INDU INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

SENIOR SECONDARY
Erode - 638 107
2023 – 2024
PHYSICS
************
PROJECT REPORT
************
Submitted by
SHARVESH.S ,
XII-LOTUS

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 CERTIFICATE

This to certify that the project work entitle “Current

Electricity” is the bonafide record of work done
SHARVESH.S,

Roll No:

in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of

the GRADE XII during the academic year 2023-2024.

Vivavoice Held on:

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

PRINCIPAL

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A work will become complete and best when it is

performed with the help of other skilled persons. I am very
much glad to take this opportunity to express my gratitude for
all of them. I would like to convey my heartful thanks to our
principal Mr. RAVULA VARA PRAVEEN.

I express my immense gratitude to my teacher

Mrs.S.PADMAPRIYA, Physics faculty, who always gave
valuable suggestions and guidance for completion of my
project.She helped me to understand and remember important
details of the project. My project has been a success because of
her guidance.

I am especially indented and I am also beholden to my

friends. Finally I take great honour in thanking my family
members for their moral support and encouragement.

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 CONTENT
NAME : SHARVESH.S, CLASS : XII-LOTUS
S.No Particulars Page.No
01. INTRODUCTION 5
02. CURRENT ELECTRICITY 6
03. ELECTRIC CURRENT IN 7
CONDUCTORS
04. IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A 8
CONDUCTOR
05. OHM’S LAW 9
06. DRIFT OF ELECTRONS AND THE ORIGIN OF 11
RESISTIVITY
07. MOBILITY 12
08. LIMITATIONS OF OHMS LAW 12
09. ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER. 13
10. CELLS, EMF, INTERNAL RESISTANCE 14
11. KIRCHHOFF’S RULES 17
12. KIRCHCHOFF’S FIRST LAW OR KIRCHCHOFF’S 18
CURRENT LAW
13. KIRCHCHOFF’S SECOND LAW OR KIRCHCHOFF’S 19
VOLTAGE LAW
14. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 20
15. COMPONENTS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE. 21
16. CIRCUIRT CONSTRUCTION. 22
17. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 23
18. APPLICATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 24
19. LIMITATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 24
20. PRECAUTIONS. 25
21. CONCLUSION 25
22. BIBLIOGRAPHY 26

DATE OF SUBMISSION SIGNATURE

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 INTRODUCTION

With the variety of context, ‘Current Electricity’

this word may refer to “electric charge”, “electric
power” or the “electric energy’. We are generating
the current electricity by the following methods.
1. By moving a metal wire through the magnetic
field. It generates both alternating current and
direct current.
2. By a battery through chemical reactions
happening inside it. It generates only a direct
current.
Atoms are having three types of particles
protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons and
Neutrons exist within the centre of the atom i.e.
Nucleus.
Whereas, the electrons move around the
nucleus. These electrons are also having some
energy. Neutrons are having neutral charge and
protons are positively charged.
Electrons are negatively charged, Electrons
circles the nucleus as opposite charges protons and
electrons attract each other.
The electrons move from one atom to the other
atom. Thus electricity is produced when protons
and electrons interact with each other by further
movement.

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 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric current the movement of electrons through a

conductor wire. Electric current refers to the number of
charges which move through the wire per second.

Also,we may say that the electric current is the flow of

electrons through a complete electric circuit of
conductors. Current electricity is used to power everything
from our house lights to, trains, industries etc.

Therefore, electricity is one of the forms of energy. It

is the flow of electrons whereas the current is the
combination of flow of charge per unit time. Current
electricity 1s defined as the flow of electrons from one
section of the circuit to another.
I=q/t

Let DQ be the net charge flowing across a cross-section

of a conductor during the time interval ∆t [i.e., between
times t and (t + ∆t)]. Then, the current at time t across the
cross-section of the conductor is defined as the value of
the ratio of ∆Q to ∆t in the limit of ∆t tending to zero,
∆𝑄
I(t) = lim
∆𝑡

I(t)= lim∆Q/∆t . In SI unit, the unit of current is ampere.

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 ELECTRIC CURRENT IN
CONDUCTORS

A potential difference across any material, a flow of

electrons (charges) takes place. The rate of flow of this
electron is called current.

If the material on which the potential difference is

applied is a conductor, then we say this current to be the
current in the conductor. If Q amount of charge flows
through any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then-
the current is defined as the rate of the flow of electrons,
i.e I=Q/t

The SI unit of the current is ampere (A). The current is

mostly divided into two groups, alternating current and
direct current, depending on the electric charge flow. In
direct current, the charges flow through unidirectional
while the charges flow in both directions in alternating
current.

Since the current has the direction, so technically, it

should be a vector quantity because it has both the
direction and value but in reality, it is a scalar quantity.

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 IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT IN A CONDUCTOR

The electric current in a conductor is important

because of multiple reasons:
1. It is the means by which electronic devices and
appliances are powered.

2. Without electric current, we would be unable to

use many of the devices that we take for granted
in our everyday lives.

3. From computers and smartphones to televisions

and refrigerators, all of these appliances require
an electrical current in order to function.

4. By understanding how electricity works, you can

better utilize these devices and make your life a
little bit easier.

5. Electricity is also responsible for powering many

industrial applications. Factories use large motors
to run their machinery, and these motors require
a steady supply of electrical current.

6. If there was no electric current in conductors, our

world would look very different indeed.

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 OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric

current and potential difference.
The current that flows through most conductors is
directly proportional to the voltage applied to it.
George Simon Ohm, a German physicist was the first
to verify Ohm’s law,experimentally
V=IR In the equation, the constant of proportionality,
R, is called Resistance and has unit of ohm, with the
symbol Ω.
The same formula can be rewritten in order to
calculate the current and resistance respectively as
follows:
𝑉 𝑉
I= and R= .
𝑅 𝐼

Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature

and the other physical factors remain constant.
For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance
depends on the length and the area of cross-section ‘A’.

It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.

At a given temperature the resistance,

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 1
R=𝜌 =
𝐴

Where 𝜌 is the specific resistance or resistivity and

characteristic of the material of wire.

Using the last equation,

V=I×R=I𝜌l/A.
I/A is called the current density and is denoted by j.

The SI unit of current density is A/m2. So,

EI=j𝜌I
This can be written as E=j p=𝜌 or j =𝜎E, where 𝜎 is l/𝜌
is conductivity. The specific resistance or resistivity of the
material of the wire is,
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
1
If ‘r’ is the radius of the wire, then the cross-sectional
area, A = πr2. Then the specific resistance or resistivity of
the material of the wire is,
𝜋𝑟 2
𝜌=
1
The electric current flowing per unit area of cross-
section of conductor is called current density.
Current density (J)=1/A
Its SI unit is ampere metre” and dimensional formula
is[AT-2].

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 DRIFT OF ELECTRONS AND THE
ORIGIN OF RESISTIVITY
Thus, the drift of electrons and the origin of Resistivity
can be considered that the drift force is the Energy that
drives the electrons through the conductor.
The point that stops the drift force is resistivity.
However, the drift of electrons and the origin of resistivity
start when external electrical power 1s applied to the
conductor.
Due to this force, the electrons become negatively
charged and thus get attracted toward the positive charge.
The atoms further take the positive direction when the
electrons go away.
Thus a coalition among both the positive and negative
is formed. But as the mass of the positive ions remains
high, this does not move, and the electrons perform all the
movements.
It is already clear that the free electrons move
randomly from one atom to another with the help of
thermal velocity.
However, when the entire motion is unknown, the
momentum automatically turns to 0. It is the situation
when no electric field is provided.
Furthermore, a coalition among the electrons and the
atoms provides the velocity, which on average, is defined
as drift velocity.
For instance, let’s assume a conductor with V and L,
where V denotes the potential difference, and L denotes
the length of the conductor.

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 So, E= V/l,
Here, the external electric field provides an additional
‘influence that affects each electron’s velocity. The force
of each electron will thus be F= -eE, and F= ma.
where m is mass, and a represents acceleration. Thus
ma= -Ee

MOBILITY
Mobility µ is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity
per unit electric field.
u=|vd|/E
Its SI unit is m 2/VS

LIMITATIONS OF OHMS LAW

Although Ohm’s law has been found valid over a large
class of materials, there do exist materials and devices
used in electric circuits where the proportionality of V and
I does not hold. The deviations broadly are one or more of
the following types:
1. V ceases to be proportional to I.
2. The relation between V and I depends on the sign of
V. In other words, if I is the current for a certain V, then
reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude
fixed, does not produce a current of the same
magnitude as I| in the opposite direction.

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 3. The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there
is more than one value of V for the same current I. A
material exhibiting such behaviour is Gas which are
actually widely used in electronic

ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER.

Electrical energy is the energy derived from electric

potential energy or kinetic energy of the charged particles.
In general, it is referred to as the energy that has been
converted from electric potential energy.
We can define electrical energy as the energy generated
by the movement of electrons from one point to another.
The movement of charged particles along/through a
medium (say wire) constitute current or electricity.
A cell has two terminals — a negative and a positive
terminal. The negative terminal has the excess of electrons
whereas the positive terminal has a deficiency of electrons.
Let us take the positive terminal as A and the electrical
potential at A is given by V(A).
Similarly, the negative terminal is B and the electrical
potential at B is given by V(B). Electric current flows from
A to B, and thus V(A)>V(B). The potential difference
between A and B is given by V = V(A)— V(B) > 0 The basic
unit of electrical energy is the joule or watt-second.
The commercial unit of electrical energy 1s the
kilowatt-hour (kWh).Electric power is the rate at which
work is done or energy is transformed in an electrical
circuit.

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 Here electrical energy can be either kinetic energy or
potential energy. In most of the cases, potential energy is
considered, which is the energy stored due to the relative
positions of charged particles or electric fields. Electrical
power is denoted by P and measured using Watt.

CELLS, EMF, INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Cells, EMF, Internal Resistance are the components

which complete the circuit and help the flow of electricity
within the circuit. Cells, emf and internal resistance are
inter-related to one another. Batteries i.e Cells posses
internal resistance and potential difference 1.e. voltage.
CELLS
An “electric power supply” is also an Electric cell. Cells
generate electricity and also derives chemical reactions.
One or more electrochemical cells are batteries. Every
cell has two terminals namely:
 Anode: Anode is the terminal from where the
current flows in from out i.e. it provides an
incoming channel for the current to enter the
circuit or the device.
 Cathode: Cathode is the terminal from where the
current flows out i.e. it provides an outgoing
current flow from the circuit or the device.

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EMF
EMF is Electromotive Force, which is measured in
coulombs of charge. It is pressure developed or an electric
intensity from a electrical energy or a source.
It is a device which converts any form of energy into
electrical energy which is then measured with coulombs of
charge.
EMF i.e Electro Motive Force is denoted by,
𝜀 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
Where I is the current in amperes; R is the resistance
of load in the circuit in ohms; r is the internal resistance
in ohm.
𝜀 = 𝐸/𝑄
Where E is the energy in joule; Q is the charge in
coulomb.

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INTERNAL RESISTANCE

When there is current present in the device or the

electrical circuit and there’s a voltage drop in source
voltage or source battery is internal resistance.
It is caused due to electrolytic material in batteries or
other voltage sources. Internal Resistance (r)=(𝜀-V)/I
Where 𝜀 is the emf of the device; V is the potential
difference between the device; I is the current in the
device.
Internal Resistance is the result of the resistance in the
battery or the accumulation in the battery. The equation
used to derive this is as follows:
V=(𝜀-Ir)

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

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KIRCHOFF'S RULES:

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff,

developed a pair of laws that deal with the Conservation
of current and energy within electrical circuits.
These two laws are commonly known as Kirchhoff’s
Voltage and Current Law. These laws help calculate the
electrical resistance of a complex network or impedance in
the case of AC and the Current flow network streams.

 Kirchhoff's Current Law goes by several names:

Kirchhoff’s First Law and Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule.
According to the Junction rule, the total of the current
in a junction is equal to the sum of currents outside
the junction in a circuit.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law goes by several names:

Kirchhoff’s Second Law and Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule.

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 According to the loop rule, the sum of the voltages
around the closed loop is equal.

KIRCHCHOFF’S FIRST LAW OR

KIRCHCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW.

The total current entering a junction or a node is equal

to the charge leaving the node as no charge Is lost.

In the above figure, the currents I1, I2 and I3 entering the

node is considered positive, likewise, the currents I4 and I5
exiting the nodes is considered negative in values.
This can be expressed in the form of an equation:
I1+I2+I3-I4-I5=0.
A node refers to a junction connecting two or more
current-carrying routes like cables and other components.
Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied to analyse
parallel circuits.

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 KIRCHCHOFF’S SECOND LAW OR
KIRCHCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW.

The voltage around a loop equals the sum of every

voltage drop in the same loop for any closed network and
equals zero.

When you begin at any point of the loop and continue

in the same direction, note the voltage drops in all the
negative or positive directions and returns to the same
point.
It is essential to maintain the direction either counter-
clockwise or clockwise; otherwise, the final voltage value
will not be zero. The voltage law can also be applied in
analysing circuits in series.

When either AC circuits or DC circuits are analysed

based on Kirchhoff’s circuit laws, you need to be clear with
all the terminologies and definitions that describe the
circuit components like paths, nodes, meshes, and loops.

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 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance

bridge calculates the unknown resistance by balancing two
legs of the bridge circuit.
One leg includes the component of unknown
resistance. The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two
known resistors, one unknown resistor and one variable
resistor connected in the form of a bridge.
This bridge is very reliable as it gives accurate
measurements. The Wheatstone bridge works on the
principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their
resistances is equal, and no current flows through the
circuit.
Under normal conditions, the bridge is in an
unbalanced condition where current flows through the
galvanometer.
The bridge is said to be balanced when no current
flows through the galvanometer. This condition can be
achieved by adjusting the known resistance and variable
resistance.

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 Samuel Hunter Christie invented the Wheatstone
bridge in the year 1833, which became popular with the
works of Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843.
An electrical circuit that is set up to measure the
unknown value of a resistor and creates a balance between
the two leas of the bridge circuit is called a Wheatstone
Bridge.
Three resistances are known (one is
variable/adjustable) and the fourth one has to be found
out.
Compared to the other measuring instruments such
as voltage divider, the concept of Wheatstone bridge is
widely used because of the accuracy in its measurement of
resistance.

COMPONENTS OF
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE.

 A resistor with an unknown resistance value.

 Two resistors (with known resistance value).
 Variable Resistor (a device like Rheostat or Preset could
work).
 Voltage/DC source.
 Galvanometer (or any device which indicates the voltage
difference or the flow of current).
 Connecting Wires.
 Circuit Construction.
 Construction of Wheatstone Bridge .

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 CIRCUIRT
CONSTRUCTION.

A Wheatstone bridge is a bridge-type structure having

four resistors, three of known and one of unknown value.
Here R1, R2, and R3 have known values among which R2
is adjustable and finally Rx is the value to be measured.
Along with these resistances, a galvanometer(Vg) is
there between B & D, and a DC supply between A&C.

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE
OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE.

Now according to the Wheatstone bridge principle if

the ratio of the two resistances (R1/R2) on one edge is
equal to the ratio of the two resistances (R3/Rx) on another
edge then there will be no flow of current between the
midpoints of the two edges of resistance.
This condition of the bridge is known as the Balanced
Bridge Condition. In the Balanced Bridge condition, the
current through the galvanometer is zero and also the
voltage difference between the points B & D becomes zero,
i.e, at both points voltage level would be the same.
Writing equations for the balanced bridge condition
would look like: R1/R2 = R3/Rx (or) R1×Rx =R2×R3 Thus,
Rx=R3×(R2/R1).
This detection of zero current in galvanometer is of
high precision, thus depending on the level of precision of
known values, the unknown resistance can be found with
the highest rate of accuracy and precision.
In the Wheatstone bridge experiment, one resistor
should always be variable in order to obtain a balanced
condition. The Circuit performs at its best when the
regulated voltage source is used, instead of the current
with repelling characteristics.

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 APPLICATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE.

 Used in Light detecting devices.

 For measuring the changes in the pressure.
 For measuring the changes in the Strain of the circuit.
 Used for the Sensing of mechanical and electrical
quantities.
 Also, photo resistive device use this circuit.
 Thermometers also use Whetstone bridges for the
temperature measurements which need to be accurate.
 Values like capacitance, inductance, impedance, etc..
can be measured with some variations in the
Wheatstone bridge circuit.

LIMITATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE.

Along with all these advantages, there are a few

limitations of the Wheatstone bridge as well, such as:
 Readings may be inaccurate under unbalanced
conditions.

 The range of measured resistance varies from a few

ohms to mega ohms.

 Susceptibility for high dc current is not there.

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 PRECAUTIONS.
 Clean the connecting wires properly.
 Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire.
 All connections should be neat and tight.

CONCLUSION
In this article we study about the electric current and
different aspect of electric current. Electric current is
defined as charge flow in per unit time. Electric current are
of two types such that alternative current and direct
current.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/leph103.pdf
www.chat.openai.com
www.google.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.docfoc.com
www.quora.com
www.ask.learncbse.in
www.bing.com
www.topprerslearning.com
www.meritnation.com

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