill force will accelerate the aircraft in addition to its engine power; hence, take-oft istance will be reducod. An upelope, on the other hand, inoreases take-off distance because the downhill fave lines acceleration. Image 4 Inuenceofrrmay slope on aka paromance Note: A 2% upslope demands a 10% increase in the take-off distance required (TODA) (up to screen height); Le. a factor of 1.1 ‘A downward runway slope increases the landing distance required since the brakes have to absorb the kinetic energy re- suiting from the aeroplane speed. as well as the eneray due to the dawnhill fore. An uinsiana ceoreaaes landing distance required, because the downhill force assists in absorbing the kinetic energy.82 _ General Performance Theory mage 5: Invncoof rans slope on anding performance ‘Note: A 2% down-slope demands a 10% increase in the landing distance required (LDR) (rom screen height); ie. a factor of 1.1. “Tho aocclorate otop diotance roquirod ie increased in an upelope, because the longer distance neared ta annelarata has a ‘greater effect than the reduction of stop distance due to Improved deceleration. Gradients Angle and Gradient ‘An angle dezeribes the difference between two directions ae part of a full cicle. It is expressed in degrees with the full circle being 360". The gradient, in contrast, describes the ratio between two distances, rectangular to one another. ts given as a dimensionless figure of as a percentage and corresponds to the tangent ofthe respective angle. Cre ae eee er ee) Image se: merensnp oowoan ange ano graGradionts 53 Climb Gradient The olimb gradient is the ratio between horizontally travelled distance within the air mass and altitude gain, tf, for example, the climb gradient of an aeroplane is 4.796 or 0.047, the aeroplane will gain 285 ft of altitude within a nautical mile (NM) (Go76r. ‘The climb angle of the aeroplane descvines the angla hatwaan the horizantal and the path af the asraplane within the air ‘mass. The climb gradient is equivalent to the tangent of the climb angle or the climb angle is equivalent to the tan" of the climh gradiant Far a olimh gradiont of 4.73% the elim angle equatoe tan 0.017, which ie about 2.7°, 9 CM Ree Se Mie tad Image 57 Relaorahipbotwean cin grasa and ai argo Climb Path Gradient In contrast tothe climb anglo, tho angle of olimb flight path describes the angle between the horizontal and the fig ally of the aeroplane in relation to the ground. itis steeper in 2 headwind and shallower in atallwind. The gradient of climb flight path isthe ratio between horizontally travelled distance over ground and altitude gain. Because Itresults as the tangent of the climb flight path angle, it also will increase in a headwind and decrease in a tallwind,94 General Performance Theory eon eters, nee Cee eee Image 5: Inunce ofa HVC 0 THC on te grad of ib Mg pth Descent Gradient ‘The descent angle of an aeroplane is the angle between the horizontal and the flight path of the aeropiane within the air ‘mass. Although the flight path of the aeroplane lies below the horizontal. the descent anale is defined as a positive value. ‘Analogous to the climb gradient, the descent gradient is the ratio between altitude loss and distance travelled within the ‘alr mass, ‘As with climb the angle of descent fight path represents the angle between horizontal and descent path of the aeroplane in ‘elation to the ground. The gradient ot descent fight path depicts the ratio between altitude loss and distance over ground. Like in cmb it will be increased in a headwind and decreased in atailwind.Gradionts _Horizontal56 Single Engine Aeroplanes 09 02 00 00 Single Engine Aeroplanes ag n9 ot 00 Definitions of Terms and Speeds Stopway and Clearway ‘A stopwav (SWY) Is an area located immediately beyond the runway. Itis a least as wide as the runway and centred about the extended runway centre lin. Ithas to be able to support the mass of the aeroplane without causing any damage to the stnicture of the aeroplane following an aborted take-off. The area has to be authorised by the appropriate airport authority (CS definitions) for deceleration of an aeroplane during an aborted take-off. Cleanway (CWY) Is defined as an area lying immediately beyond the runway and is centred on the extended runway centre line. Itie under the control of the airport authority. An aircraft may overlly the clearway below the screen height immediately alter iftott. ‘Take-Off Distance, Take-Off Run and Accelerate-Stop Distance EU-OPS 1 1.480 defines the distances relevant for take-off as follows: “Take-off run available (TORA) is the length of runway that is dectared available by the appropriate authority from one threshold to the other) and suitable for the ground run ot an aeroplane taking off. “Tako off dictance available (TODA) ie the length of the TORA plus the langth of cloarway avallahle Far ealeulating TONA the length of clearway to be used must not exceed half of the TORA, even if the actual clearway is lnnger than that. Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA) is the length of the TORA plus the length of the stopway It available). Note: Some of the above terms, such as ASDA, are not applicable to light aeroplanes, but need to be understood age 6: Defeions of relevant lances take oftDefnitions of Terme and Spoods 7 Take-Off and Landing Speeds Stall Speed V, ‘The stall apocd (V,) is the opoed below whioh the afew will seperate from the wing, the aeroplane fg rv hanger i sake flight and control will normally be lost. The stall speed depends on the flap settings used. It can be derived from the flight ‘manual for any acroplane configuration and is used fur vahuulatiny rulalit ait refererice Speeus. The Stal Speed in ianc- ing configuration, with flaps deployed and gear extended, Is called V,,. The speed V,, usually represents the stall speed in cruise configuration, with Naps and i pussible) gear retracted, Rotation Speed V,, The rotation speed (Vis the speed at which rotation is initiated during takenat ‘Speed when Reaching the Screen Height ‘The speed at S0ft above the take-off surface level is also called take-off safety speed, V. Its the safe departure speed an acruplane is supposed LU hiave reached at the screen neigh (OU). Reference Speed V, The reference speed (V..,) is the speed an aircraft is considared to have reached at the sereen height (50 above landing surface) ‘All speeus required for taxe-orT and lanaing must be greater tnan tne stall speed by a certain safety factor. Screen Height The screen height isthe height above the runway that an area is expected to have reached after take-off or during ap- proach for landing. It's assumed thatthe eirraft is notin a bank and the landing gear is extended. ‘The screen height Is aso called the barr eight. Th seman height fara (802 aeroplane ie 50 ft above the runway for tako off and landing Endurance and Range Endurance of an aeroplane isthe time it can stay eitborne in given conditions (mass and fuel on board). tis calculated by dividing the fuel on board by the average fuel ow. mass. time mass : time Specific air range (SAR) of an aeroplane is the distance that it can travel under given clroumetances. It ie defined as the air distance travelled per unit of fuel bumed. The SAR is a measure of aeroplane efficiency and depends on engine and pro- pellarairframe efficiency. Piston engine efficiency ie measured in torms of shat power put into the propeller per unit of fuel burned, Propelierairrame efficiency measures how that power is converted into distance travelled Specific range increases for a lighter aeroplane since lass drag is produced and, therefore, less power needed,58 Single Engine Aeroplanes Image 6 Conversion offline distance ravaled Using hourly rates, specific air ange (SAR) is true airspeed (TAS) divided by fuel burned per hour (Tue flow). Specific range (SR) over ground is calculated from SAR by accounting for the actual wind component, or as ground speed (48) divided by fuel consumption. ‘The range of the aeroplane with the amount of fuel it has loaded is calculated by multiplying the SR of the aeroplane with the ariwunt of fuel on Lowe. 1, -itanen ft, tance “mass /iime ~~ mass Absolute Ceiling and Service Ceiling ‘As we have seen, the power required increases with increasing altitude, while the maximum possible power output of the ‘engine decreasas. Ata certain density altituce the power available will equal the power required and climb willno longer be possible due to lack of excess power. This density altitude is called the absolute ceiling for the aeroplane. “The density altitude where a rate of climb ot 1UUtt/min can be achieved is called service celing, It's the maximum altitude that the aeroplane is certified to be operated at. ‘The calling of an aeroplane is dependent on its mass. For a higher aeroplane mass the ceiling will be reduced, because & heavier aeroplane needs more thrust and power at tho came altitude and the available power ie independent of aaraplane mass. ‘The climb speeds V, and V, both increase with increasing altitude; however, V, increases faster than V,. At the absolute calling Vis equal to Vy 032 02 02 00 Climb and Descent Performance ‘Although olimb and descent phases of fight use up only a small portion of the total fight time, the majority of fight ac- ‘eidents happen during taka-coff and landing, Thase are the phases of fight when the aeroplane is closest to the around: ‘where even a small error can cause serious consequences. Because ofthis take-off and landing should be very carefully planned, Use of Safety Factors for Take-Off and Landing In most cases the prevailing meteorological conditions, as well as the runway state, differ from those when the aircraft was tested by the manufacturer. Aithough the values stated in the fight manual were determined with great care, they should not be trusted with one's Ife. It Is of course possible to fly an approach only a single knot above stall speed, and even ‘though this would certainly shorten the landing rll, the question remains itis advisable, To increase fight safety EU-OPS. 1 therefore demands factors to be applied to distances. as wall as speeds.Climb and Descent Performance 88 Wa will havea innk at needs fist. The mast impartant epeede for take-off and landing ean be dorived from the atl oped by applying a safety factor: ‘+ The rotation speed V,, shall not be less than 1.1 times the stall speed Vin take-off configuration. + Tho take-off safety speed V, must not be less than 1.2 times the stall soeed V, in take-off configuration, ‘+The reference landing sped V,,, shall he 18 timas the stall ened in the landing configuration Vat maximum crtitied landing mass. Now we wi iave a 100K ar alstances: ‘The take-off distance (TOD) is the horizontal distance from brake release to the pint where the aeroplane reaches the screen height of 50 ft above the take-off surface with the take-off safety speed, ‘Take-off run available (TOKA) is the runway length. “Take-off distance available (TODAY ie the length of runway plue longth of oloarway. ‘Take-off distance required (TODA) is calculated from a table or graph in the flight manual taking into aecount weather con- tions and aircraft mass. A heavier aeroplane will have a longer TODR, ‘TODR must never exceed TODA. ‘The landing distance (LD) is measured from the point at which the aircraft is 60 ft above the landing surface unti it has stopped. Landing dictanoe available (LDA) is the length of runway which is declared available Ly Ure aupruptiate aullorlty aid Sul ‘ble for an aeroplane that is landing. LDA is normally equal to TORA. Landing distance required (LDA) is calculated from a table or graph in the fight manual taking into account weather cond tions and aeroplane mass. A higher aeroplane mass will increase LDR. Ifthe landing runway is expected ta be wat and the flight manual does not contain data for wet conditions, the LDR for a dry runway has to be increased by 15%. LOR must not exceed LDA. ‘The around roll distance. in contrast to landing distanca, means tha langth af the landing roll only. It ie the distance from the point where the aeroplane’s whea's touch the ground unti it comes to a complete stop. The term ground roll distance ig alka samatimes mictaken tn he a eynanym for TORA.. Maximum allowed take-off mass (MALTOM): Take-off mass (TOM) is limited by field length (eld length limited TOM; FLL TOM) and structural considerations (maximum take-off mass; MTOM). Thre is no minum acceptable climb gradient required. The maximum allowed TOM (MALTOM) is the lowest of these masses, Maximum allowed landing mass (MALM): As for the take-off mass, landing mass is limited by field length (eld length lim- ited landing maze; FLL LM) and structural limits (maximum lending mass, MLM), The maximum allowed landing mass is the lowest of these. 032 02 02 02 Use of Aeroplane Performance Data Maximum or Minimum Wind Component for Take-Off ‘The flight manual provides a simple graph that can be used to find the head/tall and crosswind components when given the wind velocity and runway direction. Nota that the wind valocity givan for take-off (or landing) and the runway direc tion are in magnetic degrees. Also note that the runway figure indicates the direction in which the runway points, whereas the wind direction talls us whare the wind is coming from. So ifthe wind and runway directions are the same, the wind is ‘moving in the opposite direction to the aeroplane and we will have a headwind component. For example, when planning a {ako-off on runway 00 (000%) with a wind 000°/20 kts, the aeroplane is taking off to the east ard Ure witnd is waning tri he east. We wil plan for a 20 kts headwind component.60 Single Engine Aeroplanes Dorn] eta} 19° 29 30° 40° FLIGHT DIRECTION 20 m° 10 HEADWIND COMPONENT. ‘hax demenetnted cosswind 100" 10 110° 370" veo" foo" 140" 90° ‘CROSSWIND COMPONENT tks] 6 70 6 2b é 1 a o 2m mage 62 Heda en eesvids In the graph we can see that a wind at 80° to the runway with speed 11 kts wil result ina headiwind component of about Oks and a crosswind component of about 6 ks. [As Uae uni (ATO) may propane the use uf a runway that would result in an unaeceptable tall or erosowind oomponcnt for your aeroplane, As piot-n-command you must be aware of your aeroplane's limitations and you should inform ATC of inese crcumstances. Note nat ine maximum safe crosswind Comporeit far tis eatuplais 1Shis TWh, dotted tne in the graph). Tho maximum parmissible TWC i also stated inthe ght manual. Under certain adverse conditions (high aerodrome, short fied, hot day, or heavy aeroplane) it can happen that a take-off is only possible above a certain headwind component. Such a component could be calculated from the graph for the take-off distance required, the use of which is explained later. Deter tion of Take-Off Distance and Take-Off Run ‘The graph below allows us to determine the take-off distance required at a known weight under the prevailing conditions. Itis important that the graph is correctly utilised. Use of this and other graphs is a skil that will also be practised in class. Conditions (given in the manual): + Maximum take-off powerClimb and Descent Performance ‘© Wing flans in take-off position ‘+ Liftoff speed 87 KIAS and speed for climb over obstacle 60 KIAS. + Level runway, paved Example We take off at Essen/Mulheim Airfield; Aerodrome elevation 421 ft This is Essen/muineim information Met ‘Time 1050;.. Runway in Use 07; | Wind 180 degrees, 10 knots; 12 Dewpoint 7; ONH 1008 hPa: INOSIG:...Information C. nage st ans, ‘This means a pressure altitude of 750ft. any auaNtass eed Penal ‘mage 42 Calon of pressure ate et In this case it does not make a difference whether pressure altitude is calculated using 30 fUnPa or 27 fUhPa as such an ‘exact entry Is impossible in the graph used. 1. We enter in the field on the left the airport temperature and pressure altitude, Pressure alttude Is the helaht of the airport measured from the 1,013hPa datum. at 730g represents the aeroplane's maximum take-off mass. The neat step is tu euler Ure aciuplare Lake 15 (expression! weigh Is GUL OF Use), IN Our case 685K. The NN 3. Now we consider the along-track wind component. it can be calculated from the wind direction and speed and the runway heading. One can use either a graph given in the fight manual, an aviation ealeulator or the formula (wind ‘speed x cos wind angle). We have a headwind component of 5 kts. Note that the tailwind lines (dashed lines) end at lite. Thi le the maximum allowod TWC for take off.