Introduction to Electric Power Systems

The purpose of this introduction is to review all the elements of the modern electric power
system, describing briefly their characteristics. This material will prepare you for the next
series of talks by establishing the common terminology to be used by the other presenta-
tions. If most of this material is review for you, at least a common base of definitions will be
well established.

The evolution of the electric power system into the nationwide grid which supplies our
electricity today is based on some assumptions that may be very obvious. The first two
assumptions are that alternating current (ac) will be supplied at constant frequency. In the
USA, of course, the frequency has been established at 60 Hertz (cycles per second). The
third assumption is that ac power will be supplied at constant voltage. Many levels of
voltage have been established in each of the broad ranges of low, medium, and high
voltage, but each voltage level used is assumed to be constant. These three assumptions
have driven the development of our power system today into a parallel feed network with
each load determining the amount of current in amperes based on Ohm’s law. With paral-
lel feed, each load is connected to the voltage source, and the load provides a path for
electric current as required by the load. Each additional current demand adds to the
others already connected to the network, and as the current increases with added loads,
the voltage is expected to be maintained until the maximum load capacity of the power
supply is exceeded. As load current increases into the overload region, voltage may
decrease beyond the limit, with resulting effect on all the loads connected to the power
source.

Figure 1: Parallel Load Circuit

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The acceptable range of this so-called constant voltage varies depending on the point of
measurement. Loads are designed to accept maximum levels of operating voltage within
10% of the nominal value. Point of use (a wall outlet in a home, for example) voltage is
generally supplied by design to tighter tolerance, such as 5% maximum to keep the supply
within the load’s operating tolerance. At the supply end, the generator is generally con-
trolled to within 1% of the nominal value, but will be adjusted to the level necessary to meet
the distribution voltage limitations necessary to keep the consumer voltage within the 5%
target. Generators, like loads, are designed for a range of voltage operation, typically 10%
for small generators. And in between the generator and the load, adjustments in voltage
level are made to maintain the voltage at all distribution points in the system at acceptable
levels.

Figure 2: Voltage Range

Let’s look at some examples of local and utility power system configurations. As we look
at each one, the commonly used model of the elements of the system will be introduced
and used to create a one-line model of the two systems.

For a single generator applied as an isolated generator serving its load without connection
to any other source of electric power, we will use terminology such as isolated or single
unit generator. Use of this terminology excludes parallel operation of any kind. Multiple
loads are, of course, not excluded by this term. In this configuration, it is easy to look at all
the elements of an electric power generating plant, small or large, used for any kind of
application.

Figure 3: Single Generator System

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 Figure 4: Genset Elements

The electric power system plant (commonly called the generator, generator set or genset)
will include a prime mover (source of mechanical energy to the alternator), alternator or
generator (converts mechanical energy to electrical energy), distribution system (carries
electric power to the loads), and loads (consumers of the electric power).

A more complex electric power system model will include parallel operation of generating
equipment. To accomplish parallel operation, the control systems and protection of the
equipment will take on new tasks necessary for safe automatic operation of the generating
plant. New elements of the power system will include generator bus (the conductors tying
the alternators together), the synchronizing equipment (used to begin parallel operation of
two or more gensets), and load sharing equipment (to control the balance of loading
between two or more generators operating in parallel).

Figure 5: Multiple Gensets

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To connect two generators in parallel, one must first synchronize the machines. Synchro-
nizing means to get the rotors spinning at the same speed, and lining up the phase angle
of the two rotors to be zero. In other words, to prepare the machines to be locked in step
with each other, the machines must be close to their required end position in parallel to
reduce to a minimum the energy necessary to move the rotors into the synchronized
position. A similar idea might be two gears which are both rotating, about to be mechani-
cally connected together. To minimize stress or damage to the gear teeth, it would be
desirable to get the speed of rotation of the gears to be nearly the same. Then, if the
engaging of the gears takes place at the right position so that the gears mesh together, the
operation occurs smoothly and without stress or damage. To accomplish this goal with
electrical paralleling requires the type of synchronizing equipment shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Added Synchronizing Equipment

Figure 7: Load Sharing

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After the synchronizing operation is completed, the control systems for engine speed
control and automatic voltage regulation must change operation and begin to allow bal-
anced loading of the two gensets operating in parallel. Although the block diagram in
Figure 7 shows one block for load sharing, the usual hardware configuration is to include
load sharing for the real power as part of the speed control equipment and the reactive
power sharing as part of the avr equipment. An important concept, which will be dis-
cussed in much greater detail, is the independent control of load sharing by these two
control systems of the real and reactive power.

Figure 8: Independent Power Producer (IPP)

A special case of parallel operation is the connection of a genset to an off-site power sys-
tem such as an electric utility. It is similar to operating two generators in parallel except
that the control of the load sharing cannot include the off-site power system. All load
sharing control must be accomplished with the on-site genset, using some different kinds
of control operations than just sharing the load. Selection of the type of control operations
is usually dictated by the economics of operating the on-site genset. Examples include
peak energy demand reduction to reduce purchased energy costs, use of excess fuel or
waste fuel from the local operations (burning of wood waste or waste gas for example), or
satisfying demand for heat energy while using excess capacity for offsetting purchased
electrical power.

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 Figure 9: Power Transformer

When dealing with electric utility power systems, the level of complexity of the equipment
involved also increases, bringing some new elements into the equipment list. The trans-
former is the device used to change voltage operating level. The purpose of changing
voltage is to select a voltage high enough to transmit some amount of electric power at the
lowest possible cost. Because higher voltage reduces current level for a constant amount
of power transmitted, the balance between increasing cost for higher voltage insulation
and lower cost for decreasing the wire size depends on the power levels to be transmitted,
no single standard voltage for all power supply can be selected. In general, utility systems
call the highest power levels the transmission system, the second highest levels the
subtransmission system, and the lowest power levels are called the distribution system.
Each of these power levels may be connected into a loop system (grid) or radial system.
Most commonly, the transmission and sub-transmission systems are loop systems, and
the distribution system is a radial system.

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 Figure 10: Network Voltages

The transformer is the fundamental voltage changer, used as a step-up or step-down

device to raise or lower the voltage. In the power system, the transformer is connected
between the elements to convert energy from the generating plant to subtransmission
level, to convert from subtransmission to transmission level, to convert from transmission
or subtransmission level to distribution level, and finally to convert from distribution level to
consumer level. Each transformer may be represented by a simple model to determine
the flow of power, voltage level and power level at any point in the power system

Figure 11: Transmission Line

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Each line in the power system may need to be represented by a model if it has sufficient
resistance, inductance, and capacitance to affect the calculation of current flow in a net-
work or grid. It is not possible for a line or even a bus to have none of these parameters,
but if the values are small enough, the line can be considered a bus (generally less than 1/
10th or 10% of rated impedance). If the values cannot be ignored, the line can be repre-
sented as three components by combining all the values of distributed resistance, induc-
tance and capacitance distributed over the line length.

Figure 12: Per Unit System in Action

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To discuss power systems, the “per unit” system of notation is often used. Its advantage is
the ease of understanding of relative capacity without regard for operating voltage level.
To see the benefit of this system, consider a system with a generator, a subtransmission
line, a transmission line, and a distribution line. At any point in this network, the per unit
system of measurement allows the definition of nominal voltage at 1.0 per unit. If we
choose the generator as the base rating of the system, the generator output rating is 1.0
per unit by definition. Therefore, the generator rated current is also 1.0 per unit. With this
reference data, each other point in the power system may have its rated operating charac-
teristics scaled to the generator rating. For example, if the network feeds power from the
transmission line to the subtransmission line to the distribution network using two
stepdown transformers, is it easy to understand the transformer ratings if I tell you the first
transformer is rated 0.25 pu power rating and the second is 0.025 pu power rating? And
consider the distribution line with voltages specified and a rating of 0.005 pu. Without any
calculations, a clear picture of the relative ratings of the network can be quickly communi-
cated. When precise values are required for calculation, the mathematics to convert pu
into actual values can be performed simply. Thus, the Per Unit scheme of measurement
allows one to quickly understand the relative ratings of different parts of a multiple voltage
network without a lot of calculations required.

Per unit numbers are like percent, except the decimal point is moved two places left. For
example, 0.5 pu current is 50% of the rated current. At any point in the network, using the
base kva as a reference, the kva rating of the system can be calculated in pu. To convert
current to pu at the same point, the nominal voltage is 1 pu by definition, and the current
can then be calculated in per unit by dividing the kva by 1 pu, meaning that the current
level in pu is the same as the power rating in pu. All other parameters can also be calcu-
lated, including kvar, kw, and power factor. During our discussions of the various power
system elements, we’ll use the per unit system of measurement, and you may decide for
yourself if the per unit scheme has advantages for your needs.

With all of these elements, the possible system configurations are seemingly infinite, but
with an understanding of each of the elements and their potential interaction, it is possible
to apply all of these elements in combinations to develop the power system performance
necessary to power the loads. Now let’s begin to look more deeply at some of the ele-
ments of the power system.

If you have any questions or need
additional information, please contact
Basler Electric Company.
Our web site is located at:
http://www.basler.com
e-mail: info@basler.com
Basler Electric Headquarters
Route 143, Box 269,
Highland Illinois USA 62249
Phone 618/654-2341
Fax 618-654-2351
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Basler Electric International
P.A.E. Les Pins, 67319
Wasselonne Cedex FRANCE
Phone (33-3-88) 87-1010
Fax (33-3-88) 87-0808