Problem session 7 Math 16200/33 and 41, Winter 2021

Problem session 7.

Problem Find the taylor polynomial of xn at point a. use this computation to

give a new proof of the identity
n  
n
X n k n−k
(a + b) = a b .
k
k=0

Problem In this problem, we will study the properties of a family of numbers

called Bernoulli numbers.
(1) The simplest way to define Bernoulli numbers is using the Taylor
expansion of the function
( x
x
, x 6= 0
f (x) = e −1
1, x=0
We define the Bernoulli numbers Bn by
n
X Bk
f (x) = xk + Rn,0 (x).
k!
k=0

Compute B0 , B1 , B2 .
(2) Show that B2n+1 are 0 when n ≥ 1. So the interesting Bernoulli numbers
are those with even indexes.
(3) Use the relation
x
f (x) · =1
−1 ex
to find an induction formula for Bi ’s. In the induction formula you may
find binomial numbers.
Thereare much information which we can obtain from the induction
formula. For example, all the Bernoulli numbers are rational numbers.
(4) Use Bernoulli numbers to express the Taylor polynomial of the function
x ex/2 + e−x/2
coth = x/2 .
2 e − e−x/2

In history, the first motivation to study Bernoulli numbers is to

compute the following summation:
1m + 2m + · · · + (n − 1)m .
Many mathematicians in different regions of the world have computed
this summation. It believed that Bernoulli was the first one who realized
Problem session 7 Math 16200/33 and 41, Winter 2021

the following identity:

m  
m m m 1 X m+1
1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 1) = Bk nm−k+1 .
m+1 k
k=0

(5) Verify this identity for m = 0, m = 1 and m = 2.

(6) Use mathematical induction to prove this identity.
This identity also has relation to another famous theorem called
Euler–Maclaurin formula. You could find the statement and
application of this formula on wikipedia.