Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

Concept: FDMA divides the available frequency spectrum into multiple non-overlapping frequency
channels. Each user or device is allocated a unique channel for communication.

Example: FM radio stations. Different radio stations transmit on distinct frequency channels. Your car
radio can tune to one station at a time, representing FDMA.

Pros: Efficient for continuous data streams, as each user gets a dedicated channel. Well-suited for
voice communication.

Cons: Inefficient for bursty or sporadic data transmission, as unused channel capacity cannot be
shared by others.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

Concept: TDMA divides the available time into fixed slots. Each user gets access to the channel
during their assigned time slot, and these slots repeat in a cycle.

Example: Mobile phone networks. In a TDMA system, each user's call is assigned a specific time slot
in a recurring pattern, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency.

Pros: Efficient for bursty data and voice traffic. Reduces interference and enables multiple users to
share the same frequency.

Cons: Less suitable for continuous data streams, and synchronization is critical to ensure proper
timing.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

Concept: CDMA assigns a unique code to each user or device. All users share the same frequency
spectrum simultaneously, but their data is spread across the spectrum using their unique code.

Example: 3G and 4G mobile networks. In CDMA systems, all users transmit and receive on the same
frequency, but their data is encoded and decoded using distinct codes.

Pros: Efficient use of the frequency spectrum, high capacity, and robust against interference.

Cons: Complex signal processing and potential for "near-far" interference issues when some users
are much closer to the base station than others.

Throughput(s):

S=G*e^(-2G)

Tt=FrameSize(bits)/channel BW(bits/sec)
Certainly, here's a bit more detail on each service provided by the Data Link
Layer
Framing: Framing involves breaking data into frames, which are like small data packets. It adds a
header to the beginning and sometimes a trailer to the end of each frame. This helps the receiver
understand where one frame ends and the next begins, making it easier to process and reassemble
data.

Addressing: The Data Link Layer assigns hardware addresses, such as MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses, to devices on a local network. These addresses are used to identify the source and
destination of frames within the local network, ensuring that data reaches the intended recipient.

Error Detection and Correction: To maintain data integrity, error detection mechanisms like
checksums or CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) are employed. If errors are detected, some Data Link
Layer protocols can correct them, while others request retransmission of corrupted frames.

Flow Control: Flow control manages the rate at which data is sent from sender to receiver. It
prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver with too much data, ensuring that data is
processed at a manageable pace. This is crucial in scenarios where the sender is much faster than the
receiver.

Access Control: In shared network segments where multiple devices can transmit data, the Data Link
Layer implements access control mechanisms to regulate who gets to transmit when. Methods like
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) and CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) help prevent data collisions, ensuring efficient data
transmission.

Protocols:
Simple, Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, and Selective-Repeater

Stop-and-Wait protocol:

 The sender sends one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the
next frame.
 It uses CRC for error detection and correction.
 If a frame is corrupted or lost, the sender resends it when a timer expires.
 The sender transitions between "ready" and "blocking" states: "ready" for waiting for a
packet from the network layer and "blocking" for handling timeouts and acknowledgments.
 The receiver is always in the "ready" state and sends acknowledgments for error-free frames.
 Corrupted frames and acknowledgments are discarded.

Simple Protocol:
 The sender immediately sends frames upon receiving a request from the network layer.
 The receiver delivers incoming frames to the network layer as soon as they arrive.
 There is no flow control or error control; frames are sent without consideration of the
receiver's state or possible errors.
  The sender and receiver are both in a single "ready" state.

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC):

is a bit-oriented communication protocol used for point-to-point and multipoint links. It implements
a "Stop-and-Wait" approach, similar to what we discussed earlier, with a focus on reliable data
transmission.

HDLC has different modes and configurations. It offers two primary transfer modes: Normal
Response Mode (NRM) and Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM). In NRM, there's a primary station
and multiple secondary stations, where the primary station sends commands and secondary stations
respond. In ABM, the configuration is balanced, and both stations can function as peers.

HDLC frames consist of several fields:

 Flag field: Used for frame synchronization, with a specific pattern.

 Address field: Contains the sender's or receiver's address.
 Control field: Determines the frame type and its functionality, like flow and error control.
 Information field: Carries user data or management information.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field: Used for error detection.
 Ending flag field: Marks the end of the frame.

HDLC defines three types of frames:

 Information frames (I-frames): Carry user data and optional control information.
 Supervisory frames (S-frames): Used for flow and error control when piggybacking isn't
suitable, with acknowledgment or negative acknowledgment.
 Unnumbered frames (U-frames): Used for system management and control information
exchange.

The control field format varies for each frame type:

 I-frames have sequence numbers (N(S) and N(R) for sender and receiver) and a P/F bit for
poll or final.
 S-frames use N(R) for acknowledgment and have a code to indicate their purpose (RR, RNR,
REJ, SREJ).
 U-frames contain system management information, and their control field has various codes
to represent different management functions.

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP):

is a data link layer protocol used to establish and maintain direct, point-to-point connections
between two network devices, typically over serial communication lines. PPP offers authentication,
error detection and correction, link quality monitoring, extensibility to support multiple network
layer protocols, and network address allocation. It's commonly used in dial-up, DSL, and leased line
connections, serving as a foundation for secure and reliable communication.
Access Control
Random Access:

 Random Access is an access control method where devices can transmit data at any time
without prior coordination.
 It's often used in scenarios with a variable number of devices, like in Ethernet networks.
 Devices contend for access to the medium, and collisions can occur if multiple devices
transmit simultaneously.
 Collision detection or collision avoidance mechanisms are used to handle collisions and
retransmit data.
 Common protocols employing random access include CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection) and CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance).

Controlled Access:

 Controlled Access is an access control method where devices require permission or

coordination to access the medium.
 It's suitable for scenarios where predictability and fairness in access are important, like in
telecommunication networks.
 Devices typically request permission to transmit and receive granted time slots or
frequencies.
 Controlled access methods often ensure a deterministic schedule for access, minimizing
collisions.
 Examples include Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency-Division Multiple
Access (FDMA).

Channelization:

 Channelization is an access control method that divides the communication medium into
separate channels or frequency bands.
 Each channel operates independently, allowing multiple devices to transmit simultaneously
on different channels.
 It's often used in scenarios where parallel communication is required, like in radio and TV
broadcasting.
 Devices are assigned to specific channels, and interference between channels is minimized.
 Channelization methods include Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Code-Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).

Wired LAN:
Ethernet Protocol:

 Ethernet is a widely used wired LAN (Local Area Network) protocol.

 It defines the rules for devices to communicate over a shared medium.
 Originally ran at 10 Mbps (Ethernet), but evolved to provide higher speeds.
Standard Ethernet:

 Standard Ethernet, also known as 10BASE-T, originally operated at 10 Mbps (megabits per
second).
 It used coaxial cables in the early days but later transitioned to twisted-pair cables.
 In Standard Ethernet, devices share the same network segment and contend for access to
the network using a protocol called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection).
 If multiple devices try to transmit data at the same time, collisions can occur, and CSMA/CD
helps manage these collisions.

Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps):

 Fast Ethernet, or 100BASE-TX, increased the data transmission speed to 100 Mbps, providing
a tenfold increase in speed compared to Standard Ethernet.
 It still used the same CSMA/CD collision detection mechanism as Standard Ethernet, but with
faster data rates.
 Fast Ethernet is often used in small to medium-sized LANs and played a vital role in
improving network performance.

Gigabit Ethernet:

 Gigabit Ethernet, or 1000BASE-T, raised the data rates to 1 Gbps (1,000 Mbps).
 It introduced significant speed improvements, making it suitable for more demanding
applications and larger networks.
 Unlike its predecessors, Gigabit Ethernet predominantly uses full-duplex communication,
meaning devices can both send and receive data simultaneously. It typically requires Cat 5e
or better cabling.

10 Gigabit Ethernet:

 10 Gigabit Ethernet offers data rates of 10 Gbps, which is ten times faster than Gigabit
Ethernet.
 It's typically deployed in enterprise and data center environments, where extremely high
bandwidth is required to support a large number of devices and applications.
 10 Gigabit Ethernet is especially crucial for handling data-intensive tasks, such as real-time
video streaming, large file transfers, and cloud services.