An integrated outdoor spaces design procedure to relieve heat stress in hot and humid

regions
abstract

Traditional settlements may suffer from extreme thermal stress owing to the types of buildings and the activities of local people. In this study, thermal environmental
measurements were made 12 times in one year, and an ENVI-met model was used to simulate and examine the outdoor thermal environment in Tainan, Taiwan. The
results reveal that when the model is applied to hot and humid regions, the shortwave reduction method can be utilized to estimate mean radiant temperatures values
more accurately. Various simulated scenarios indicated that planting trees is the most effective means of reducing the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) -
by up to 15.2 _C Integrated scenarios for outdoor spaces design are proposed and can reduce the frequency of heat stress from 79.7% to 40.5% compared with the
original condition. Based on the measurements, model verification, and analysis of adjustment strategies, an integrated outdoor spaces design approach for relieving
heat stress is proposed to promote thermal comfort, the practicability of the design procedure, and the aesthetics of the environment.
The proposed integrated procedure can help planners and architects to selecting strategies for designing outdoor spaces to relieve heat stress with the ultimate goal of
improving outdoor living environments.

1. Introduction
Numerous studies of outdoor thermal environments in traditional settlements have found that the size of street blocks, type of building materials,
and the design of sheltered areas greatly affect thermal comfort in traditional settlements [1e17].
In Taiwan, traditional settlements suffer from problems that are related to rising air temperatures. The orientations of traditional buildings in
Taiwan are markedly influenced by local beliefs and cultures. For example, the orientation and layout of a traditional ancestral hall are typically
determined by the rules of Feng Shui. Each area in an ancestral hall has a specific cultural meaning. The large central area that is surrounded by
the buildings is the main courtyard, which is open and spacious. Traditionally, the main courtyard was used for drying grain; however, as
agricultural production declined and production technologies improved, the main courtyard became an area for social and leisure activities.
This change of function of the main courtyard has raised problems concerning thermal environment and thermal comfort.
First, since the main courtyard has no shelter, the area is exposed to high solar radiation. Second, the building materials that are used in the main
courtyard (such as concrete, asphalt, and stone) absorb heat and can easily release substantial longwave radiation, affecting the thermal comfort
of a human body present. People who frequent the main courtyard are typically frequented by elderly residents, who have poor thermal
adaptability and often stay outdoors, and tourists who visit during the summer; therefore, these groups are more exposed to heat stress. Previous
studies have shown that Taiwanese people prefer a physiological equivalent temperature (PET) of 26 _Ce30 _C, and PETs above 40 _C lead to
thermal dissatisfaction and heat stress [18,19]. Therefore, this investigation studies the design of spaces that improve thermal comfort and do not
cause heat stress.
Previous studies have analyzed outdoor thermal environments by taking various measurements and then performing simulations based on the
ENVI-met model. The ENVI-met model [20] is normally utilized to simulate urban and landscaped environments in terms of potential
temperature, mean radiant temperature, wind speed, wind direction, and other variables. The ENVI-met model temperate climate zones
[15,21e23], hot and dry climate zones [24e29], and hot and wet climate zones [30e37]. The ENVI-met model has also been employed to examine
the effect of greenery [21,25,30,31,36e47], paved areas [42,48e50], and soil type [32,51] on the thermal environment. Some studies have
investigated the effectiveness of modifying the configurations of buildings [15,24,28,29] and landscape design [29,30,45,46,52,53] by comparing
the thermal performances before and after a particular configuration or design is implemented.
As mentioned above, ENVI-met has been applied in various studies of various climate zones to perform simulations and analysis of different
environmental settings. The relevant studies have yielded many useful and concrete results, but some issues require further study. First, the
original settings of ENVI-met were set for temperate climates, and while some investigations that have applied ENVI-met focused on hot and
humid regions as their subjects, very few have provided specific suggestions concerning how to modify and adapt ENVI-met to such a climate.
Secondly, most such investigations have focused on either the effect of pavement, vegetation, and shading on the environment or the differences
between thermal stress in the current state and those in various scenarios. Studies that consider only these two issues may overly focus on a
theoretical increase in thermal comfort without consideration of spatial function and user behavior. Lastly, in several previous studies,
measurements were compared with the results of scenario simulations via point-to-point verification, yielding differences in thermal comfort. In
this study, Lutaoyang, a traditional settlement in Tainan, Taiwan, located within hot and humid regions is selected as the subject, and both
measurements and ENVI-met simulations are conducted to achieve the following three objectives.
(1) To understand the limitations and application of the ENVImet model, and the appropriate settings of the model for application in the tropical
climate zone.
(2) To develop an integrated outdoor space design procedure that is based on simulation results that have been validated by field measurements,
and to consider practical scenarios that include the behaviors of local people and tourists in open spaces.
(3) To derive thermal environment data from an ENVI-met simulation; to understand the differences in heat stress before and after, and to present
the distribution of thermal risk for use by users of the space based on local thermal comfort criteria.
2. Method
The thermal environment of a selected traditional settlement and the behaviors of its users were examined in various months of the year. The
ENVI-met model was employed to simulate the thermal environment in various scenarios. Finally, the results of simulations of various scenarios
were accumulated and summarized to propose an integrated outdoor space design, and the difference in thermal comfort between the current
outdoor environment and the improved environment is elucidate. Details of the aforementioned phases follow.
2.1. Survey areas
Measurements were made in the Lutaoyang traditional settlement, which is located at 23 _090 N and 120_290 E at an altitude of 100 m in the
mountainous part of Tainan, Taiwan. (Lutaoyang is recognized as a traditional settlement by the Ministry of Culture (Taiwan) and is the largest
settlement that is owned by a single family (the Jiang family) in Taiwan; it is also designated as a tourist attraction. Since Lutaoyang is listed by
the Ministry of Culture as a protected cultural heritage site, its buildings may be neither reconstructed nor remodeled.
Lutaoyang is located in hot and humid regions. Weather station measurements demonstrate that the mean annual temperature in this area is 24.1
_C; on average, the coldest month is January
(17.4 _C) and the hottest month is July (29.0 _C). Southwesterly winds prevail in summer, whereas northeasterly winds prevail in winter. The
duration of sunshine is 2180.8 h annually. The annual amount of rainfall in Tainan is about 1655.9 mm, most of which falls in June to August,
when typhoons are most frequent. Monsoons and factors related to the terrain cause sunshine to be concentrated in the summer; winter is a dry
season. On average, the annual number of days of precipitation is around 94. In August, the number of days of precipitation is approximately
16.2.
2.2. Field measurements of thermal environment
Fig. 1 presents the 18 measurement locations in Lutaoyang. At each location were installed devices to record air temperature (Ta), relative
humidity (RH), and globe temperature (Tg). One nondirectional anemometer was placed at the center of unshaded
Area D to measure the wind speed (v). The resolution and accuracy of the instruments were 0.1 _C and ±0.3 _C for Ta and Tg, 0.1% and ±2.5%
for RH, and 0.01 m/s and ±0.2 m/s for v. The selection of measurement locations are decided by the shading level of spaces, the traditional
cultural spaces in the settlement where tourists tend to enter, and the areas where residents conduct their daily activities.
Photographs were taken using a fisheye lens at the measurement locations to calculate the sky view factor (SVF) using the RayMan model
[54,55]. The Tmrt was calculated using Ta, Tg, and v based on ISO standard 7726 [56] and corrected with reference to the simultaneous
measurements of both the globe thermometer and the six-directional short- and long-wave radiation flux measurement system in Taiwan [57].
The measurement locations were categorized based on the aforementioned shading and spatial layout. In Fig. 1 (b), the measurement points
P1eP7 are culturally traditional spaces that are connected to an ancestral hall, and the points P8eP18 denote spaces that are used by residents for
various social activities (such as gazebos, wooden platforms, man-made shelters, and areas with trees that provide shade).
The behaviors of the users of the ancestral hall were identified using two methods. In the first method (P1eP7), a camera was installed at a fixed
location to record continuously the most frequently used locations in the main courtyard. In the second method (P8eP18), the number and
distribution of users were recorded hourly at each frequently used location. Since the scope and the length of this study are limited, the
relationship between user behavior and thermal environment will be discussed in another paper.
2.3. Thermal index
Various indicators integrate thermal environmental variables with human heat balance, and are based on assessments of the thermal comfort of
outdoor spaces. PET (physiologically equivalent temperature) has been the standard in Germany [58], and has been extensively used in research
into outdoor thermal comfort.
PET is a thermal comfort index, which describes an aspect of the outdoor complex environment for energy balance of the human body. In a
typical indoor setting (where Ta ¼ mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), VP ¼ 12 hPa, v ¼ 0.1 m/s), the heat budget of the human body is balanced
to the core and skin temperatures that pertain under complex outdoor conditions. Therefore, PET enables people to compare the effects of
complex thermal conditions outside with their indoor experience [59,60]. As PET fully considers the impact of the shortwave and longwave
radiation properties with body heat balance in the outdoor environment, it is suitable for assessing outdoor thermal comfort. Therefore, this study
adopts
PET as a representative thermal stress indicator, calculated using the RayMan model [54,55].
2.4. Simulation of thermal environment
The baseline environmental parameters for the ENVI-met model were 1D parameters (air temperature, relative humidity at 2 m, wind speed at 10
m, wind direction, insolation ratio) and 3D parameters that are related to buildings and the surrounding environment (latitude, altitude,
characteristic of buildings, albedo and emissivity of pavement, plants, and others) [20]. The newest version of the ENVI-met model is used herein
study; this version allows not only the initial temperature atmosphere and relative humidity values but also the air temperature and relative
humidity values to be manipulated every hour the function of “simple force”; thus, the simulated values approximate measured values. Since the
measurements that were made in this investigation were made from 8:00 to 17:00 h, they were compared with those made at the weather station
to enhance the precision of the simulations. The two groups of data are compared and their trends shifted in parallel to generate daily climate data
to provide one-dimensional baseline settings for the simulations.
Soil temperature, roof albedo, and wall insulation were obtained according to the environmental conditions and building codes in Taiwan. In the
model, various receptors were configured to ensure that the simulation directly output outdoor thermal environmental information, facilitating
comparison with the measured values. To simulate the spatial distribution of thermal environment parameters in the study region, other numerical
values were derived using empirical formulas and local climate characteristics [46]. Subsequently, the climate data that were obtained from the
ENVI-met model were used to calculate PET at each grid point. The PET on each interval was calculated in previous studies. Latitude and
longitude were inputted into a geographic information system to plot the distribution [44] of PETs at various times.
3. Initial field measurements
During a span of 12 months from November 2013 to October
2014, 12 sets of measurements were made. Each measurement of the study regionwas taken between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. In this period, the thermal
environment in the region was recorded and user behavior was observed. During the survey, the local people were observed always to rest and
talk under the shade of Banyan trees or buildings. Tourists did not seem to respond to the thermal environment of the local micro-climate, always
preferring to stay in the open area with the artificial pavement. This comparison indicates that adaptability to heat stress differs significantly
between local people and tourists.
To compare the meteorological characteristics of Lutaoyang and arid countries with low solar radiation and temperature, the mean air
temperature, mean relative humidity, mean PET, and mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) at the measurement locations were calculated (Table 1).
The daytime air temperatures that were measured from May to October exceeded 30 _C; in particular, the highest diurnal air temperature, 36 _C,
was recorded in September; the highest PET, 39.2 _C, was recorded in August, and the lowest air temperature, 24.9 _C,was recorded in January.
Throughout the year, the mean daytime air temperature was 30 _C and PET was 33.4 _C.
Although the mean annual diurnal air temperature at the measurement locations exceeded those in environments that are considered to be
comfortable for humans, the diurnal air temperature in the cool season (from December to February) was within the comfort zone. Accordingly,
further simulations are performed with the goal of determining how to reduce diurnal PET in the hot season (from March to November) to a
comfortable level.
As noted in the Introduction, the orientation and layout of ancestral halls have cultural and traditional meaning. Measurements were mad at six
locations in the ancestral hall. The mean, maximum, and minimum daytime PETs were calculated using the 12 measurement data that were made
at each measurement location (from 5 a.m. to 8 p.m.). Fig. 2 presents a cross-sectional view of the orientation and layout of the ancestral hall. In
the figure, some open areas where the SVF >0.5 (P1, P3, and P5) have a high mean PET of approximately 36.5 _C. The mean PET of heavily
shaded locations where the SVF is < 0.2 (P2, P4, and P7) was about 30 _C.
Therefore, heavily shaded spaces provide cooler thermal conditions that can easily be maintained at 26 _Ce30 _C, which is a comfortable
temperature range for Taiwanese people.
Like shading, the characteristics of the materials from which pavements are made critically influence the outdoor thermal environment. The
differences between the mean maximum PET and the mean PET at P7 and P2 are significant because an artificial pavement is used at P2 and a
lawn is used at P7. An artificial pavement has low albedo and high thermal storage, favoring longwave radiation from the surface.
4. Setting and calibration of the ENVI-met model
4.1. Initial setting of model
The 1D and 3D parameters of the ENVI-met model were determined as described in Section 2.4. Table 2 presents the initial settings of the model
in the hot and cool seasons. The main differences in the data between the hot and cool seasons were in air temperature, wind speed, wind
direction, soil temperature, and indoor temperature. Climate data were obtained from the weather stations that were closest to the measurement
locations. The daily temperature patterns that were obtained from each weather station and the adjusted measurements of Ta and RH were used to
configure the model using the simple force method.

Fig. 1. Distribution of measurement points in surveyed area. (Photograph from Google).

Table 1
Daily mean temperatures at all measurement points (8 a.m.e5 p.m.).

Fig. 2. Fisheye photographs taken at each measurement point and corresponding mean PET, maximum PET, and minimum PET values, from six measurements

Table 2
Initial settings of ENVI-met model for hot and cool seasons.

4.2. Correction of shortwave reduction ratio

As stated Section 2.4, Ta and RH were configured hourly.
Shortwave adjustments were made to the insolation ratio and a shortwave reduction ratio (SRR) was determined for the model. In the model, a
single SRR was applied for one day rather than for each hour. To understand how various ENVI-met models with various SRR can be accurately
applied in a humid subtropical climate, a sensitivity test for the SRR was performed. In the ENVI-met model, the SRRwas set to 0.5e1.5. Three
values (0.5, 0.8, and 1.0) were used in the test and compared with the measured Tmrt values. The results in Fig. 3 reveal that when a default
SRRwas used (SRR ¼ 1), the predicted Tmrt was overestimated. After testing, the test results reveal that the SRR must be adjusted to as low as
0.5 to predict a Tmrt that approximates the actual temperature. Fig. 3 (a) and 3 (b) plot the Tmrt values for open and shaded areas in the hot
season, while Fig. 3 (c) and 3 (d) show the Tmrt values for open and shaded areas in the cool season, respectively.
The simulated Tmrt, which is corrected by setting SRR to 0.5, is closerto the measured values than the results from original default setting.
In the ENVI-met model, the SRR is assumed to be constant throughout a day. However, in humid subtropical climates, clouds and fog coverage
can change greatly through a day, causing the predicted Tmrt to deviate from the measured values.
4.3. Spatial distribution of thermal conditions Fig. 4 displays the simulated distributions of Ta and Tmrt in the hot and cool seasons. The upper
left areas of Fig. 4 (a) and 4 (b) indicate that high Ta values were concentrated on roads and between buildings. The low-temperature areas were
in the gardens beside the roads, as well as in the water zone in the lower left areas of the figures. The high-temperature areas were open paved
areas and the streets among the buildings. The cooling effect of planting trees was stronger in the hot season than in the cool season. Fig. 4 (c)
and 4 (d) plot the distribution of Tmrt in the settlement. Clearly, the Tmrt in the shaded areas was lower than in the unshaded areas, and that in
the main courtyard was very high, indicating severe heat. These results also indicate that when used to simulate a thermal environment, the
ENVI-met model is sensitive to shading and paving materials (meaning that shading and paving materials are crucial factors).
4.4. Quantification of effect of Tmrt on PET values and classes
To understand how the ENVI-met model can be applied in subtropical regions, the following three differences between the measured and
simulated values are considered; the difference in the highest Tmrt (D H), the difference between mean Tmrt (DA), and the difference in the lowest
Tmrt (DL), which are given by Equation.
(1)e(3), respectively as follows.
DH ¼ Tmrtsi max _ Tmrtme max (1)
DA ¼ Tmrtsi avg _ Tmrtme avg (2)
DL ¼ Tmrtsi min _ Tmrt me min (3)
where Tmrtme-max, Tmrtme-min, and Tmrtme-avg represent the highest, lowest, and mean Tmrt values, respectively, that measured between 8 a.m.
and 5 p.m. in the hot season, and Tmrtsi-- max, Tmrtsi-min, and Tmrtsi-avg are the highest, lowest, and mean modeled Tmrt values, respectively.

Fig. 3. Simulated and measured Tmrt values for various shortwave reduction ratios (SRR) in (a) open areas in hot season, (b) shaded areas in hot season, (c) open areas in cool
season, and (d) shaded areas in cool season.

Fig. 4. ENVI-met model simulation of Ta distribution in (a) hot season and (b) cool season as well as Tmrt distribution in (c) hot season and (d) cool season

Fig. 5 shows the differences between measured and simulated Tmrt values in the hot season. Red squares represent D H, which is the maximum
simulated Tmrt minus the maximum measured Tmrt; circles represent D A, which is the mean simulated Tmrt minus the mean measured Tmrt,
and green triangles represent DL, which is the minimum simulated Tmrt minus the minimum measured Tmrt. The left-hand side of the figure
plots the results shaded areas, while the right-hand side presents those for open areas. A positive value along the Y axis indicates that the
simulated Tmrt value exceeds the measured value (and vice versa).
As presented in Fig. 5, the simulations yield positive DH values for the shaded areas, meaning that the simulated maximum Tmrt values exceed
the measured maximum values; half of the simulations provide negative D H values and positive DL values in the open areas, so the simulated
maximum Tmrt values are lower than the measured maximum values, but the simulated minimum values are higher than) the measured minimum
values. Therefore, in ENVImet simulations, the mean temperature in the model tends to be overestimated. In unshaded areas, the maximum Tmrt
is overestimated whereas the minimum Tmrt is underestimated; in shaded areas, the maximum Tmrt is underestimated whereas the minimum
Tmrt is overestimated.
5. Adjustment strategies and quantitative analysis of core area
5.1. Determining core area and developing strategies to relieve outdoor heat stress
To improve the accuracy of simulation and to capture the thermal environment of the core space in the settlement, the main courtyard users were
surveyed (at P3) to develop adjustment strategies in the study area that account for the cultural characteristics of the space. As noted in Section
4.3, the heat stress in the main courtyard is high. Residents mostly perform activities under the shade of trees along the west side of the main
courtyard and in the semi-outdoor space under the eaves. When tourists visit the settlement, they typically frequent the main courtyard. Fig. 6
displays how the courtyard is utilized. Owing to the unique spatial pattern and special use of this area, the main courtyard was considered herein
as core simulation area.
Four adjustment strategies for predicting the heat performance in the main courtyard were developed for the simulation in the ENVI-met model.
Since the Ministry of Culture must authorize any modification to the appearance of heritage buildings at traditional settlements, the following
scenarios various adjustment strategies were developed; current conditions (Scenario A0); ground surface entirely covered by lawn (Scenario
A1), ground entirely covered by grass bricks (Scenario A2), and ground surface entirely covered by trees (Scenario A3). The characteristics of
heat stress were simulated in various scenarios to test each strategy. The air temperature and PET distribution at 3 p.m. were simulated in
scenarios A1 e A3.
The cooling effect was obtained by comparing each scenario with the current scenario A0. 5.2. Simulation of thermal environment under various
adjustment strategies Table 3 presents the simulated results in the three scenarios that were described in Section 5.1. The diagrams in the first and
second columns of Table 3 are the Ta and PET distributions in the simulated scenarios. The third and fourth columns present the results of the
comparisons of Scenarios A1 e A3 with the current scenario A0.
Low Ta and Tmrt values reveal that the cooling in an adjustment scenario is superior to that in the current condition.
First, the observed Ta in the current scenario A0 ranged between 35.7 _C and 36.1 _C. The temperature distributions in the other three scenarios
show that the cooling effect in Scenario A1 was strong (PET: 35.1 _Ce36.0 _C), perhaps because of the high ground surface albedo. In this
scenario, the ground is covered by a lawn, which reduces the surface temperature and longwave radiation from the ground, slightly reducing the
air temperature. However, the difference in the air temperature between scenario A1 and the current scenario A0 is ranged from 0.1 _C to 0.6 _C,
which is negligible.
Second, in the current scenario A0, the PET values range between 36.4 _C and 52.1 _C. In the other scenarios, the PET values range between 36.2
_C and 47.4 _C. Compared with the current scenario A0, Scenario A3 (planting trees) exhibits the greatest cooling effect, as it has a 15.2 _C lower
PET; Scenario A2 (planting grass) is in second place in this respect, lowering PET by 12.1 _C;
Scenario A1 (paving with grass bricks) has the weakest cooling effect, lowering PET by 10.1 _C. In summary, the paving of the ground affected
the reduction of Ta; specifically, ground surfaces with higher albedo (such as lawns) were more effective in reducing the Ta. However, the air
temperature was not greatly in under any scenario. The degree of PET reduction was influenced by the amount of shade: planting trees can create
shaded areas and thereby reduce PET.
6. Integrated outdoor space design approach to relieve outdoor heat stress
Although the results of the simulation in Section 5.2 show that the adjustment strategies had a cooling effect and reduced PET, in practice,
various strategies must be applied simultaneously to produce these effects. This section proposes an integrated strategy for reducing heat stress.
First, the thermal environment is analyzed.
Both practicability and aesthetics are considered in developing the integrated strategy. Subsequently, the proposed integrated strategy is simulated
to determine the extent to which the it improves the thermal environment.
6.1. Procedure for developing integrated design proposal (IDP)
For the integrated design proposal (IDP), understanding the problems under the current conditions is essential. In the current environment, south
side of the main courtyard are highly shaded by the buildings located on the south side. In contrast, north side of the main courtyard is barely
shaded. The southern side of the main courtyard is not as hot as the northern side during high insolation periods. As stated in Section 5.2, based
on the thermal characteristics of various considering user behavior and spatial function, and the need for a practical environment, although
maintaining a passage through the main courtyard is important, areas for people to sit and rest are also required. All activitiesdwalking, sitting,
and restingdshould be carried out with thermal comfort. Hence, the IDP is developed as shown in Fig. 7.
According to the IDP, on the south side of the northern area of the main courtyard (Areas A and B), numerous trees should be planted to create
shade in the northern area of the main courtyard; additionally, on the south side of Area E, trees should be planted to provide shade and to prevent
direct exposure to sunlight. With respect to spatial function, two banyan trees on the west side of the main courtyard (Areas A and C) can provide
share and increase the willingness of residents to use this space. On the east side of the main courtyard (Areas B and D), shaded rest areas should
be developed for tourists. With respect to the selected species of vegetation, various common arbors with large canopies, such as banyan, red
cedar, camphor trees, Taiwan golden-rain trees, pongamia,
Chinese pistache, and others, are suggested to be planted to provide more shade. In the design scenario IDP, the area of vegetation is increased
from 0 to 362 m2, and the area of grass is increased from 0 to 247 m2. The area of hard pavement is reduced from 724 to 182 m2.
6.2. The comparison of current conditions and IDP
Table 4 presents the differences between Ta and PET before the IDP is implemented and afterward. If the IDP is adopted, then the Ta for Area E
(an open area), which was originally 35.9 _C, is reduced by approximately 0.4 _C; The eastern side of the main courtyard, comprising areas B and
D, had an original PET of as high as 50e53 _C; after the IDP is adopted, the maximum PET is lowered to 34e37 _C, and in some areas, it is even
reduced to 30 _C; in the open areas, PET is reduced by 14.9 _C. Areas with trees and grass were particularly effective at cooling. Notably, Fig. 8
includes a second peak because in the designed scenario, unobstructed pavements are retained for pedestrians, resulting in hot conditions.
In previous studies, data that were derived from the ENVI-met model have been used as a basis for comparing various scenarios.
As presented in Table 3, the information that is provided by the colors and the maximumeminimum values of micro-climate data, and so cannot
be used to determine the thermal comfort of users; therefore, the advantages and disadvantages of various scenarios cannot be easily determined.
To solve the above problem, the hourly PET values under the current conditions and the IDP are calculated for each grid from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.
daily. Fig. 8 plots the frequency distribution of PET in PET increments of 1 _C.
In Fig. 8, the current conditions and the integrated design are represented by blue dotted lines and black solid lines, respectively.
Under the current conditions, the highest daytime PET was 52 _C, and PET generally ranged between 45 _C and 55 _C, so 65% of PETs were
within daytime under the current conditions. After IDP, the diurnal PET under the integrated design ranged mainly between 32 _C and 46 _C, and
the maximum PET was reduced to 50 _C, so 75% of PETs were within the daytime. If the threshold PET for discomfort in Taiwan, which is 40
_C, is adopted as, then 79.7% of the environment of interest under the current conditions exhibited high heat stress; under the integrated design,
the this proportion is reduced to 40.5%. Therefore, heat stress is reduced by the integrated design and thermal comfort is enhanced.
Quantitative and frequency analyses on the thermal conditions can help designers to understand how their methods improve the environment, and
maps of the distribution of thermal conditions can give designers direction in designing outdoor spaces.
6.3. Distribution of thermal comfort
Since studies of physiological comfort emphasize local measurements and the sensitivity of thermal comfort of local people, this investigation
incorporates previous work on subjective sensation into a thermal environmental analysis [18,19]. This study provides a diagram of PET
distribution at 15:00 based on the simulation of a traditional settlement. Base on previous results [18,19], the thermal comfort range is divided
into comfortable (28e32 _C PET), slightly warm (32e37 _C PET), warm (37e40 _C PET), hot (40e46 _C PET), very hot (46e50 _C PET), and
extremely hot (>50 _C PET) ranges. Fig. 9 reveals that comfort and slightly warm zones are commonly in places with vegetation or in the shade
that is provided buildings, whereas hotter zones are in places where the pavement is hard or in alleys where the wind cannot reach.
Although Fig. 9 above plots the distribution of thermal comfort at a particular time, it does not show the distribution of comfort throughout the
day. Therefore, in Fig. 10, a PET of above 40 _C is defined as being uncomfortable and this value is used as a threshold for evaluating thermal
comfort. The frequency with which PET exceeds 40 _C in the settlement during 6:00e18:00 is calculated and plotted on a distribution diagram
that shows the places that can may suffer from thermal stress during the daytime.

Fig. 5. Differences between measured and simulated Tmrt values at each measurement point in hot season. Solid square indicates difference between simulated an measured
maximum values; open circle indicates difference between the mean simulated and measured values, and solid triangle represents difference between simulated and measured
minimum values. Yellow shaded area includes the measurement locations in shade. (All other measurement locations were in open areas.).
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 6. Usage patterns for main courtyard at various times: (a) visitor activities on east side of main courtyard (2 p.m.); (b) resting conditions of residents on west side of main
courtyard (after 5 p.m.).

Table 3
Simulated thermal environments under current conditions and following implementation of adjustment strategies in hot season (3 p.m.).

Fig. 7. Integrated design proposal of study area to improve thermal environment.

The figure reveals that places with vegetation and shading by buildings have a much lower risk of thermal stress than open areas.
Figs. 9 and 10 are novel that they present thermal stress information that incorporates simulated results and local thermal comfort characteristics,
and be directly referred to by residents and tourists alike. Whereas previous studies have only plotted the distribution of temperature or
temperature differences, this work proposes a new means of determining how thermal stress may be distributed in a given environment and the
likelihood of heatrelated hazards. This information will be very valuable to users of space.
7. Discussion
The advantage of the ENVI-met model is that it can be used to simulate the distribution of micro-climatic parameters on the scale of an urban
street, including many parameters concerning wind and the thermal environment. With respect to wind, the ENVI-met model uses less complex
input parameters than typical CFD models to present wind speed/direction distribution diagram. With respect to the thermal environment, apart
from basic outputs such as air temperature and vapor pressure/relative humidity, shortwave and longwave radiation, Tmrt can also be calculated
in the model.
Since ENVI-met is a prognostic model, it theoretically depends on the setting of a preliminary condition for the climatic data (air temperature, air
humidity, wind speed, and other variables) to calculate thermal environment parameters. The results are then utilized in the calculation in the next
time-step, and so on until every calculation had been performed for the desired duration of the simulation. It is difficult to validate the model by
the field surveyed data due to a highly changeable in microclimate condition.
For example, the ENVI-met model allows users to set a constant value of solar reduction ratio (SRR) for a whole day, but the solar radiation may
various due to the cloud condition in a specific day. With respect to simulation of the wind environment, there are some limitation on the setting
of surface roughness length. Concerning the anthropogenic heat from buildings, many studies have carried out simulations and analyses of the
energy consumption of buildings in tropical climate zones, and have elucidate how can reduce energy consumption and heat emissions from
buildings [61e66]. In tropical climate zones, air conditioning is frequently used to reduce indoor temperatures, and the heat that is emitted by air
conditioning to the outdoors increases the outdoor temperature.
This fact is not reflected in ENVI-met yet.
To model the outdoor thermal environment, some diagnostic models can be used to improve calibration and the estimation, such as the RayMan
model [54,55], SOLWEIG model [67,68] which have been utilized to predict thermal environments and thermal comfort in urban areas.
8. Conclusions
This work established an integrated strategy for relieving heat stress in a humid subtropical climate based on measurements at, and simulations
of, Lutaoyang, a traditional settlement in Tainan, Taiwan.
The novel contributions of this investigation include the following. (1) This study is the first to present the power and limitations of applying
ENVI-met model to a tropical climate, and it offers suggestions for adjusting mode; (2) simulations of the thermal environment do not assume
unrealistic conditions; rather, this provides a process for designing that is based on the mitigation thermal environmental problems; and (3) not
only is the distribution of air temperatures, but also thermal comfort data and diagrams are presented, and concrete advice for designing scenarios
is provided.
With respect to the ENVI-met model, this work suggests some possibilities and limitations of the model when applied to subtropical regions. The
power of the ENVI-met model is that it can simulate the distribution of thermal environment parameters on the scale of an urban street; its
limitations were evident in the simulation of Tmrt and wind conditions, and are described below.
During the simulation, the highest Tmrt in an open area in Taiwan prior to the adjustment was overestimated using the original ENVI-met model.
Subsequently, when the ENVI-met model was adjusted for humid subtropical climates using a shortwave reduction method, the simulated Tmrt
values approximated the measured values. With respect to the adjustment strategies, laying lawns can slightly reduce the air temperature and
planting trees can markedly reduce PET by up to 15.2 _C.
This work develops an integrated procedure for designing outdoor spaces to relieve heat stress. First, the thermal environment was analyzed and
an integrated designwas developed, considering both practicability and aesthetics. Subsequently, the thermal comfort of the integrated design
proposal was simulated to investigate its effectiveness in improving the outdoor thermal environment.
A frequency of PET analysis of the thermal environment showed that 79.7% of the environment under the current conditions exhibited high heat
stress; however, the integrated design reduced this proportion to 40.5%.
This study proposed the ENVI-met model and applied in hot and humid Taiwan to examine the effectiveness of the proposed adjustment
strategies. The ENVI-met model was used as an auxiliary design tool to improve thermal environments both practically and aesthetically. Finally,
a method for performing frequency analysis in thermal environments was demonstrated as a means of improving the distribution of heat stress.
The results of this study can serve as a practical reference for architects and designers when using spatial design to reduce heat stress.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan, for financially supporting this research under Contract No.
NSC 102-2221-E-006-992-MY2.We appreciate Dr. Christine Ketterer and Mr. Dominik Froehlich help on the model setting and PET calculation.
References
Table 4
Simulated thermal environments under current conditions (A0) and following implementation of integrated design proposal (IDP) in hot season (3 p.m.).
Fig. 8. Frequency distribution of daytime PET under current conditions (A0) and integrated
design proposal

Fig. 9. Distribution of thermal comfort under integrated design proposal (IDP) at 3

p.m.

Fig. 10. Thermal stress risk map (>40 _C PET) for integrated design proposal (IDP) from
6 a.m. to 6 p.m.