10 Survival Techniques 2 Prefi Revised

ROTC MS 2:
MILITARY INDIVIDUAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT MODULE

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Understand the different aspects of survival in tropical areas;

2. Understand how water procurement is done for survival; and
3. Know how to find direction in tropical areas using the Field Expedient Direction method.
TROPICAL SURVIVAL
Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which every step taken
must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with danger. Actually, over half of the land in
the tropics is cultivated in some way.
The knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of survival will
increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear will lead to panic. Panic
will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of survival.
Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an alarming rate. Nature
will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.
Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take an outsider some
time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.
1. TROPICAL WEATHER
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical regions,
except at high altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C (50 degrees
F) and is often more than 35 degrees C (95 degrees F). At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at
night. The rain has a cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperature soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles into
raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may occur, usually
toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and
devastation ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds
vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous rain.
In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the monsoon, but the area is dry when the wind blows
from the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.
2. JUNGLE TYPES
There is no standard jungle. The tropical area may be any of the following:
1. TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the Amazon and Congo
basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain falls throughout the year.
Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C (90 degrees F) in the day to 21 degrees C (70 degrees F) at
night.
SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 1|Page
There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle (Figure 1). Where untouched by man, jungle trees rise
from buttress roots to heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little
light reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light, and masses of vines and
lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves,
and a great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.
Figure 1. Five Layers of Tropical Rain Forest Vegetation
Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper movement, but dense
growth limits visibility to about 50 meters. You can easily lose your sense of direction in this jungle, and it is
extremely hard for aircraft to see you.
2. SECONDARY JUNGLES
Secondary jungle is very similar to rain forest. Prolific growth, where sunlight penetrates to the jungle floor,
typifies this type of forest. Such growth happens mainly along riverbanks, on jungle fringes, and where
man has cleared rain forest. When abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these
cultivated areas. You can often find cultivated food plants among this vegetation.
3. SEMI-EVERGREEN SEASONAL AND MONSOON FORESTS
The characteristics of the American and African semi evergreen seasonal forests correspond with those of
the Asian monsoon forests. The characteristics are as follows:
 Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story range from 18 to 24 meters;
those in the lower story range from 7 to 13 meters.
 The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
 Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical
rain forests.
You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America; in
portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much of
Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.
4. TROPICAL SCRUB AND THORN FORESTS
The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are as follows:
 There is a definite dry season.
 Trees are leafless during the dry season.
 The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
 Plants with thorns predominate.
 Fires occur frequently.

You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, the Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela,
and Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in Turkestan and India in Asia.
Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants during the dry
season. During the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.
5. TROPICAL SAVANNAS
The general characteristics of the savanna are:

 It is found within the tropical zones in South America and Africa.
 It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, with trees spaced at wide intervals.
 It is frequently has red soil.
 It grows scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms also occur on
savannas.
You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the Guianas in South America. In Africa, you find
them in the southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most
of Nigeria, Northeastern Republic of Congo, Northern Uganda, Western Kenya, parts of Malawi, Tanzania,
Southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Western Madagascar.
6. SALTWATER SWAMPS
Saltwater swamps are common in coastal areas subject to tidal flooding. Mangrove trees thrive in these
swamps. Mangrove trees can reach heights of 12 meters. Their tangled roots are an obstacle to
movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes,
streams that you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South
America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and
Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater
swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and
caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.
Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be able to use a
raft to escape.
7. FRESHWATER SWAMPS
You find freshwater swamps in low-lying inland areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny
undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult.
There are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant in
these swamps.
TRAVEL THROUGH JUNGLE AREAS
With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be done efficiently. Always wear long
sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop "jungle eye," that is, you should not concentrate on the pattern of bushes
and trees to your immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural breaks in the
foliage. Look through the jungle, not at it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look along the jungle floor. This
action may reveal game trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and take
your bearings. Use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily or you will quickly
wear yourself out. If using a machete, stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise because sound
carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to part the vegetation. Using a stick will also help dislodge
biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines when climbing slopes; they may have irritating
spines or sharp thorns.
Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently lead to water or
clearings. Use these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually, the
right-of-way is clear enough to allow easy travel. When travelling along these lines, be careful as you approach
transformer and relay stations. In enemy territory, they may be guarded.
Movement through jungles or dense vegetation requires you to constantly be alert and aware of your
surroundings. The following travel tips will help you succeed:
 Pinpoint your initial location as accurately as possible to determine a general line of travel to safety. If
you do not have a compass, use a field-expedient direction-finding method.
 Take stock of water supplies and equipment.
 Move in one direction, but not necessarily in a straight line. Avoid obstacles. In enemy territory, take
advantage of natural cover and concealment.
 Move smoothly through the jungle. Do not blunder through it since you will get many cuts and
scratches. Turn your shoulders, shift your hips, bend your body, and shorten or lengthen your stride as
necessary to slide between the undergrowth.
IMMEDIATE CONSIDERATIONS
There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy than in other survival situations.
You will probably have to travel to reach safety.
If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the crash site are a
machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are immediate
dangers, so protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass. Know what
direction you are taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any wound,
no matter how minor.
WATER PROCUREMENT
Although water is abundant in most tropical environments, you may have trouble finding it. If you do find water,
it may not be safe to drink. Some of the many sources are vines, roots, palm trees, and condensation. You can
sometimes follow animals to water. Often you can get nearly clear water from muddy streams or lakes by
digging a hole in sandy soil about 1 meter from the bank. Water will seep into the hole. You must purify any
water obtained in this manner.
1. ANIMALS — SIGNS OF WATER
Animals can often lead you to water. Most animals require water regularly. Grazing animals, such as deer,
are usually never far from water and usually drink at dawn and dusk. Converging game trails often lead to
water. Carnivores (meat eaters) are not reliable indicators of water. They get moisture from the animals
they eat and can go without water for long periods.
Birds can sometimes also lead you to water. Grain eaters, such as finches and pigeons, are never far from
water. They drink at dawn and dusk. When they fly straight and low, they are heading for water. When
returning from water, they are full and will fly from tree to tree, resting frequently. Do not rely on water birds
to lead you to water. They fly long distances without stopping. Hawks, eagles, and other birds of prey get
liquids from their victims; you cannot use them as a water indicator.
Insects, especially bees, can be good indicators of water. Bees seldom range more than 6 kilometers from
their nests or hives. They will usually have a water source in this range. Ants need water. A column of ants
marching up a tree is going to a small reservoir of trapped water. You find such reservoirs even in arid
areas. Most flies, especially the European mason fly, stay within 100 meters of water. This fly is easily
recognized by its iridescent green body.
Human tracks will usually lead to a well, bore hole, or soak. Scrub or rocks may cover it to reduce
evaporation. Replace the cover after use.
2. WATER — FROM PLANTS
You will encounter many types of vegetation in a survival situation depending upon your area. Plants such
as vines, roots, and palm trees are good sources of water.
a. Vines with rough bark and shoots about 5 centimeters thick can be a useful source of water. You
must learn by experience which are the water-bearing vines, because not all have drinkable water.
Some may even have a poisonous sap. The poisonous ones yield a sticky, milky sap when cut. Non-
poisonous vines will give a clear fluid. Some vines cause a skin irritation on contact; therefore let the
liquid drip into your mouth, rather than put your mouth to the vine. Preferably, use some type of
container.
b. Roots: In Australia, the water tree, desert oak, and bloodwood have roots near the surface. Pry these
roots out of the ground and cut them into 30-centimeter lengths. Remove the bark and suck out the
moisture, or shave the root to a pulp and squeeze it over your mouth.
c. Palm Trees: The buri, coconut, and nipa palms all contain a sugary fluid that is very good to drink. To
obtain the liquid, bend a flowering stalk of one of these palms downward, and cut off its tip. If you cut
a thin slice off the stalk every 12 hours, the flow will renew, making it possible to collect up to a liter
per day. Nipa palm shoots grow from the base, so that you can work at ground level. On grown trees
of other species, you may have to climb them to reach a flowering stalk. Milk from coconuts has large
water content, but may contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts. Drinking too much of this milk may cause
you to lose more fluid than you drink.
3. WATER—FROM CONDENSATION
Often it requires too much effort to dig for roots containing water. It may be easier to let the plant produce
water for you in the form of condensation. Tying a clear plastic bag around a green leafy branch will cause
water in the leaves to evaporate and condense in the bag. Placing cut vegetation in a plastic bag will also
produce condensation.
4. FOOD
Food is usually abundant in a tropical survival situation. In addition to animal food, you will have to
supplement your diet with edible plants. The best places to forage are the banks of streams and rivers.
Wherever the sun penetrates the jungle, there will be a mass of vegetation, but riverbanks may be the
most accessible areas.
If you are weak, do not expend energy climbing or felling a tree for food. There are more easily obtained
sources of food nearer the ground. Do not pick more food than you need. Food spoils rapidly in tropical
conditions. Leave food on the growing plant until you need it, and eat it fresh.
There are an almost unlimited number of edible plants from which to choose. Unless you can positively
identify these plants, it may be safer at first to begin with palms, bamboos, and common fruits.

EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS
In a survival situation, plants can provide food and medicine. Their safe usage requires absolutely positive
identification, knowing how to prepare them for eating, and knowing any dangerous properties they might
have. Familiarity with botanical structures of plants and information on where they grow will make them easier
to locate and identify.
EDIBLE/
HABITAT AND
MEDICINAL DESCRIPTION EDIBLE PARTS
DISTRIBUTION
PLANTS
Abal It is one of the few This plant is found in This plant’s general appearance
(Calligonum shrubby plants that desert scrub and waste would not indicate its usefulness to
comosum) exist in the shady in any climatic zone. It the survivor, but while this plant is
deserts. This plant inhabits much of the flowering in the spring, its fresh
grows to about 1.2 North African desert. It flowers can be eaten. This plant is
meters, and its may also be found on common in the areas where it is
branches look like the desert sands of the found. An analysis of the food value
wisps from a broom. Middle East and as far of this plant has shown it to be high
The stiff, green eastward as the in sugar and nitrogenous
branches produce an Rajputana desert of components.
abundance of flowers in Westen lndia.
the early spring months
(March, April).
Acacia It is a spreading, Acacia grows in open, Its young leaves, flowers, and pods
(Acacia usually short tree with sunny areas. It is found are edible raw or cooked.
Farnesiana) spines and alternate throughout all tropical
compound leaves. Its regions. Note: There
individual leaflets are are about 500 species
small. Its flowers are of acacia. These plants
ball-shaped, bright are especially prevalent
yellow, and very in Africa, southern Asia,
fragrant. Its bark is a and Australia, but many
whitish-gray color. Its species are found in
fruits are dark brown the warmer and drier
and pod like. parts of America.
Agave These plants have Agaves prefer dry, Its flowers and flower buds are
(Agave species) large clusters of thick, open areas. They are edible. Boil them before eating.
fleshy leaves borne found throughout CAUTION: The juice of some
close to the ground and Central America, the species causes dermatitis in some
surrounding a central Caribbean, and parts of individuals.
stalk. The plants flower the western deserts of Other Uses: Cut the huge flower
only once and die. They the United States and stalk and collect the juice for
produce a massive Mexico. drinking. Some species have very
flower stalk. fibrous leaves. Pound the leaves and
remove the fibers for weaving and
making ropes. Most species have
thick, sharp needles at the tips of the
leaves. Use them for sewing or
making hacks. The sap of some
species contains a chemical that
makes the sap suitable for use as
soap.
Almond The almond tree, which Almonds are found in The mature almond fruit splits open
(Prunus sometimes grows to the scrub and thorn lengthwise down the side, exposing
amygdalus) 12.2 meters, looks like forests of the tropics, the ripe almond nut. You can easily
a peach tree. The fresh the evergreen scrub get the dry kernel by simply cracking

almond fruit resembles forests of temperate open the stone. Almond meats are
a gnarled, unripe peach areas, and in desert rich in food value, like all nuts.
and grows in clusters. scrub and waste in all Gather them in large quantities and
The stone (the almond climatic zones. The shell them for further use as survival
itself) is covered with a almond tree is also food. You could live solely on
thick, dry, woolly skin. found in the semi almonds for rather long periods.
desert areas of the Old When you boil them, the kernel’s
World in southern outer covering comes off and only
Europe, the eastern the white meat remains.
Mediterranean, Iran,
the Middle East, China,
Madeira, the Azores,
and the Canary Islands.
Amaranth These plants, which Look for amaranth All parts are edible, but some may
(Amaranthus grow 90 – 150 along roadsides, in have sharp spines you should
species) centimeters tall, are disturbed waste areas, remove before eating. The young
abundant weeds in or as weeds in crops plants or the growing tips of alder
many parts of the throughout the world. plants are an excellent vegetable.
world. All amaranth Some amaranth Simply boil the young plants or eat
have alternate simple species have been them raw. Their seeds are very
leaves. They may have grown as a grain crop nutritious. Shake the tops of alder
some red color present and a garden vegetable plants to get the seeds. Eat the
on the stems. They in various parts of the seeds raw, boiled, ground into flour,
bear minute, greenish world, especially in or popped like popcorn.
flowers in dense South America.
clusters at the top of
the plants. Their seeds
may be brown or black
in weedy species and
light-colored in
domestic species.
Arctic willow It is a shrub that never It is common on You can collect the succulent, tender
(Salix arctica) exceeds more than 60 tundras in North young shoots of the arctic willow in
centimeters in height America, Europe, and early spring. Strip off the outer bark
and grows in clumps Asia. You can also find of the new shoots and eat the inner
that form dense mats it in some mountainous portion raw. You can also peel and
on the tundra. areas in temperate eat raw the young underground
regions. shoots of any of the various kinds of
arctic willow. Young willow leaves
are one of the richest sources of
vitamin C, containing 7 to 10 times
more than an orange.
Arrowroot It is an aquatic plant It is found worldwide in The rootstock is a rich source of high
(Maranta and with arrow-shaped temperate zones and quality starch. Boil the rootstock and
Sagittaria leaves and potato like the tropics. It is found in eat it as a vegetable.
species) tubers in the mud. moist to wet habitats.
Asparagus The spring growth of Asparagus is found Eat the young stems before leaves
(Asparagus this plant resembles a worldwide in temperate form. Steam or boil them for 10 to 15
officinalis) cluster of green fingers. areas. Look for it in minutes before eating. Raw
The mature plant has fields, old home sites, asparagus may cause nausea or
fernlike, wispy foliage and fencerows. diarrhea. The fleshy roots are a good
and red berries. Its source of starch.
flowers are small and
greenish in color.
Several species have
sharp, thorn like

structures.
Bael fruit This is a tree that grows It is found in rain The fruit, which ripens in December,
(Aegle from 2.4 to 4.6 meters forests and semi is at its best when just turning ripe.
marmelos) tall, with a dense spiny evergreen seasonal The juice of the ripe fruit, diluted with
growth. The fruit is 5 to forests of the tropics. It water and mixed with a small
10 centimeters in grows wild in India and amount of tamarind and sugar or
diameter, gray or Burma. honey, is sour but refreshing. Like
yellowish, and full of other citrus fruits, it is rich in vitamin
seeds. C.
Bamboo Bamboos are woody Look for bamboo in The young shoots of almost all
(Various species grasses that grow up to warm, moist regions in species are edible raw or cooked.
including 15 meters tall. The open or jungle country, Raw shoots have a slightly bitter
Bambusa, leaves are grass like in lowland, or on taste that is removed by boiling. To
Dendrocalamus, and the stems are the mountains. Bamboos prepare, remove the tough protective
Phyllostachys) familiar bamboo used in are native to the Far sheath that is coated with tawny or
furniture and fishing East (Temperate and red hairs. The seed grain of the
poles. Tropical zones) but flowering bamboo is also edible. Boil
have beans widely the seeds like rice or pulverize them,
planted around the mix with water, and make into cakes.
world. Other Uses: Use the mature bamboo
to build structures or to make
containers, ladles, spoons, and
various other cooking utensils. Also
use bamboo to make tools and
weapons. You can make a strong
bow by splitting the bamboo and
putting several pieces together.
CAUTION: Green bamboo may
explode in a fire. Green bamboo has
an internal membrane you must
remove before using it as a food or
water container.
Banana and These are treelike Look for bananas and Their fruits are edible, raw or
plantain plants with several plantains in open fields cooked. They may be boiled or
(Musa species) large leaves at the top. or margins of forests baked. You can boil their flowers and
Their flowers are borne where they are grown eat them like a vegetable. You can
in dense hanging as a crop. They grow in cook and eat the rootstocks and leaf
clusters. the humid tropics. sheaths of many species. The center
or "heart" of the plant is edible year-
round, cooked or raw.
Other Uses: You can use the layers
of the lower third of the plants to
cover coals to roast food. You can
also use their stumps to get water.
You can use their leaves to wrap
other foods for cooking or storage.
Baobab The tree may grow as These trees grow in You can use the young leaves as a
(Adansonia high as 18 meters and savannas. They are soup vegetable. The tender root of
digitata) may have a trunk 9 found in Africa, in parts the young baobab tree is edible. The
meters in diameter. The of Australia, and on the pulp and seeds of the fruit are also
tree has short, stubby island of Madagascar. edible. Use one handful of pulp to
branches and a gray, about one cup of water for a
thick bark. Its leaves refreshing drink. To obtain flour,
are compound and their roast the seeds, grind them.
segments are arranged Other Uses: Drinking a mixture of
like the palm of a hand. pulp and water will help cure

Its flowers, which are diarrhea. Often the hollow trunks are
white and several good sources of fresh water. The
centimeters across, bark can be cut into strips and
hang from the higher pounded to obtain a strong fiber for
branches. Its fruit is making rope.
shaped like a football,
measures up to 45
centimeters long, and is
covered with short
dense hair.
Batoko plum This shrub or small tree This plant is a native of Eat the fruit raw or cooked.
(Flacourtia has dark green, the Philippines but is
inermis) alternate, simple widely cultivated for its
leaves. Its fruits are fruit in other areas. It
bright red and contain can be found in
six or more seeds. clearings and at the
edges of the tropical
rain forests of Africa
and Asia.
Bearberry or This plant is a common This plant is found in Its berries are edible raw or cooked.
kinnikinnick evergreen shrub with arctic, subarctic, and You can make a refreshing tea from
(Arctostaphylos reddish, scaly bark and temperate regions, its young leaves.
uvaursi) thick, leathery leaves 4 most often in sandy or
centimeters long and 1 rocky soil.
centimeter wide. It has
white flowers and bright
red fruits.
Beech Beech trees are large This tree is found in the The mature beechnuts readily fall
(Fagus species) (9 to 24 meters), Temperate Zone. It out of the husk like seedpods. You
symmetrical forest trees grows wild in the can eat these dark brown triangular
that have smooth, light- eastern United States, nuts by breaking the thin shell with
gray bark and dark Europe, Asia, and your fingernail and removing the
green foliage. The North Africa. It is found white, sweet kernel inside.
character of its bark in moist areas, mainly Beechnuts are one of the most
plus its clusters of in the forests. This tree delicious of all wild nuts. They are a
prickly seedpods, is common throughout most useful survival food because of
clearly distinguish the Southeastern Europe the kernel’s high oil content. You can
beech tree in the field. and across temperate also use the beechnuts as a coffee
Asia. Beech relatives substitute. Roast them so that the
are also found in Chile, kernel becomes golden brown and
New Guinea, and New quite hard. Then pulverize the kernel
Zealand. and, after boiling or steeping in hot
water, you have a passable coffee
substitute.
Bignay It is a shrub or small This plant is found in The fruit is edible raw. Do not eat
(Antidesma tree, 3 to 12 meters tall, rain forests and semi any other parts of the tree. In Africa,
bunius) with shiny, pointed evergreen seasonal the roots are toxic. Other parts of the
leaves about 15 forests in the tropics. lt plant may be poisonous.
centimeters long. Its is found in open places CAUTION: Eaten in large quantities,
flowers are small, and in secondary the fruit may have a laxative effect.
clustered, and green. It forests. It grows wild
has fleshy, dark red or from the Himalayas to
black fruit and a single Ceylon and eastward
seed. The fruit is about through Indonesia to
1 centimeter in Northern Australia.
diameter. However, it may be

found anywhere in the
tropics in cultivated
forms.
Blackberry, These plants have These plants grow in The fruits and peeled young shoots
raspberry, and prickly stems (canes) open, sunny areas at are edible. Flavor varies greatly.
dewberry that grow upward, the margin of woods, Other Uses: Use the leaves to make
(Rubus species) arching back toward the lakes, streams, and tea. To treat diarrhea, drink a tea
ground. They have roads throughout made by brewing the dried root bark
alternate, usually temperate regions. of the blackberry bush.
compound leaves. There is also an arctic
Their fruits may be red, raspberry.
black, yellow, or
orange.
Blueberry and These shrubs vary in These plants prefer Their fruits are edible raw.
huckleberry size from 30 open, sunny areas.
(Vaccinium and centimeters to 3.7 They are found
Gaylussacia meters tall. All have throughout much of the
species) alternate, simple north temperate
leaves. Their fruits may regions and at higher
be dark blue, black, or elevations in Central
red and have many America.
small seeds.
Breadfruit This tree may grow up Look for this tree at the The fruit pulp is edible raw. The fruit
(Artocarpus to 9 meters tall. It has margins of forests and can be sliced, dried, and ground into
incise) dark green, deeply home sites in the humid flour for later use. The seeds are
divided leaves that are tropics. It is native to edible cooked.
75 centimeters long the South Pacific region Other Uses: The thick sap can
and 30 centimeters but has been widely serve as glue and caulking material.
wide. Its fruits are large, planted in the West You can also use it as birdlime (to
green, ball-like Indies and parts of entrap small birds by smearing the
structures up to 30 Polynesia. sap on twigs where they usually
centimeters across perch).
when mature.
Burdock This plant has wavy- Burdock is found Peel the tender leaf stalks and eat
(Arctium lappa) edged, arrow-shaped worldwide in the North them raw or cook them like greens.
leaves and flower Temperate Zone. Look The roots are also edible boiled or
heads in burr like for it in open waste baked.
clusters. It grows up to areas during the spring CAUTION: Do not confuse burdock
2 meters tall, with and summer. with rhubarb that has poisonous
purple or pink flowers leaves. Other Uses: A liquid made
and a large, fleshy root. from the roots will help to produce
sweating and increase urination. Dry
the root, simmer it in water, strain
the liquid, and then drink the strained
liquid. Use the fiber from the dried
stalk to weave cordage.
Burl Palm This tree may reach 18 This tree grows in The trunk contains starch that is
(Corypha elata) meters in height. It has coastal areas of the edible raw. The very tip of the trunk
large, fan-shaped East Indies. is also edible raw or cooked. You
leaves up to 3 meters can get large quantities of liquid by
long and split into about bruising the flowering stalk. The
100 narrow segments. kernels of the nuts are edible.
It bears flowers in huge CAUTION: The seed covering may
dusters at the top of the cause dermatitis in some individuals.
tree. The tree dies after Other Uses: You can use the leaves
flowering. as weaving material.
SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 10 | P a g e
Canna lily It is a coarse perennial As a wild plant, the The large and much branched
(Canna indica) herb, 90 centimeters to canna lily is found in all rootstocks are full of edible starch.
3 meters tall. The plant tropical areas, The younger parts may be finely
grows from a large, especially in moist chopped and then boiled or
thick, underground places along streams, pulverized into a meal. Mix in the
rootstock that is edible. springs, ditches, and young shoots of palm cabbage for
Its large leaves the margins of woods. flavoring.
resemble those of the It may also be found in
banana plant but are wet temperate,
not so large. The mountainous regions. It
flowers of wild canna is easy to recognize
lily are usually small, because it is commonly
relatively cultivated in flower
inconspicuous, and gardens in the United
brightly colored reds, States.
oranges, or yellows.
Carob tree This large tree has a This tree is found The young tender pods are edible
(Ceratonia spreading crown. Its throughout the raw or boiled. You can pulverize the
siliqua) leaves are compound Mediterranean, the seeds in mature pods and cook as
and alternate. Its Middle East, and parts porridge.
seedpods, also known of North Africa.
as Saint John’s bread,
are up to 45
centimeters long and
are filled with round,
hard seeds and a thick
pulp.
Cashew nut The cashew is a The cashew is native to The nut encloses one seed. The
(Anacardium spreading evergreen the West Indies and seed is edible when roasted. The
occidentale) tree growing to a height northern South pear-shaped fruit is juicy, sweet-
of 12 meters, with America, but acid, and astringent. It is quite safe
leaves up to 20 transplantation has and considered delicious by most
centimeters long and spread it to all tropical people who eat it.
10 centimeters wide. Its climates. In the Old CAUTION: The green hull
flowers are yellowish- World, it has escaped surrounding the nut contains a
pink. Its fruit is very from cultivation and resinous irritant poison that will
easy to recognize appears to be wild at blister the lips and tongue like poison
because of its peculiar least in parts of Africa ivy. Heat destroys this poison when
structure. The fruit is and India. roasting the nuts.
thick and pear-shaped,
pulpy and red or yellow
when ripe. This fruit
bears a hard, green,
kidney-shaped nut at its
tip. This nut is smooth,
shiny, and green or
brown according to its
maturity.
Cattail Cattails are grass like Cattails are found The young tender shoots are edible
(Typha latifolia) plants with strap- throughout most of the raw or cooked. The rhizome is often
shaped leaves 1 to 5 world. Look for them in very tough but is a rich source of
centimeters wide and full sun areas at the starch. Pound the rhizome to remove
growing up to 1.8 margins of lakes, the starch and use as flour. The
meters tall. The male streams, canals, rivers, pollen is also an exceptional source
flowers are borne in a and brackish water. of starch. When the cattail is
dense mass above the immature and still green, you can
female flowers. These boil the female portion and eat it like
last only a short time, corn on the cob.
leaving the female Other Uses: The dried leaves are an
flowers that develop excellent source of weaving material
into the brown cattail. you can use to make floats and rafts.
Pollen from the male The cottony seeds make good pillow
flowers is often stuffing and insulation. The fluff
abundant and bright makes excellent tinder. Dried cattails
yellow. are effective insect repellents when
burned.
Cereus cactus These cacti are tall and They may be found in The fruits are edible, but some may
(Cereus narrow with angled true deserts and other have a laxative effect.
species) stems and numerous dry, open, sunny areas Other Uses: The pulp of the cactus
spines. throughout the is a good source of water. Break
Caribbean region, open the stem and scoop out the
Central America, and pulp.
the western United
States.
Chestnut The European chestnut In temperate regions, Chestnuts are highly useful as
(Castanea is usually a large tree, the chestnut is found in survival food. Ripe nuts are usually
sativa) up to 18 meters in both hardwood and picked in autumn, although unripe
height. coniferous forests. In nuts picked while green may also be
the tropics, it is found in used for food. Perhaps the easiest
semi evergreen way to prepare them is to roast the
seasonal forests. They ripe nuts in embers. Cooked this
are found over all of way, they are quite tasty, and you
middle and south can eat large quantities. Another
Europe and across way is to boil the kernels after
middle Asia to China removing the outer shell. After being
and Japan. They are boiled until fairly soft, you can mash
relatively abundant the nuts like potatoes.
along the edge of
meadows and as a
forest tree. The
European chestnut is
one of the most
common varieties. Wild
chestnuts in Asia
belong to the related
chestnut species.
Chicory This plant grows up to Look for chicory in old All parts are edible. Eat the young
(Cichorium 1.8 meters tall. It has fields, waste areas, leaves as a salad or boil to eat as a
intybus) leaves clustered at the weedy lots, and along vegetable. Cook the roots as a
base of the stem and roads. It is a native of vegetable. For use as a coffee
some leaves on the Europe and Asia, but is substitute, roast the roots until they
stem. The base leaves also found in Africa and are dark brown and then pulverize
resemble those of the most of North America them.
dandelion. The flowers where it grows as a
are sky blue and stay weed.
open only on sunny
days. Chicory has a
milky juice.
Chufa This very common plant Chufa grows in moist The tubers are edible raw, boiled, or
(Cyperus has a triangular stem sandy areas throughout baked. You can also grind them and
esculentus) and grass like leaves. It the world. It is often an use them as a coffee substitute.
grows to a height of 20 abundant weed in
to 60 centimeters. The cultivated fields.
mature plant has a soft
fur like bloom that
extends from a whorl of
leaves. Tubers 1 to 2.5
centimeters in diameter
grow at the ends of the
roots.
Coconut This tree has a single, Coconut palms are The nut is a valuable source of food.
(Cocos nucifera) narrow, tall trunk with a found throughout the The milk of the young coconut is rich
cluster of very large tropics. They are most in sugar and vitamins and is an
leaves at the top. Each abundant near coastal excellent source of liquid. The nut
leaf may be over 6 regions. meat is also nutritious but is rich in
meters long with over oil. To preserve the meat, spread it
100 pairs of leaflets. in the sun until it is completely dry.
Other Uses: Use coconut oil to cook
and to protect metal objects from
corrosion. Also use the oil to treat
saltwater sores, sunburn, and dry
skin. Use the oil in improvised
torches. Use the tree trunk as
building material and the leaves as
thatch. Hollow out the large stump
for use as a food container. The
coconut husks are good flotation
devices and the husk’s fibers are
used to weave ropes and other
items. Use the gauzelike fibers at the
leaf bases as strainers or use them
to weave a bug net or to make a pad
to use on wounds. The husk makes
a good abrasive. The dried husk
fiber is an excellent tinder. A
smoldering husk helps to repel
mosquitoes. Smoke caused by
dripping coconut oil in a fire also
repels mosquitoes. To render
coconut oil, put the coconut meat in
the sun, heat it over a slow fire, or
boil it in a pot of water. Coconuts
washed out to sea are a good
source of fresh liquid for the sea
survivor.
Common jujube The common jujube is The jujube is found in The pulp, crushed in water, makes a
(Ziziphus jujube) either a deciduous tree forested areas of refreshing beverage. If time permits,
growing to a height of temperate regions and you can dry the ripe fruit in the sun
12 meters or a large in desert scrub and like dates. Its fruits are high in
shrub, depending upon waste areas worldwide. vitamins A and C.
where it grows and how It is common in many of
much water is available the tropical and
for growth. Its branches subtropical areas of the
are usually spiny. Its Old World. In Africa, it
reddish-brown to is found mainly
yellowish-green fruit is bordering the
oblong to ovoid, 3 Mediterranean. In Asia,
centimeters or less in it is especially common
diameter, smooth, and in the drier parts of
sweet in flavor, but has India and China. The
rather dry pulp around jujube is also found
a comparatively large throughout the East
stone. Its flowers are Indies. It can be found
green. bordering some desert
areas.
Cranberry This plant has tiny It only grows in open, The berries are very tart when eaten
(Vaccinium leaves arranged sunny, wet areas in the raw. Cook in a small amount of
macrocarpon) alternately. Its stem colder regions of the water and add sugar, if available, to
creeps along the Northern Hemisphere. make a jelly.
ground. Its fruits are red Other Uses: Cranberries may act as
berries. a diuretic. They are useful for
treating urinary tract infections.
Crowberry This is a dwarf Look for this plant in The fruits are edible fresh or can be
(Empetrum evergreen shrub with tundra throughout arctic dried for later use.
nigrum) short needle-like regions of North
leaves. It has small, America and Eurasia.
shiny, black berries that
remain on the bush
throughout the winter.
Cuipo tree This is a very dominant The cuipo tree is To get water from this tree, cut a
(Cavanillesia and easily detected tree located primarily in piece of the root and clean the dirt
platanifolia) because it extends Central American and bark off one end, keeping the
above the other trees. tropical rain forests in root horizontal. Put the clean end to
Its height ranges from mountainous areas. your mouth or canteen and raise the
45 to 60 meters. It has other. The water from this tree tastes
leaves only at the top like potato water.
and is bare 11 months Other Uses: Use young saplings
out of the year. It has and the branches’ inner bark to
rings on its bark that make rope.
extend to the top to
make is easily
recognizable. Its bark is
reddish or gray in color.
Its roots are light
reddish-brown or
yellowish-brown.
Dandelion Dandelion leaves have Dandelions grow in All parts are edible. Eat the leaves
(Taraxacum jagged edge, grow open, sunny locations raw or cooked. Boil the roots as a
officinale) close to the ground, throughout the vegetable. Roots roasted and
and are seldom more Northern Hemisphere. grounds are good coffee substitute.
than 20 centimeters Dandelions are high in vitamins A
long. Its flowers are and C and in calcium.
bright yellow. There are Other Uses: Use the white juice in
several dandelion the flower stems as glue.
species.
Date palm The date palm is a tall, This tree grows in arid Its fruit is edible fresh but is very
(Phoenix unbranched tree with a semitropical regions. It bitter if eaten before it is ripe. You
dactylifera) crown of huge, is native to North Africa can dry the fruits in the sun and
compound leaves. Its and the Middle East but preserve them for a long time.
fruit is yellow when ripe. has been planted in the Other Uses: The trunks provide
arid semi-tropics in valuable building material in desert
other parts of the world. regions where few other treelike
plants are found. The leaves are
durable and you can use them for
thatching and as weaving material.
The base of the leaves resembles
coarse cloth that you can use for
scrubbing and cleaning.
Daylily This plant has Daylilies are found The young green leaves are edible
(Hemerocallis unspotted, tawny worldwide in Tropic and raw or cooked. Tubers are also
fulva) blossoms that open for Temperate Zones. edible raw or cooked. You can eat its
1 day only. It has long, They are grown as a flowers raw, but they taste better
sword like, green basal vegetable in the Orient cooked. You can also fry the flowers
leaves. Its root is a and as an ornamental for storage.
mass of swollen and plant elsewhere. CAUTION: Eating excessive
elongated tubers. amounts of raw flowers may cause
diarrhea.
Duchesnea or It is a small plant that It is native to southern Its fruit is edible. Eat it fresh.
Indian has runners and three- Asia but is a common
strawberry parted leaves. Its weed in warmer
(Duchesnea flowers are yellow and temperate regions.
indica) its fruit resembles a Look for it in lawns,
strawberry. gardens, and along
roads.
Elderberry Elderberry is a many- This plant is found in The flowers and fruits are edible.
(Sambucus stemmed shrub with open, usually wet areas You can make a drink by soaking the
Canadensis) opposite, compound at the margins of flower heads for 8 hours, discarding
leaves. It grows to a marshes, rivers, the flowers, and drinking the liquid.
height of 6 meters. Its ditches, and lakes. It CAUTION: All other parts of the
flowers are fragrant, grows throughout much plant are poisonous and dangerous
white, and borne in of eastern North if eaten.
large flat-topped America and Canada.
clusters up to 30
centimeters across. Its
berrylike fruits are dark
blue or black when ripe.
Fireweed This plant grows up to Tall fireweed is found in The leaves, stems, and flowers are
(Epilobium 1.8 meters tall. It has open woods, on edible in the spring but become
angustifolium) large, showy, pink hillsides, on stream tough in summer. You can split open
flowers and lance- banks, and near the stems of old plants and eat the
shaped leaves. Its seashores in arctic pith raw.
relative, the dwarf regions. It is especially
fireweed (Epilobium abundant in burned-
latifolium), grows 30 to over areas. Dwarf
60 centimeters tall. fireweed is found along
streams, sandbars, and
lakeshores and on
alpine and arctic
slopes.
Fishtail palm Fishtail palms are large The fishtail palm is The chief food in this palm is the
(Caryota urens) trees, at least 18 native to the tropics of starch stored in large quantities in its
meters tall. Their leaves India, Assam, and trunk. The juice from the fishtail palm
are unlike those of any Burma. Several related is very nourishing and you have to
other palm; the leaflets species also exist in drink it shortly after getting it from
are irregular and Southeast Asia and the the palm flower shoot. Boil the juice
toothed on the upper Philippines. These down to get rich sugar syrup. Use
margins. All other palms are found in the same method as for the sugar
palms have either fan- open hill country and palm to get the juice. The palm
shaped or featherlike jungle areas. cabbage may be eaten raw or
leaves. Its massive cooked.
flowering shoot is borne
at the top of the tree
and hangs downward.
Foxtail grass This weedy grass is Look for foxtail grasses The grains are edible raw but are
(Setaria readily recognized by in open, sunny areas, very hard and sometimes bitter.
species) the narrow, cylindrical along roads, and at the Boiling removes some of the
head containing long margins of fields. Some bitterness and makes them easier to
hairs. Its grains are species occur in wet, eat.
small, less than 6 marshy areas. Species
millimeters long. The of Setaria are found
dense heads of grain throughout the United
often droop when ripe. States, Europe,
western Asia, and
tropical Africa. In some
parts of the world,
foxtail grasses are
grown as a food crop.
Goa bean The goa bean is a This plant grows in You can eat the young pods like
(Psophocarpus climbing plant that may tropical Africa, Asia, the string beans. The mature seeds are
tetragonolobus) cover small shrubs and East Indies, the a valuable source of protein after
trees. Its bean pods are Philippines, and parching or roasting them over hot
22 centimeters long, its Taiwan. This member coals. You can germinate the seeds
leaves 15 centimeters of the bean (legume) (as you can many kinds of beans) in
long, and its flowers are family serves to damp moss and eat the resultant
bright blue. The mature illustrate a kind of sprouts. The thickened roots are
pods are 4-angled, with edible bean common in edible raw. They are slightly sweet,
jagged wings on the the tropics of the Old with the firmness of an apple. You
pods. World. Wild edible can also eat the young leaves as a
beans of this sort are vegetable, raw or steamed.
most frequently found
in clearings and around
abandoned garden
sites. They are rarer in
forested areas.
Hackberry Hackberry trees have This plant is Its berries are edible when they are
(Celtis species) smooth, gray bark that widespread in the ripe and fall from the tree.
often has corky warts or United States,
ridges. The tree may especially in and near
reach 39 meters in ponds.
height. Hackberry trees
have long-pointed
leaves that grow in two
rows. This tree bears
small, round berries
that can be eaten when
they are ripe and fall
from the tree. The wood
of the hackberry is
yellowish.
Hazelnut or wild Hazelnuts grow on Hazelnuts are found Hazelnuts ripen in the autumn when
filbert bushes 1.8 to 3.6 over wide areas in the you can crack them open and eat
(Corylus meters high. One United States, the kernel. The dried nut is
species) species in Turkey and especially the eastern extremely delicious. The nut’s high
another in China are half of the country and oil content makes it a good survival
large trees. The nut along the Pacific coast. food. In the unripe stage, you can
itself grows in a very These nuts are also crack them open and eat the fresh
bristly husk that found in Europe where kernel.
conspicuously contracts they are known as
above the nut into a filberts. The hazelnut is
long neck. The different common in Asia,
species vary in this especially in eastern
respect as to size and Asia from the
shape. Himalayas to China
and Japan. The
hazelnut usually grows
in the dense thickets
along stream banks
and open places. They
are not plants of the
dense forest.
Horseradish tree This tree grows from This tree is found in the The leaves are edible raw or cooked,
(Moringa 4.5 to 14 meters tall. Its rain forests and semi- depending on their hardness. Cut
pterygosperma) leaves have a fernlike evergreen seasonal the young seedpods into short
appearance. Its flowers forests of the tropical lengths and cook them like string
and long, pendulous regions. It is beans or fry them. You can get oil for
fruits grow on the ends widespread in India, frying by boiling the young fruits of
of the branches. Its fruit Southeast Asia, Africa, palms and skimming the oil off the
(pod) looks like a giant and Central America. surface of the water. You can eat the
bean. Its 25- to 60- Look for it in flowers as part of a salad. You can
centimeter-long pods abandoned fields and chew fresh, young seedpods to eat
are triangular in cross gardens and at the the pulpy and soft seeds. The roots
section, with strong edges of forests. may be ground as a substitute for
ribs. Its roots have a seasoning similar to horseradish.
pungent odor.
Iceland moss This moss grows only a Look for it in open All parts of the Iceland moss are
(Cetraria few inches high. Its areas. It is found only in edible. During the winter or dry
islandica) color may be gray, the arctic. season, it is dry and crunchy but
white, or even reddish. softens when soaked. Boil the moss
to remove the bitterness. After
boiling, eat it or add to milk or grains
as a thickening agent. Dried plants
store well.
Indian potato or All Claytonia species Some species are The tubers are edible but you should
Eskimo potato are somewhat fleshy found in rich forests boil them before eating.
(Claytonia plants only a few where they are
species) centimeters tall, with conspicuous before the
showy flowers about leaves develop.
2.5 centimeters across. Western species are
found throughout most
of the northern United
States and in Canada.
Juniper Junipers, sometimes Look for junipers in The berries and twigs are edible. Eat
(Juniperus called cedars, are trees open, dry, sunny areas the berries raw or roast the seeds to
species) or shrubs with very throughout North use as a coffee substitute. Use dried
small, scale like leaves America and northern and crushed berries as a seasoning
densely crowded Europe. Some species for meat. Gather young twigs to
around the branches. are found in make a tea.
Each leaf is less than Southeastern Europe, CAUTION: Many plants may be
1.2 centimeters long. across Asia to Japan, called cedars but are not related to
All species have a and in the mountains of junipers and may be harmful. Always
distinct aroma North Africa. look for the berrylike structures,
resembling the well- needle leaves, and resinous,
known cedar. The fragrant sap to be sure the plant you
berrylike cones are have is a juniper.
usually blue and
covered with a whitish
wax.
Lotus There are two species The yellow-flowered All parts of the plant are edible raw
(Nelumbo of lotus: one has yellow lotus is native to North or cooked. The underwater parts
species) flowers and the other America. The pink- contain large quantities of starch.
pink flowers. The flowered species, which Dig the fleshy portions from the mud
flowers are large and is widespread in the and bake or boil them. Boil the
showy. The leaves, Orient, is planted in young leaves and eat them as a
which may float on or many other areas of the vegetable. The seeds have a
rise above the surface world. Lotuses are pleasant flavor and are nutritious.
of the water which often found in quiet fresh Eat them raw, or parch and grind
reach 1.5 meters in water. them into flour.
radius. The fruit has a
distinctive flattened
shape and contains up
to 20 hard seeds.
Malanga This plant has soft, This plant grows widely The tubers are rich in starch. Cook
(Xanthosoma arrow-shaped leaves, in the Caribbean them before eating to destroy a
caracu) up to 60 centimeters region. Look for it in poison contained in all parts of the
long. The leaves have open, sunny fields. plant.
no above ground
stems.
Mango This tree may reach 30 This tree grows in The fruits area nutritious food
(Mangifera meters in height. It has warm, moist regions. It source. The unripe fruit can be
indica) alternate, simple, is native to Northern peeled and its flesh eaten by
shiny, dark green India, Burma, and shredding it and eating it like a
leaves. Its flowers are western Malaysia. It is salad. The ripe fruit can be peeled
small and now grown throughout and eaten raw. Roasted seed
inconspicuous. Its fruits the tropics. kernels are edible.
have a large single CAUTION: If you are sensitive to
seed. There are many poison ivy, avoid eating mangoes, as
cultivated varieties of they cause a severe reaction in
mango. Some have red sensitive individuals.
flesh, others yellow or
orange, often with
many fibers and a
kerosene taste.
Manioc Manioc is a perennial Manioc is widespread The rootstocks are full of starch and
(Manihot shrubby plant, 1 to 3 in all tropical climates, high in food value. Two kinds of
utillissima) meters tall, with jointed particularly in moist manioc are known: bitter and sweet.
stems and deep green, areas. Although Both are edible. The bitter type
finger-like leaves. It has cultivated extensively, it contains poisonous hydrocyanic
large, fleshy rootstocks. may be found in acid. To prepare manioc, first grind
abandoned gardens the fresh manioc root into a pulp,
and growing wild in then cook it for at least 1 hour to
many areas. remove the bitter poison from the
roots. Then flatten the pulp into
cakes and bake as bread. Manioc
cakes or flour will keep almost
indefinitely if protected against
insects and dampness. Wrap them
in banana leaves for protection.
CAUTION: For safety, always cook
the roots of either type.
Marsh marigold This plant has rounded, This plant is found in All parts are edible if boiled.
(Caltha dark green leaves bogs, lakes, and slow- CAUTION: As with all water plants,
palustris) arising from a short moving streams. It is do not eat this plant raw. Raw water
stem. It has bright abundant in arctic and plants may carry dangerous
yellow flowers. sub-arctic regions and organisms that are removed only by
in much of the eastern cooking.
region of the Northern
United States.
Mulberry This tree has alternate, These are found in The fruit is edible raw or cooked. It
(Morus species) simple, often lobed forests, along can be dried for eating later.
leaves with rough roadsides, and in CAUTION: When eaten in quantity,
surfaces. Its fruits are abandoned fields in mulberry fruit acts as a laxative.
blue or black and many Temperate and Green, unripe fruit can be
seeded. Tropical Zones of North hallucinogenic and cause extreme
America, South nausea and cramps.
America, Europe, Asia, Other Uses: You can shred the
and Africa. inner bark of the tree and use it to
make twine or cord.
Nettle These plants grow Nettles prefer moist Young shoots and leaves are edible.
(Urtica and several feet high. They areas along streams or Boiling the plant for 10 to 15 minutes
Laportea have small, at the margins of destroys the stinging element of the
species) inconspicuous flowers. forests. They are found bristles. This plant is very nutritious.
Fine, hair-like bristles throughout North Other Uses: Mature stems have a
cover the stems, America, Central fibrous layer that you can divide into
leafstalks, and America, the individual fibers and use to weave
undersides of leaves. Caribbean, and string or twine.
The bristles cause a northern Europe.
stinging sensation
when they touch the
skin.
Nips palm This palm has a short, This palm is common The young flower stalk and the
(Nips fruticans) mainly underground on muddy shores in seeds provide a good source of
trunk and very large, coastal regions water and food. Cut the flower stalk
erect leaves up to 6 throughout Eastern and collect the juice. The juice is rich
meters tall. The leaves Asia. in sugar. The seeds are hard but
are divided into leaflets. edible.
A flowering head forms Other Uses: The leaves are
on a short erect stern excellent as thatch and coarse
that rises among the weaving material.
palm leaves. The
fruiting (seed) head is
dark brown and may be
30 centimeters in
diameter.
Oak Oak trees have Oak trees are found in All parts are edible, but often contain
(Quercus alternate leaves and many habitats large quantities of bitter substances.
species) acorn fruits. There are throughout North White oak acorns usually have a
two main groups of America, Central better flavor than red oak acorns.
oaks: red and white. America, and parts of Gather and shell the acorns. Soak
The red oak group has Europe and Asia. red oak acorns in water for 1 to 2
leaves with bristles and days to remove the bitter substance.
smooth bark in the You can speed up this process by
upper part of the tree. putting wood ashes in the water in
Red oak acorns take 2 which you soak the acorns. Boil the
years to mature. The acorns or grind them into flour and
white oak group has use the flour for baking. You can use
leaves without bristles acorns that you baked until very dark
and a rough bark in the as a coffee substitute.
upper portion of the CAUTION: Tannic acid gives the
tree. White oak acorns acorns their bitter taste. Eating an
mature in 1 year. excessive amount of acorns high in
tannic acid can lead to kidney failure.
Before eating acorns, leach out this
chemical.
Other Uses: Oak wood is excellent
for building or burning. Small oaks
can be split and cut into long thin
strips (3 to 6 millimeters thick and
1.2 centimeters wide) used to weave
mats, baskets, or frameworks for
packs, sleds, furniture, etc. Oak bark
soaked in water produces a tanning
solution used to preserve leather.
Orach This plant is vine-like in Orach species are The entire plant is edible raw or
(Atriplex growth and has entirety restricted to boiled.
species) arrowhead-shaped, salty soils. They are
alternate leaves up to 5 found along North
cenitmeters long. America’s coasts and
Young leaves maybe on the shores of
silver-colored. Its alkaline lakes inland.
flowers and fruits are They are also found
small and along seashores from
inconspicuous. the Mediterranean
countries to inland
areas in North Africa
and eastward to Turkey
and central Siberia.
Palmetto palm It is a tall, unbranched The palmetto palm is The fruits are edible raw. The hard
(Sabal palmetto) tree with persistent leaf found throughout the seeds may be ground into flour. The
bases on most of the coastal regions of the heart of the palm is a nutritious food
trunk. The leaves are Southeastern United source at any time. Cut off the top of
large, simple, and States. the tree to obtain the palm heart.
palmately lobed. Its
fruits are dark blue or
black with a hard seed.
Papaya or The papaya is a small Papaya is found in rain The ripe fruit is high in vitamin C. Eat
pawpaw tree 1.8 to 6 meters tall, forests and semi it raw or cock it like squash. Place
(Carica papaya) with a soft, hollow evergreen seasonal green fruit in the sun to make it ripen
trunk. When cut, the forests in tropical quickly. Cook the young papaya
entire plant exudes a regions and in some leaves, flowers, and stems carefully,
milky juice. The trunk is temperate regions as changing the water as for taro.
rough and the leaves well. Look for it in moist CAUTION: Be careful not to get the
are crowded at the areas near clearings milky sap from the unripe fruit into
trunk's apex. The fruit and former habitations. your eyes. It will cause intense pain
grows directly from the It is also found in open, and temporary—sometimes even
trunk, among and sunny places in permanent—blindness. Other Uses:
below the leaves. The uninhabited jungle Use the milky juice of the unripe fruit
fruit is green before areas. to tenderize tough meat. Rub the
ripening. When ripe, it juice on the meat.
turns yellow or remains
greenish with a squash
like appearance.
Persimmon These trees have The persimmon is a The leaves are a good source of
(Diospyros alternate, dark green, common forest margin vitamin C. The fruits are edible raw
virginiana and elliptic leaves with tree. It is wide spread in or baked. To make tea, dry the
other species) entire margins. The Africa, eastern North leaves and soak them in hot water.
flowers are America, and the Far You can eat the roasted seeds.
inconspicuous. The East. CAUTION: Some persons are
fruits are orange, have unable to digest persimmon pulp.
a sticky consistency, Unripe persimmons are highly
and have several astringent and inedible.
seeds.
Pincushion Members of this cactus These cacti are found They are a good source of water in
cactus group are round, short, throughout much of the the desert.
(Mammilaria barrel-shaped, and desert regions of the
species) without leaves. Sharp western United States
spines cover the entire and parts of Central
plant. America.
Pine Pine trees are easily Pines prefer open, The seeds of all species are edible.
(Pinus species) recognized by their sunny areas. They are You can collect the young male
needle-like leaves found throughout North cones, which grow only in the spring,
grouped in bundles. America, Central as a survival food. Boil or bake the
Each bundle may America, much of the young cones. The bark of young
contain one to five Caribbean region, twigs is edible. Peel off the bark of
needles, the number North Africa, the Middle thin twigs. You can chew the juicy
varying among species. East, Europe, and inner bark; it is rich in sugar and
The tree’s odor and some places in Asia. vitamins. Eat the seeds raw or
sticky sap provide a cooked. Green pine needle tea is
simple way to high in vitamin C.
distinguish pines from Other Uses: Use the resin to
similar looking trees waterproof articles. Also use it as
with needle-like leaves. glue. Collect the resin from the tree.
If there is not enough resin on the
tree, cut a notch in the bark so more
sap will seep out. Put the resin in a
container and heat it. The hot resin
is your glue. Use it as is or add a
small amount of ash dust to
strengthen it. Use it immediately.
You can use hardened pine resin as
an emergency dental filling.
Plantain, broad The broad leaf plantain Look for these plants in The young tender leaves are edible
and narrow leaf has leaves over 2.5 lawns and along roads raw. Older leaves should be cooked.
(Plantago centimeters across that in the North Temperate Seeds are edible raw or roasted.
species) grow close to the Zone. This plant is a Other Uses: To relieve pain from
ground. The flowers are common weed wounds and sores, wash and soak
on a spike that rises throughout much of the the entire plant for a short time and
from the middle of the world. apply it to the injured area. To treat
cluster of leaves. The diarrhea, drink tea made from 28
narrow leaf plantain has grams (1 ounce) of the plant leaves
leaves up to 12 boiled in 0.5 liter of water. The seeds
centimeters long and and seed husks act as laxatives.
2.5 centimeters wide,
covered with hairs. The
leaves form a rosette.
The flowers are small
and inconspicuous.
Pokeweed This plant may grow as Look for this plant in The young leaves and stems are
(Phytolacca high as 3 meters. Its open, sunny areas in edible cooked. Boil them twice,
Americana) leaves are elliptic and forest clearings, in discarding the water from the first
up to 1 meter in length. fields, and along boiling. The fruits are edible if
It produces many large roadsides in eastern cooked.
clusters of purple fruits North America, Central CAUTION: All parts of this plant are
in late spring. America, and the poisonous if eaten raw. Never eat
Caribbean. the underground portions of the plant
as these contain the highest
concentrations of the poisons. Do
not eat any plant over 25
centimeters tall or when red is
showing in the plant.
Other Uses: Use the juice of fresh
berries as a dye.
Prickly pear This cactus has flat, This cactus is found in All parts of the plant are edible. Peel
cactus pad-like stems that are arid and semiarid the fruits and eat them fresh or crush
(Opuntia green. Many round, regions and in dry, them to prepare a refreshing drink.
species) furry dots that contain sandy areas of wetter Avoid the tiny, pointed hairs. Roast
sharp-pointed hairs regions throughout the seeds and grind them to flour.
cover these stems. most of the United CAUTION: Avoid any prickly pear
States and Central and cactus like plant with milky sap.
South America. Some Other Uses: The pad is a good
species are planted in source of water. Peel it carefully to
arid and semiarid remove all sharp hairs before putting
regions of other parts of it in your mouth. You can also use
the world. the pads to promote healing. Split
them and apply the pulp to wounds.
Pursiane This plant grows close It grows in full sun in All parts are edible. Wash and boil
(Portulaca to the ground. It is cultivated fields, field the plants for a tasty vegetable or
oleracea) seldom more than a margins, and other eat them raw. Use the seeds as a
few centimeters tall. Its weedy areas flour substitute or eat them raw.
stems and leaves are throughout the world.
fleshy and often tinged
with red. It has paddle
shaped leaves, 2.5
centimeter or less long,
clustered at the tips of
the stems. Its flowers
are yellow or pink. Its
seeds are tiny and
black.
Rattan palm The rattan palm is a The rattan palm is Rattan palms hold a considerable
(CaIamus stout, robust climber. It found from tropical amount of starch in their young stem
species) has hooks on the midrib Africa through Asia to tips. You can eat them roasted or
of its leaves that it uses the East Indies and raw. In other kinds, a gelatinous
to remain attached to Australia. It grows pulp, either sweet or sour, surrounds
trees on which it grows. mainly in rain forests. the seeds. You can suck out this
Sometimes, mature pulp. The palm heart is also edible
stems grow to 90 raw or cooked.
meters. It has alternate, Other Uses: You can obtain large
compound leaves and a amounts of potable water by cutting
whitish flower. the ends of the long stems. The
stems can be used to make baskets
and fish traps.
Reed This tall, coarse grass Look for reed in any All parts of the plant are edible raw
(Phragmites grows to 3.5 meters tall open, wet area, or cooked in any season. Harvest
australis) and has gray-green especially one that has the stems as they emerge from the
leaves about 4 been disturbed through soil and boil them. You can also
centimeters wide. It has dredging. Reed is harvest them just before they
large masses of brown found throughout the produce flowers, then dry and beat
flower branches in early temperate regions of them into flour. You can also dig up
summer. These rarely both the Northern and and boil the underground stems, but
produce grain and Southern Hemispheres. they are often tough. Seeds are
become fluffy, gray edible raw or boiled, but they are
masses late in the rarely found.
season.
Reindeer moss Reindeer moss is a Look for this lichen in The entire plant is edible but has a
(Cladonia low-growing plant only open, dry areas. It is crunchy, brittle texture. Soak the
rangiferina) a few centimeters tall. It very common in much plant in water with some wood ashes
does not flower but of North America. to remove the bitterness, then dry,
does produce bright red crush, and add it to milk or to other
reproductive structures. food.
Rock tripe This plant forms large Look on rocks and The entire plant is edible. Scrape it
(Umbilicaria patches with curling boulders for this plant. off the rock and wash it to remove
species) edges. The top of the It is common grit. The plant may be dry and
plant is usually black. throughout North crunchy; soak it in water until it
The underside is lighter America. becomes soft. Rock tripe may
in color. contain large quantities of bitter
substances; soaking or boiling them
in several changes of water will
remove the bitterness.
CAUTION: There are some reports
of poisoning from rock tripe, so apply
the Universal Edibility Test
Rose apple This tree grows 3 to 9 This tree is widely The entire fruit is edible raw or
(Eugenia meters high. It has planted in all of the cooked.
jambos) opposite, simple, dark tropics. It can also be
green, shiny leaves. found in a semi wild
When fresh, it has state in thickets, waste
fluffy, yellowish-green places, and secondary
flowers and red to forests.
purple egg-shaped fruit.
Sago palm These palms are low Sago palm is found in These palms, when available, are of
(Metroxylon trees, rarely over 9 tropical rain forests. It great use to the survivor. One trunk,
sagu) meters tall, with a stout, flourishes in damp cut just before it flowers, will yield
spiny trunk. The outer lowlands in the Malay enough sago to feed a person for 1
rind is about 5 Peninsula, New year. Obtain sago starch from non-
centimeters thick and Guinea, Indonesia, the flowering palms. To extract the
hard as bamboo. The Philippines, and edible sage, cut away the bark
rind encloses a spongy adjacent islands. It is lengthwise from one half of the trunk,
inner pith containing a found mainly in and pound the soft, whitish inner part
high proportion of swamps and along (pith) as fine as possible. Knead the
starch. It has typical streams, lakes, and pith in water and strain it through a
palm like leaves rivers. coarse cloth into a container. The
clustered at the tip. fine, white sago will settle in the
container. Once the sago settles, it is
ready for use. Squeeze off the
excess water and let it dry. Cook it
as pancakes or oatmeal. Two
kilograms of sago is the nutritional
equivalent of 1.5 kilograms of rice.
The upper part of the trunk’s core
does not yield sage, but you can
roast it in lumps over a fire. You can
also eat the young sago nuts and the
growing shoots or palm cabbage.
Other Uses: Use the stems of tall
sorghums as thatching materials.
Sassafras This shrub or small tree Sassafras grows at the The young twigs and leaves are
(Sassafras bears different leaves margins of roads and edible fresh or dried. You can add
albidum) on the same plant. forests, usually in open, dried young twigs and leaves to
Some leaves will have sunny areas. It is a soups. Dig the underground portion,
one lobe, some two common tree peel off the bark, and let it dry. Then
lobes, and some no throughout eastern boil it in water to prepare sassafras
lobes. The flowers, North America. tea.
which appear in early Other Uses: Shred the tender twigs
spring, are small and for use as a toothbrush.
yellow. The fruits are
dark blue. The plant
parts have a
characteristics root
beer smell.
Saxaul The saxaul is found The saxaul is found in The thick bark acts as a water
(Haloxylon either as a small tree or desert and arid areas. It storage organ. You can get drinking
ammondendron) as a large shrub with is found on the arid salt water by pressing quantities of the
heavy, coarse wood deserts of Central Asia, bark. This plant is an important some
and spongy, water- particularly in the of water in the arid regions in which
soaked bark. The Turkestan region and it grows.
branches of the young east of the Caspian
trees are vivid green Sea.
and pendulous. The
flowers are small and
yellow.
Screw pine The screw pine is a The screw pine is a Knock the ripe fruit to the ground to
(Pandanus strange plant on stilts, tropical plant that grows separate the fruit segments from the
species) or prop roots, that in rain forests and semi hard outer covering. Chew the inner
support the plant above evergreen seasonal fleshy part. Cook fruit that is not fully
ground so that it forests. It is found ripe in an earth oven. Before
appears more or less mainly along cooking, wrap the whole fruit in
suspended in midair. seashores, although banana leaves, breadfruit leaves, or
These plants are either certain kinds occur any other suitable thick, leathery
shrubby or treelike, 3 to inland for some leaves. After cooking for about 2
9 meters tall, with stiff distance, from hours, you can chew fruit segments
leaves having saw-like Madagascar to like ripe fruit. Green fruit is inedible.
edges. The fruits are southern Asia and the
large, roughened balls islands of the
resembling pineapples, Southwestern Pacific.
but without the tuft of There are about 180
leaves at the end. types.
Sea orach The sea orach is a The sea orach is found Its leaves are edible. In the areas
(Atriplex sparingly branched in highly alkaline and where it grows, it has the healthy
halimus) herbaceous plant with salty areas along reputation of being one of the few
small, gray-colored seashores from the native plants that can sustain man in
leaves up to 2.5 Mediterranean times of want.
centimeters long. Sea countries to inland
orach resembles Iamb's areas in North Africa
quarter, a common and eastward to Turkey
weed in most gardens and central Siberia.
in the United States. It Generally, it can be
produces its flowers in found in tropical scrub
narrow, densely and thorn forests,
compacted spikes at steppes in temperate
the tips of its branches. regions, and most
desert scrub and waste
areas.
Sheep sorrel These plants are Look for these plants in The plants are edible raw or cooked.
(Rumex seldom more than 30 old fields and other CAUTION: These plants contain
acerosella) centimeters tall. They disturbed areas in oxalic acid that can be damaging if
have alternate leaves, North America and too many plants are eaten raw.
often with arrow like Europe. Cooking seems to destroy the
bases, very small chemical.
flowers, and frequently
reddish stems.
Sorghum There are many Sorghum is found The grains are edible at any stage of
(Sorghum different kinds of worldwide, usually in development. When young, the
species) sorghum, all of which warmer climates. All grains are milky and edible raw. Boil
bear grains in heads at species are found in the older grains. Sorghum is a
the top of the plants. open, sunny areas. nutritious food.
The grains are brown, Other Uses: Use the stems of tall
white, red, or black. sorghum as building materials.
Sorghum is the main
food crop in many parts
of the world.
Spatterdock or This plant has leaves These plants grow All parts of the plant are edible. The
yellow water lily up to 60 centimeters throughout most of fruits contain several dark brown
(Nuphar long with a triangular North America. They seeds you can parch or roast and
species) notch at the base. The are found in quiet, then grind into flour. The large
shape of the leaves is fresh, shallow water rootstock contains starch. Dig it out
somewhat variable. The (never deeper than 1.8 of the mud, peel off the outside, and
plant’s yellow flowers meters). boil the flesh. Sometimes the
are 2.5 centimeter rootstock contains large quantities of
across and develop into a very bitter compound. Boiling in
bottle-shaped fruits. several changes of water may
The fruits are green remove the bitterness.
when ripe.
Sterculia Sterculias are tall trees, There are over 100 The large, red pods produce a
(Sterculia rising in some species of sterculias number of edible seeds. The seeds
foetida) instances to 30 meters. distributed through all of all sterculias are edible and have
Their leaves are either warm or tropical a pleasant taste similar to cocoa.
undivided or palmately climates. They are You can eat them like nuts, either
lobed. Their flowers are mainly forest trees. raw or roasted.
red or purple. The fruit CAUTION: Avoid eating large
of all sterculias is quantities. The seeds may have a
similar in aspect, with a laxative effect.
red, segmented
seedpod containing
many edible black
seeds.
Strawberry Strawberry is a small Strawberries are found The fruit is edible fresh, cooked, or
(Fragaria plant with a three- in the North Temperate dried. Strawberries are a good
species) leaved growth pattern. Zone and also in the source of vitamin C. You can also
It has small, white high mountains of the eat the plant’s leaves or dry them
flowers usually southern Western and make a tea with them.
produced during the Hemisphere.
spring. Its fruit is red Strawberries prefer
and fleshy. open, sunny areas.
They are commonly
planted.
Sugarcane This plant grows up to Look for sugarcane in The stem is an excellent source of
(Saccharum 4.5 meters tall. It is a fields. It grows only in sugar and is very nutritious. Peel the
officinarum) grass and has grass the tropics (throughout outer portion off with your teeth and
like leaves. Its green or the world). Because it eat the sugarcane raw. You can also
reddish stems are is a crop, it is often squeeze juice out of the sugarcane.
swollen where the found in large numbers.
leaves grow. Cultivated
sugarcane seldom
flowers.
Sugar palm This tree grows about This palm is native to The chief use of this palm is for
(Arenga 15 meters high and has the East Indies but has sugar. However, its seeds and the
pinnata) huge leaves up to 6 been planted in many tip of its stems are a survival food.
meters long. Needlelike parts of the tropics. It Bruise a young flower stalk with a
structures stick out of can be found at the stone or similar object and collect
the bases of the leaves. margins of forests. the juice as it comes out. It is an
Flowers grow below the excellent source of sugar. Boil the
leaves and form large seeds. Use the tip of the stems as a
conspicuous dusters vegetable.
from which the fruits CAUTION: The flesh covering the
grow. seeds may cause dermatitis.
Other Uses: The shaggy material at
the base of the leaves makes an
excellent rope as it is strong and
resists decay.
Sweetsop This tree is small, Look for sweetsop at The fruit flesh is edible raw. Other
(Annona seldom more than 6 margins of fields, near Uses: You can use the finely ground
squamosa) meters tall, and multi- villages, and around seeds as an insecticide.
branched. It has home sites in tropical CAUTION: The ground seeds are
alternate, simple, regions. extremely dangerous to the eyes.
elongate, dark green
leaves. Its fruit is green
when ripe, round in
shape, and covered
with protruding bumps
on its surface. The
fruit’s flesh is white and
creamy.
Tamarind The tamarind is a large, The tamarind grows in The pulp surrounding the seeds is
(Tamarindus densely branched tree, the drier parts of Africa, rich in vitamin C and is an important
indica) up to 25 meters tall. It Asia, and the survival food. You can make a
has pinnate leaves Philippines. Although it pleasantly acid drink by mixing the
(divided like a feather) is thought to be a pulp with water and sugar or honey
with 10 to 15 pairs of native of Africa, it has and letting the mixture mature for
leaflets. been cultivated in India several days. Suck the pulp to
for so long that it looks relieve thirst. Cook the young, unripe
like a native tree. It also fruits or seedpods with meat. Use
found in the American the young leaves in soup. You must
tropics, the West cook the seeds. Roast them above a
Indies, Central fire or in ashes. Another way is to
America, and tropical remove the seed coat and soak the
South America. seeds in salted water and grated
coconut for 24 hours then, cook
them. You can peel the tamarind
bark and chew it.
Taro, cocoyam, All plants in these These plants grow in All parts of the plant are edible when
elephant ears, groups have large the humid tropics. Look boiled or roasted. When boiling,
eddo, dasheen leaves, sometimes up for them in fields and change the water once to get rid of
(Colocasia and to 1.8 meters tall, that near home sites and any poison.
Alocasia grow from a very short villages. CAUTION: If eaten raw, these plants
species) stem. The rootstock is will cause a serious inflammation of
thick and fleshy and the mouth and throat.
filled with starch.
Thistle This plant may grow as Thistles grow worldwide Peel the stalks, cut them into short
(Cirsium high as 1.5 meters. Its in dry woods and fields. sections, and boil them before
species) leaves are long- eating. The roots are edible raw or
pointed, deeply lobed, cooked.
and prickly. CAUTION: Some thistle species are
poisonous. Other Uses: Twist the
tough fibers of the stems to make a
strong twine.
Ti The ti has unbranched Look for this plant at The roots and very tender young
(Cordyline stems with strap like the margins of forests leaves are good survival food. Boil or
terminalis) leaves often clustered or near home sites in bake the short, stout roots found at
at the tip of the stem. tropical areas. It is the base of the plant. They are a
The leaves vary in color native to the Far East valuable source of starch. Boil the
and may be green or but is now widely very young leaves to eat. You can
reddish. The flowers planted in tropical use the leaves to wrap other food to
grow at the plants top in areas worldwide. cook over coals or to steam.
large, plume like Other Uses: Use the leaves to cover
clusters. They may shelters or to make a rain cloak. Cut
grow up to 4.5 meters the leaves into liners for shoes; this
tall. works especially well if you have a
blister. Fashion temporary sandals
from the ti leaves. The terminal leaf,
if not completely unfurled, can be
used as a sterile bandage. Cut the
leaves into strips, then braid the
strips into rope.
Tree fern Tree ferns are tall trees Tree ferns are found in The young leaves and the soft inner
(Various with long, slender wet, tropical forests. portion of the trunk are edible. Boil
genera) trunks that often have a the young leaves and eat as greens.
very rough, bark like Eat the inner portion of the trunk raw
covering. Large, lacy or bake it.
leaves uncoil from the
top of the trunk.
Tropical almond This tree grows up to 9 This tree is usually The seed is a good source of food.
(Terminalia meters tall. Its leaves found growing near the Remove the fleshy, green covering
catappa) are evergreen, leathery, ocean. It is a common and eat the seed raw or cooked.
45 centimeters long, 15 and often abundant
centimeters wide, and tree in the Caribbean
very shiny. It has small, and Central and South
yellowish-green America. It is also
flowers. Its fruit is flat, found in the tropical
10 centimeters long, rain forests of
and not quite as wide. Southeastern Asia,
The fruit is green when northern Australia, and
ripe. Polynesia.
Walnut Walnuts grow on very The English walnut, in The nut kernel ripens in the autumn.
(Juglans large trees, often the wild state, is found You get the walnut meat by cracking
species) reaching 18 meters tall. from Southeastern the shell. Walnut meats are highly
The divided leaves Europe across Asia to nutritious because of their protein
characterize all walnut China and is abundant and oil content.
spades. The walnut in the Himalayas. Other Uses: You can boil walnuts
itself has a thick outer Several other species and use the juice as an antifungal
husk that must be of walnut are found in agent. The husks of "green" walnuts
removed to reach the China and Japan. The produce a dark brown dye for
hard inner shell of the black walnut is clothing or camouflage. Crush the
nut. common in the eastern husks of "green" black walnuts and
United States. sprinkle them into sluggish water or
ponds for use as fish poison.
Water chestnut The water chestnut is The water chestnut is a The fruits are edible raw and
(Trapa natans) an aquatic plant that freshwater plant only. It cooked. The seeds are also a source
roots in the mud and is a native of Asia but of food.
has finely divided has spread in many
leaves that grow parts of the world in
underwater. Its floating both temperate and
leaves are much larger tropical areas.
and coarsely toothed.
The fruits, borne
underwater, have four
sharp spines on them.
Water lettuce The leaves of water Found in the tropics Eat the fresh leaves like lettuce. Be
(Ceratopteris lettuce are much like throughout the Old careful not to dip the leaves in the
species) lettuce and are very World in both Africa contaminated water in which they
tender and succulent. and Asia. Another kind are growing. Eat only the leaves that
One of the easiest is found in the New are well out of the water.
ways of distinguishing World tropics from CAUTION: This plant has
water lettuce is by the Florida to South carcinogenic properties and should
little plantlets that grow America. Water lettuce only be used as a last resort.
from the margins of the grows only in very wet
leaves. These little places and often as a
plantlets grow in the floating water plant.
shape of a rosette. Look for water lettuce
Water lettuce plants in still lakes, ponds,
often cover large areas and the backwaters of
in the regions where rivers.
they are found.
Water lily These plants have Water lilies are found The flowers, seeds, and rhizomes
(Nymphaea large, triangular leaves throughout much of the are edible raw or cooked. To prepare
odorata) that float on the water's temperate and rhizomes for eating, peel off the
surface, large, fragrant subtropical regions. corky rind. Eat raw, or slice thinly,
flowers that are usually allow to dry, grind into flour. Dry,
white, or red, and thick, parch, and grind the seeds into flour.
fleshy rhizomes that Other Uses: Use the liquid resulting
grow in the mud. from boiling the thickened root in
water as a medicine for diarrhea and
as a gargle for sore throats.
Water plantain This plant has small, Look for this plant in The rootstocks are a good source of
(Alisma white flowers and heart- fresh water and in wet, starch. Boil or soak them in water to
plantago- shaped leaves with full sun areas in remove the bitter taste.
aquatica) pointed tips. The leaves Temperate and CAUTION: To avoid parasites,
are clustered at the Tropical Zones. always cook aquatic plants.
base of the plant.
Wild caper This is a thorny shrub These shrubs form The fruit and the buds of young
(Capparis that loses its leaves large stands in scrub shoots are edible raw.
aphylla) during the dry season. and thorn forests and in
Its stems are gray- desert scrub and
green and its flowers waste. They are
pink. common throughout
North Africa and the
Middle East.
Wild crab apple Most wild apples look They are found in the Prepare wild apples for eating in the
or wild apple enough like domestic savanna regions of the same manner as cultivated kinds.
(Malus species) apples that the survivor tropics. In temperate Eat them fresh, when ripe, or
can easily recognize areas, wild apple cooked. Should you need to store
them. Wild apple varieties are found food, cut the apples into thin slices
varieties are much mainly in forested and dry them. They are a good
smaller than cultivated areas. Most frequently, source of vitamins.
kinds; the largest kinds they are found on the CAUTION: Apple seeds contain
usually do not exceed 5 edge of woods or in cyanide compounds. Do not eat.
to 7.5 centimeters in fields. They are found
diameter, and most throughout the
often less. They have Northern Hemisphere.
small, alternate, simple
leaves and often have
thorns. Their flowers
are white or pink and
their fruits reddish or
yellowish.
Wild desert The wild desert gourd, This creeping plant can The seeds inside the ripe gourd are
gourd or a member of the be found in any climatic edible after they are completely
colocynth watermelon family, zone, generally in separated from the very bitter pulp.
(Citrullus produces a 2.4- to 3- desert scrub and waste Roast or boil the seeds – their
colocynthis) meter-long ground- areas. It grows kernels are rich in oil. The flowers
trailing vine. The abundantly in the are edible. The succulent stem tips
perfectly round gourds Sahara, in many Arab can be chewed to obtain water.
are as large as an countries, on the
orange. They are Southeastern coast of
yellow when ripe. India, and on some of
the islands of the
Aegean Sea. The wild
desert gourd will grow
in the hottest localities.
Wild dock and Wild dock is a stout These plants can be Because of tender nature of the
wild sorrel plant with most of its found in almost all foliage, the sorrel and the dock are
(Rumex crispus leaves at the base of its climatic zones of the useful plants, especially in desert
and Rumex stem that is commonly world, in areas of high areas. You can eat their succulent
acetosella) 15 to 30 centimeters as well as low rainfall. leaves fresh or slightly cooked. To
brig. The plants usually Many kinds are found take away the strong taste, change
develop from a strong, as weeds in fields, the water once or twice during
fleshy, carrot like along roadsides, and in cooking. This latter tip is a useful hint
taproot. Its flowers are waste places. in preparing many kinds of wild
usually very small, greens.
growing in green to
purplish plume like
clusters. Wild sorrel
similar to the wild dock
but smaller. Many of
the basal leaves are
arrow-shaped but
smaller than those of
the dock and contain a
sour juice.
Wild fig These trees have Figs are plants of the The fruits are edible raw or cooked.
(Ficus species) alternate, simple leaves tropics and semi Some figs have little flavour
with entire margins. tropics. They grow in
Often, the leaves are several different
dark green and shiny. habitats, including
All figs have a milky, dense forests, margins
sticky juice. The fruits of forests, and around
vary in size depending human settlements.
on the species, but are
usually yellow-brown
when ripe.
Wild gourd or It is widely distributed A member of the You can boil the young green (half-
luffa sponge and fairly typical of a squash family, which ripe) fruit and eat them as a
(Luffa wild squash. There are also includes the vegetable. Adding coconut milk will
cylindrical) several dozen kinds of watermelon, improve the flavor. After ripening, the
wild squashes in cantaloupe, and Iuffa sponge develops an inedible
tropical regions. Like cucumber, the Iuffa sponge like texture in the interior of
most squashes, the sponge is widely the fruit. You can also eat the tender
Iuffa is a vine with cultivated throughout shoots, flowers, and young leaves
leaves 7.5 to 20 the tropical zone. It after cooking them. Roast the
centimeters across may be found in a semi mature seeds a little and eat them
having 3 lobes. Some wild state in old like peanuts.
squashes have leaves clearings and
twice this size. Luffa abandoned gardens in
fruits are oblong or rain forests and semi
cylindrical, smooth, and evergreen seasonal
many-seeded. Luffa forests.
flowers are bright
yellow. The Iuffa fruit,
when mature, is brown
and resembles the
cucumber.
Wild grape vine The wild grape vine Wild grapes are The ripe grape is the portion eaten.
(Vitis species) climbs with the aid of distributed worldwide. Grapes are rich in natural sugars
tendrils. Most grape Some kinds are found and, for this reason, are much
vines produce deeply in deserts, others in sought after as a source of energy-
lobed leaves similar to temperate forests, and giving wild food. None are
the cultivated grape. others in tropical areas. poisonous.
Wild grapes grow in Wild grapes are Other Uses: You can obtain water
pyramidal, hanging commonly found from severed grape vine stems. Cut
bunches and are black- throughout the eastern off the vine at the bottom and place
blue to amber, or white United States as well the cut end in a container. Make a
when ripe. as in the Southwestern slant-wise cut into the vine about 1.8
desert areas. Most meters upon the hanging part. This
kinds are rampant cut will allow water to flow from the
climbers over other bottom end. As water diminishes in
vegetation. The best volume, make additional cuts further
place to look for wild down the vine.
grapes is on the edges CAUTION: To avoid poisoning, do
of forested areas. Wild not eat grapelike fruits with only a
grapes are also found single seed (moonseed).
in Mexico. In the Old
World, wild grapes are
found from the
Mediterranean region
eastward through Asia,
the East Indies, and to
Australia. Africa also
has several kinds of
wild grapes.
Wild onion and Allium cernuum is an Wild onions and garlic The bulbs and young leaves are
garlic example of the many are found in open, edible raw or cooked. Use in soup or
(Allium species) species of wild onions sunny areas throughout to flavor meat.
and garlic, all easily the temperate regions. CAUTION: There are several plants
recognized by their Cultivated varieties are with onion like bulbs that are
distinctive odor. found anywhere in the extremely poisonous. Be certain that
world. the plant you are using is a true
onion or garlic. Do not eat bulbs with
no onion smell.
Wild pistachio Some kinds of pistachio About seven kinds of You can eat the oil nut kernels after
(Pistacia trees are evergreen, wild pistachio nuts are parching them over coals.
species) while others lose their found in desert, or semi
leaves during the dry desert areas
season. The leaves surrounding the
alternate on the stem Mediterranean Sea to
and have either three Turkey and
large leaves or a Afghanistan. It is
number of leaflets. The generally found in
fruits or nuts are usually evergreen scrub forests
hard and dry at or scrub and thorn
maturity. forests.
Wild rice Wild rice is a tall grass Wild rice grows only in During the spring and summer, the
(Zizania that averages 1 to 1.5 very wet areas in central portion of the lower sterns
aquatica) meters in height, but tropical and temperate and root shoots are edible. Remove
may reach 4.5 meters. regions. the tough covering before eating.
Each grain grows in During the late summer and fail,
very loose heads at the collect the straw-covered husks. Dry
top of the plant and is and parch the husks, break them,
dark brown or blackish and remove the rice. Boil or roast the
when ripe. rice and then beat it into flour.
Wild rose This shrub grows 60 Look for wild roses in The flowers and buds are edible raw
(Rosa species) centimeters to 2.5 dry fields and open or boiled. In an emergency, you can
meters high. It has woods throughout the peel and eat the young shoots. You
alternate leaves and Northern Hemisphere. can boil fresh, young leaves in water
sharp prickles. Its to make a tea. After the flower petals
flowers may be red, fall, eat the rose hips; the pulp is
pink, or yellow. Its fruit, highly nutritious and an excellent
called rose hip, stays source of vitamin C. Crush or grind
on the shrub year- dried rose hips to make flour.
round. CAUTION: Eat only the outer portion
of the fruit as the seeds of some
species are quite prickly and can
cause internal distress.
Wood sorrel Wood sorrel resembles Wood sorrel is found in Cook the entire plant.
(Oxalis species) shamrock or four-leaf Temperate Zones CAUTION: Eat only small amounts
clover, with a bell- worldwide, in lawns, of this plant as it contains a fairly
shaped pink, yellow, or open areas, and sunny high concentration of oxalic acid that
white flower. woods. can be harmful.
Yam These plants are vines True yams are Boil the rootstock and eat it as a
(Dioscorea that creep along the restricted to tropical vegetable.
species) ground. They have regions where they are
alternate, heart- or an important food crop.
arrow-shaped leaves. Look for yams in fields,
Their rootstock may be clearings, and
very large and weigh abandoned gardens.
many kilograms. They are found in rain
forests, semi evergreen
seasonal forests, and
scrub and thorn forests
in the tropics. In warm
temperate areas, they
are found in seasonal
hardwood or mixed
hardwood-coniferous
forests, as well as
some mountainous
areas.
Yam bean The yam bean is a The yam bean is native The tubers are about the size of a
(Pachyrhizus climbing plant of the to the American tropics, turnip and they are crisp, sweet, and
erosus) bean family, with but it was carried by juicy and have a nutty flavor. They
alternate, three parted man years ago to Asia are nourishing and at the same time
leaves and a turnip like and the Pacific islands. quench the thirst. Eat them raw or
root. The bluish or Now it is commonly boiled. To make flour, slice the raw
purplish flowers are pea cultivated in these tubers, let them dry in the sun, and
like in shape. The places, and is also grind into flour that is high in starch
plants are often so found growing wild in and may be used to thicken soup.
rampant that they cover forested areas. This CAUTION: The raw seeds are
the vegetation upon plant grows in wet poisonous.
which they are growing. areas of tropical
regions.
POISONOUS PLANTS
The proportion of poisonous plants in tropical regions is no greater than in any other area of the world.
However, it may appear that most plants in the tropics are poisonous because of the great density of plant
growth in some tropical areas.
Plants basically poison on contact, through ingestion, by absorption, or by inhalation. They cause painful skin
irritations upon contact, they cause internal poisoning when eaten, and they poison through skin absorption or
inhalation in to the respiratory system. Many edible plants have deadly relatives and look-alikes. Preparation
for military missions includes learning to identify those harmful plants in the target area. Positive identification
of edible plants will eliminate the danger of accidental poisoning. There is no room for experimentation where
plants are concerned, especially in unfamiliar territory.
Examples of Poisonous Plants:

HABITAT AND
PLANT DESCRIPTION CAUTION
DISTRIBUTION
Castor bean, castor-oil The castor bean is a semi- All parts of the plant are This plant is found in
plant, palma Christi woody plant with large, very poisonous to eat. The all tropical regions
Ricinus communis alternate, star-like leaves seeds are large and may and has been
Spurge that grows as a tree in be mistaken for a beanlike introduced to
(Euphorbiaceae) tropical regions and as an food. temperate regions.
Family annual in temperate
regions. Its flowers are
very small and
inconspicuous. Its fruits
grow in clusters at the tops
of the plants.
Chinaberry This tree has a spreading All parts of the tree should Chinaberry is native
Melia azedarach crown and grows up to 14 be considered dangerous to the Himalayas and
Mahogany (Meliaceae) meters (42 feet) tall. It has if eaten. Its leaves are a eastern Asia but is
Family alternate, compound natural insecticide and will now planted as an
leaves with toothed repel insects from stored ornamental tree
leaflets. Its flowers are fruits and grains. Take throughout the
light purple with a dark care not to eat leaves tropical and
center and grow in ball-like mixed with the stored subtropical regions. It
masses. It has marble- food. has been introduced
sized fruits that are light to the southern
orange when first formed United States and
but turn lighter as they has escaped to
become older. thickets, old fields,
and disturbed areas.
Cowhage, cowage, cowitch A vine-like plant that has Contact with the pods and Tropical areas and
Mucuna pruritum oval leaflets in groups of flowers causes irritation the United States.
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) three and hairy spikes with and blindness if in the
Family dull purplish flowers. The eyes.
seeds are brown, hairy
pods.
Death camas, This plant arises from a All parts of this plant are Death camas is found
death lily bulb and may be mistaken very poisonous. Death in wet, open, sunny
Zigadenus species for an onion like plant. Its camas does not have the habitats, although
Lily (Liliaceae) Family leaves are grass like. Its onion smell. some species favor
flowers are six-parted and dry, rocky slopes.
the petals have a green, They are common in
heart-shaped structure on parts of the western
them. The flowers grow on United States. Some
showy stalks above the species are found in
leaves. the eastern United
States and in parts of
the North American
western subarctic and
eastern Siberia.
Lantana Lantana is a shrub like All parts of this plant are Lantana is grown as
Lantana camara plant that may grow up to poisonous if eaten and an ornamental in
Vervain 45 centimeters (18 inches) can be fatal. This plant tropical and
(Verbenaceae) Family high. It has opposite, causes dermatitis in some temperate areas and
round leaves and flowers individuals. has escaped
borne in flat-topped cultivation as a weed
clusters. The flower color along roads and old
(which varies in different fields.
areas) may be white,
yellow, orange, pink, or
red. It has a dark blue or
black berrylike fruit. A
distinctive feature of all
parts of this plant is its
strong scent.
Manchineel Manchineel is a tree This tree is extremely The tree prefers

Hippomane mancinella reaching up to 15 meters toxic. It causes severe coastal regions. It is
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae) (45 feet) high with dermatitis in most found in south
Family alternate, shiny green individuals after only 0.5 Florida, the
leaves and spikes of small hour. Even water dripping Caribbean, Central
greenish flowers. Its fruits from the leaves may America, and
are green or greenish- cause dermatitis. The northern South
yellow when ripe. smoke from burning it America.
irritates the eyes. No part
of this plant should be
considered a food.
Oleander This shrub or small tree All parts of the plant are This native of the
Nerium oleander grows to about 9 meters very poisonous. Do not Mediterranean area is
Dogbane (27 feet), with alternate, use the wood for cooking; now grown as an
(Apocynaceae) Family very straight, dark green it gives off poisonous ornamental in tropical
leaves. Its flowers may be fumes that can poison and temperate
white, yellow, red, pink, or food. regions.
intermediate colors. Its
fruit is a brown, pod like
structure with many small
seeds.
Pangi This tree, with heart- All parts are poisonous, Pangi trees grow in
Pangium edule shaped leaves in spirals, especially the fruit. southeast Asia.
Pangi Family reaches a height of 18
meters (54 feet). Its
flowers grow in spikes and
are green in color. Its
large, brownish, pear-
shaped fruits grow in
clusters.
Physic nut This shrub or small tree The seeds taste sweet but Throughout the
Jatropha curcas has large, 3- to 5-parted their oil is violently tropics and southern
Spurge (Euphoriaceae) alternate leaves. It has purgative. All parts of the United States.
Family small, greenish-yellow physic nut are poisonous.
flowers and its yellow,
apple-sized fruits contain
three large seeds.
Poison hemlock, This biennial herb may This plant is very Poison hemlock
fool's parsley grow to 2.5 meters (8 feet) poisonous, and even a grows in wet or moist
Conium maculatum high. The smooth, hollow very small amount may ground like swamps,
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family stem may or may not be cause death. This plant is wet meadows, stream
purple or red striped or easy to confuse with wild banks, and ditches.
mottled. Its white flowers carrot or Queen Anne's Native to Eurasia, it
are small and grow in lace, especially in its first has been introduced
small groups that tend to stage of growth. Wild to the United States
form flat umbels. Its long, carrot or Queen Anne's and Canada.
turnip like taproot is solid. lace has hairy leaves and
stems and smells like
carrot. Poison hemlock
does not.
Poison ivy and poison oak These two plants are quite All parts, at all times of the Poison ivy and oak
Toxicodendron similar in appearance and year, can cause serious can be found in
radicans and will often crossbreed to contact dermatitis. almost any habitat in
Toxicodendron diversibba make a hybrid. Both have North America.
Cashew (Anacardiacese) alternate, compound
Family leaves with three leaflets.
The leaves of poison ivy
are smooth or serrated.
Poison oak's leaves are
lobed and resemble oak
leaves. Poison ivy grows
as a vine along the ground
or climbs by red feeder
roots. Poison oak grows
like a bush. The greenish-
white flowers are small
and inconspicuous and
are followed by waxy
green berries that turn
waxy white or yellow, then
gray.
Poison sumac Poison sumac is a shrub All parts can cause Poison sumac grows
Toxicodendron vernix that grows to 8.5 meters serious contact dermatitis only in wet, acid
Cashew (Anacardiacese) (28 feet) tall. It has at all times of the year. swamps in North
Family alternate, pinnately America.
compound leafstalks with
7 to 13 leaflets. Flowers
are greenish-yellow and
inconspicuous and are
followed by white or pale
yellow berries.
Rosary pea or This plant is a vine with This plant is one of the This is a common
crab's eyes alternate compound most dangerous plants. weed in parts of
Abrus precatorius leaves, light purple One seed may contain Africa, southern
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) flowers, and beautiful enough poison to kill an Florida, Hawaii,
Family seeds that are red and adult. Guam, the
black. Caribbean, and
Central and South
America.
Strychnine tree The strychnine tree is a The berries contain the A native of the tropics
Nux vomica medium-sized evergreen, disk like seeds that yield and subtropics of
Logania (Loganiaceae) reaching a height of about the poisonous substance Southeastern Asia
Family 12 meters (36 feet), with a strychnine. All parts of the and Australia.
thick, frequently crooked plant are poisonous.
trunk. Its deeply veined
oval leaves grow in
alternate pairs. Small,
loose clusters of greenish
flowers appear at the ends
of branches and are
followed by fleshy, orange-
red berries about 4
centimeters (1 1/2 inches)
in diameter.
Trumpet vine or This woody vine may This plant causes contact This vine is found in
trumpet creeper climb to 15 meters (45 dermatitis. wet woods and
Campsis radicans feet) high. It has pea like thickets throughout
Trumpet creeper fruit capsules. The leaves eastern and central
(Bignoniaceae) Family are pinnately compound, 7 North America.
to 11 toothed leaves per
leaf stock. The trumpet-
shaped flowers are orange
to scarlet in color.
Water hemlock or spotted This perennial herb may This plant is very Water hemlock grows
cowbane grow to 1.8 meters (6 feet) poisonous and even a in wet or moist
Cicuta maculata high. The stem is hollow very small amount of this ground like swamps,
Parsley (Apiaceae) Family and sectioned off like plant may cause death. Its wet meadows, stream
bamboo. It may or may not roots have been mistaken banks, and ditches
be purple or red striped or for parsnips. throughout the Unites
mottled. Its flowers are States and Canada.
small, white, and grow in
groups that tend to form
flat umbels. Its roots may
have hollow air chambers
and, when cut, may
produce drops of yellow
oil.
FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTION FINDING
In a survival situation, you will be extremely fortunate if you happen to have a map and compass. If you do
have these two pieces of equipment, you will most likely be able to move toward help. If you are not proficient
in using a map and compass, you must take the steps to gain this skill.
There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the stars. These
methods, however, will give you only a general direction. You can come up with a more nearly true direction if
you know the terrain of the territory or country.
You must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit may be sent,
especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain together with using the methods
explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions to help you navigate.
1. USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS
The earth's relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always rises
in the east and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal
variation. Shadows will move in the opposite direction of the sun. In the Northern Hemisphere, they will
move from west to east, and will point north at noon. In the Southern Hemisphere, shadows will
indicate south at noon. With practice, you can use shadows to determine both direction and time of
day. The shadow methods used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch methods.
SHADOW-TIP METHODS
In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot free of brush on which
the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists of four steps:
Step 1 Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a distinctive
shadow. Mark the shadow's tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is
always west — everywhere on Earth.
Step 2 Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the shadow tip's
new position in the same way as the first. This mark will represents East.
Step 3 Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.
Step 4 Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your right—you are now
facing north. This fact is true everywhere on Earth.
An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time.

Set up your shadow stick and mark the first shadow in the
morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this
mark and around the stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink and
disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the point
where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a line
through the two marks to get an accurate east-west line (Figure
2).
Figure 2. Shadow-Tip Method
2. THE WATCH METHOD
You can also determine direction using a common or analog watch — one that has hands. The
direction will be accurate if you are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings time.
Remember, the further you are from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. If you only
have a digital watch, draw a clock face on a circle of paper with the correct time on it and use it to
determine your direction at that time. You may also choose to draw a clock face on the ground or lay
your watch on the ground for a more accurate reading.
In the Northern Hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the
angle between the hour hand and the 12-o'clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure 2). If there is
any doubt as to which end of the line is north, remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west,
and is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the west after noon.
Figure 3. Watch Method
NOTE: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the hour hand and
1 o'clock to determine the north-south line.
In the Southern Hemisphere, point the watch's 12-o'clock mark toward the sun; a midpoint halfway
between 12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 3).
Another method is called the 24-hour clock method. Take the local military time and divide it by two.
Imagine this result to now represent the hour hand. In the Northern Hemisphere, point this resulting
hour hand at the sun, and the 12 will point north. For example, it is 1400 hours. Divide 1400 by two and
the answer is 700, which will represent the hour. Holding the watch horizontal, point the 7 at the sun
and 12 will point north. In the Southern Hemisphere, point the 12 at the sun, and the resulting "hour"
from the division will point south.
3. USING THE MOON
Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun's light. As it orbits
the earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say
there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite
side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away
from the earth's shadow, it begins to reflect light from its
right side and waxes to become a full moon before waning,
or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You
can use this information to identify direction.
If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated
side will be the west. If the moon rises after midnight, the
illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery
provides us with a rough east-west reference during the
night.
4. USING THE STARS
Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation you use to
determine your north or south direction. Each sky is explained below.
a. THE NORTHERN SKY
The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major, also known as the Big Dipper or the Plow, and
Cassiopeia, also known as the Lazy W (Figure 4). Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the
polestar or the North Star. Polaris is considered to remain stationary, as it rotates only 1.08 degrees
around the northern celestial pole. The North Star is the last star of the Little Dipper's handle and
can be confused with the Big Dipper. However, the Little Dipper is made up of seven rather dim
stars and is not easily seen unless you are far away from any town or city lights. Prevent confusion
by attempting to use both the Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia
are generally opposite each other and rotate counter-clockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the
center. The Big Dipper is a seven-star constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming
the outer lip of this dipper are the "pointer stars" because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw
a line from the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big Dipper's bucket. Extend this line
about five times the distance between the pointer stars. You will find the North Star along this line.
You may also note that the North Star can always be found at the same approximate vertical angle
above the horizon as the northern line of latitude you are located Figure
on. 4:
ForTheexample,
Big Dipper andifCassiopeia
you are at 35
degrees north latitude, Polaris will be easier to find if you scan the sky at 35 degrees off the horizon.
This will help to lessen the area of the sky in which to locate the Big Dipper, Cassiopeia, and the
North Star.
Cassiopeia or the Lazy W has five stars that form a shape like a "W." One side of the "W" appears
flattened or "lazy." The North Star can be found by bisecting the angle formed on the lazy side.
Extend this line about five times the distance between the bottom of the "W" and the top. The North
Star is located between Cassiopeia and the Ursa Major (Big Dipper).
After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an imaginary line directly
to the earth.
b. THE SOUTHERN SKY

Because there is no single star bright enough to be easily recognized near the south celestial pole,
you can use a constellation known as the Southern Cross. You can use it as a signpost to the South
(Figure 5). The Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross. The two
stars that make up the Cross's long axis are used as a guideline. To determine south, imagine a
distance four-and-one-half to five times the distance between these stars and the horizon. The
pointer stars to the left of the Southern Cross serve two purposes. First, they provide an additional
cue toward south by imagining a line from the stars toward the ground. Second, the pointer stars
help accurately identify the true Southern Cross from the False Cross. The intersection of the
Southern Cross and the two pointer stars is very dark and devoid of stars. This area is called the
coal sac. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by. In a
static survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground at night
to point the way. Figure 5: Southern Cross
5. MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES
You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle shaped or
a flat double-edged razor blade and a piece of thread or long hair from which to suspend it. You can
magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully
through your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by stroking it repeatedly at one
end with a magnet. Always stroke in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire,
you can polarize the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If it is not insulated, wrap the
metal object in a single, thin strip of paper or a leaf to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum
of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric wire and touch its ends to the battery's terminals. Repeatedly
insert one end of the metal object in and out of the coil. The needle will become an electromagnet.
When suspended from a piece of non-metallic string, or floated on a small piece of wood, cork or a leaf
in water, it will align itself with a north-south line.
You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic object,
a non-metallic container (for example, the cut-off bottom of a plastic container or soft drink bottle), and
the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass, take an ordinary sewing needle and break in half.
One half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. Push the portion used
as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on the
bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the needle on
the pen's silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the pointer and rest it
on the pivot point.
6. OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION
The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not considered accurate because moss
grows completely around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the
south in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in the southern hemisphere. If there are several felled
trees around for comparison, look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the
equator and the tree growth rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings
will be closer together on the side toward the poles.
Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there

are prevailing directions and you know what they are.
Recognizing the differences between vegetation and

moisture patterns on north- and south-facing slopes can aid
in determining direction. In the Northern Hemisphere, north-
facing slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes and
are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer, north-
facing slopes retain patches of snow. In the winter, trees and
open areas on south-facing slopes and the southern side of
boulders and large rocks are the first to lose their snow. The
ground snowpack is also shallower due to the warming effects of the sun. In the Southern Hemisphere,
all of these effects will be the opposite.
Prepared by:
LTC MELCHOR P FERNANDO PA (RES)

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ROTC MS 2:

MILITARY INDIVIDUAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT MODULE

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Understand the different aspects of survival in tropical areas;

1. TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

Figure 1. Five Layers of Tropical Rain Forest Vegetation

3. SEMI-EVERGREEN SEASONAL AND MONSOON FORESTS

4. TROPICAL SCRUB AND THORN FORESTS

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 2|Page

The general characteristics of the savanna are:

TRAVEL THROUGH JUNGLE AREAS

1. ANIMALS — SIGNS OF WATER

2. WATER — FROM PLANTS

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 5|Page

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 6|Page

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 7|Page

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 8|Page

SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2 9|Page

Examples of Poisonous Plants:

Manchineel Manchineel is a tree This tree is extremely The tree prefers

FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTION FINDING

1. USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS

An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time.

Figure 2. Shadow-Tip Method

2. THE WATCH METHOD

3. USING THE MOON

4. USING THE STARS

a. THE NORTHERN SKY

b. THE SOUTHERN SKY

5. MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES

6. OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION

Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there

Recognizing the differences between vegetation and

LTC MELCHOR P FERNANDO PA (RES)

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