Fragmentation

Process of dividing the data into sub tables or relation so that data can be
stored at different places
For large organizations, increased pressure of users • Localization of Data and Local Autonomy •
Increased time/NW cost of centralized access • Increased chances of failure • Increased failure damage
• Distribution of data allows fast access of data due to localization • Parallel execution of queries The
advantages of fragmentation are: Increases the level of concurrency System throughput The
disadvantages of fragmentation are: Difficult to manage in case of non-exclusive Fragmentation
(replication) Maintenance of Integrity constraints

Replication Storing a separate copy of database at each of two or three sites

Advantages – Reliability. – Fast response. – May avoid complicated distributed transaction integrity
routines (if replicated data is refreshed at scheduled intervals.) – De-couples nodes (transactions
proceed even if some nodes are down.) – Reduced network traffic at prime time (if updates can be
delayed.)

Disadvantages – Additional requirements for storage space. – Additional time for update operations. –
Complexity and cost of updating.

Distributed computing
Distributed computing is the method of making multiple computers work together to solve
a common problem.

Inter-Operator Parallelism Two forms of Inter-operator parallelism can be exploited.

• Pipeline parallelism

• Independent parallelism

Pipeline parallelism: several operators with a producer-consumer link are executed in parallel.
Pipelining helps in improving the efficiency of the query-evaluation by decreasing the production
of a number of temporary files.

Independent parallelism: is achieved when there in no dependency between the operators executed in
paralle

Parallel processing
Round robin Round-robin scheduling algorithm is a kind of preemptive First come, First
Serve CPU Scheduling algorithm where each process in the ready state gets the CPU for
a fixed time in a cyclic way (turn by turn)

Query decomposition is the first phase of query processing. The primary targets of query
decomposition are to transform a high-level query into a relational algebra query and to check
that the query is syntactically and semantically correct.

Query optimization is the overall process of choosing the most efficient means of
executing a SQL statement.

Clustering algorithms

Normalization
Step by step process to produce efficient and smart database design to easily maintain the consistency
of DB

Query optimization,

2 phase locking,
Basic idea is that data items accessed by conflicting operations are accessed by one operation at a time •
Data Items locked by Lock Manager • Two major types of locks, • read lock • write lock • Transaction
need to apply lock first.

The locking algorithm will not unfortunately properly synchronize transaction executions. This is because
to generate serializable schedules, the locking and releasing operations of transactions also need to be
coordinated.

A transaction must not attain a lock once it releases a lock or, it should not release any lock until it is
sure it won’t need any lock.

2PL algorithm executes transactions in two phases: • Growing phase • Shrinking phase Each transaction
has a growing phase where it obtains locks and accesses data items, and shrinking phase, during which it
releases lock as shown in figure 1. The lock point determines end of growing phase and start of shrinking
phase. Any transaction that follows 2-PL is serializable.

Timestamp ordering

Concurrency control algorithm

It is simple to order the execution of the transactions operations according to their timestamps.
A scheduler that enforces the TO rule checks each new operation against conflicting operations that
have already been scheduled. If a new operation is younger ones then the operation is accepted
otherwise it is rejected. A TO scheduler is guaranteed to generate Virtual University Pakistan 49 serial
order. However, needs to know all operations in advance.

Defragmentation,

Distributed computing,

Properties of fragmentation,

Telecommunication cost,

Advantages of distributed database

3rd Normal Form

Primary key

Foriegn key

Horizontal Fragmentation ka benifit for DBMS

Normalization

How many normal forms

Heterogeneous database

Replication

Semi-join

-how many types of fragmentation are there?

-what is horizontal fragmentation?

-how many OSI layers? Name them.

-what is MAN?

-difference b/w MAN & WAN

-what types of DDBMS architectures are there?

-give examples of DDBMS.

My cs712 Viva questions are

1) what is qurey optimization

2)disadvantages of fragmention

3)Tcp\ip layers and their name