Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242

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Journal of Alloys and Compounds

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jalcom

Optimization design of solid-state hydrogen storage device for fuel

cell forklift
Jianhua Ye a, b, d, Lijun Jiang a, b, d, *, Zhinian Li a, c, d, Shumao Wang a, c, d, Qi Wang a, c, d,
Man Luo a, b, d, Yuanfang Wu a, c, d, Xiumei Guo a, c, d, Jianqun Wu b, d, Liyu Zhang b, d,
Haitao Chen e, Rui Wu e
a
National Engineering Research Center of Nonferrous Metals Materials and Products for New Energy, GRINM Group Co., Ltd., 100088, China
b
GRINM (Guangdong) Institute for Advanced Materials and Technology, 528000, China
c
GRIMAT Engineering Institute Co., Ltd., 101407, China
d
General Research Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals, Beijing 100088, China
e
JustPower Technology Co., Ltd., 528000, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Solid-state hydrogen storage device using metal hydride have enormous advantages for fuel cell forklifts. In
Metal hydride addition to high volume hydrogen storage density, the solid-state hydrogen storage device can also be used as a
Solid-state hydrogen storage counterweight for the forklift. At the same time, the solid-state storage device has low hydrogen storage pressure
Fuel cell forklift
and safety, and the fuel (H2) refueling is convenient and low-cost. In this paper, a two-dimensional heat and mass
Heat and mass transfer
transfer numerical model has been developed to predicting the performance of the metal hydride tank filled with
Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy. The validity of this numerical model was tested by comparison with the
experimental data of the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank with a hydrogen capacity of 1 kg, achieving a good
agreement between all the data. And a solid-state hydrogen storage device with an effective hydrogen capacity of
1.5 kg is optimally designed for 3.5 T fuel cell forklift. The completion rate of hydrogen refueling in the solid-
state hydrogen storage device will reach 97.6 % within 30 min, and continuously discharging over 1.5 kg H2
under flow rates of 150 SL/min and 250 SL/min. The optimized solid-state hydrogen storage device was inte­
grated in a power module for 3.5 T fuel cell forklift which allows uninterrupted operation for at least 6 h 8 min
under rated operation.

temperature and atmospheric pressure. To increase hydrogen density,

1. Introduction
Solving energy scarcity and environmental pollution requires
renewable, sustainable, practical, and safe clean energy. Hydrogen en­
ergy is considered as the most promising secondary energy with high
energy density and extremely abundant reserves in nature [1]. There are
various forms of hydrogen energy application. In addition to generating
thermal energy through combustion, hydrogen can also generate elec­
tricity through fuel cells, it can be widely used in fields such as energy,
transportation, etc. Although hydrogen is an ideal candidate as an en­
ergy carrier, its storage is the key technical challenge due to low density
and explosion hazard. Developing safe and efficient hydrogen storage
technology is one of the critical points to achieving large-scale appli­
cations of hydrogen energy. The volume of 1 kg H2 is 11 m3 at ambient
work should either be applied to compress hydrogen, or the temperature
of hydrogen is decreased below the critical temperature, or the repulsion
reduced by the interaction of hydrogen with another material [2]. The
main hydrogen storage technologies include high-pressure compression,
low-temperature liquefaction, and absorption into solid state com­
pounds [3–5]. By the reaction of hydrogen with some metals and alloys
to form metal hydrides, solid-state hydrogen storage at moderate tem­
perature and pressure is realized, which gives them higher safety ad­
vantages than the high-pressure compression and low-temperature
liquefaction methods [6]. The major advantage of metal hydrides is its
greater volumetric hydrogen density, exceeding 100 gH2/L. Above all,
metal hydrides are promising candidates for hydrogen storage, espe­
cially in stationary applications.
In addition, hydrogen refueling of the solid-state storage devices at a

* Corresponding author at: National Engineering Research Center of Nonferrous Metals Materials and Products for New Energy, GRINM Group Co., Ltd., 100088,
China.
E-mail address: jlj@grinm.com (L. Jiang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2023.172242
Received 28 August 2023; Received in revised form 14 September 2023; Accepted 18 September 2023
Available online 19 September 2023
0925-8388/© 2023 Published by Elsevier B.V.
J. Ye et al.
Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat, J/kg⋅K
h heat transfer coefficient, W/m2⋅K
c hydrogen concentration, wt%
p pressure, MPa
r radial coordinate, mm
R universal gas constant, J/mol⋅K
t time, s
T temperature, ◦ C
K permeability, m2
μ fluid viscosity, Pa⋅s
φ porosity fraction of the bed
λ thermal conductivity, W/m⋅K
M molecular weight, g/mol
lower pressure is more convenient and low cost compared with com­
pressed hydrogen storage option. Previous studies have demonstrated
that the refueling cost accounts for a large part of the total cost of
hydrogen fuel for hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles [7,8]. According to
the research and estimation of Frank et al. [9], the hydrogen refueling
cost can be reduced if metal hydride storage tanks are used instead of
70 MPa tanks. They estimated that metal hydride storage tanks scenarios
could achieve $0.71-$0.75/kg-H2 savings by reducing compressor costs
without incurring the cryogenics costs associated with cold-storage
alternative.
Currently, the “low-temperature” metal hydrides are the most widely
used, such as AB5, AB2, and AB metal hydrides [10–12]. The hydrogen
storage capacities of “low-temperature” metal hydrides is less than 2 wt
%, which is usually considered as the major disadvantage of their
hydrogen storage applications in fuel cell vehicles [13,14]. For fuel cell
vehicles, the weight of hydrogen storage system is the primary consid­
eration. Therefore, most fuel cell vehicles utilize compressed hydrogen
stored in gas cylinders with pressures up to 35 MPa or even 70 MPa to
reduce weight. For example, the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle “Mirai”
produced by Toyota in Japan is equipped with three 70 MPa hydrogen
storage tanks [15]. But for fuel cell forklifts, they are not sensitive to
weight requirements, and a counterweight is needed to keep the forklift
balanced. Instead, the fuel cell forklift requires a compact structure of
the hydrogen storage system. Therefore, the solid-state storage device
has greater advantages for fuel cell forklifts. The solid-state storage
device can be used as counterweight in addition to hydrogen storage.
In 2016, Lototskyy et al. [16,17] developed a 3-tonne electric forklift
equipped with a commercial fuel cell power module with a metal hy­
dride hydrogen storage system as an expansion tank to yield a hybrid
CGH2(compressed H2 composite cylinder)+MH hydrogen storage sys­
tem, and tested its performance under working conditions. The total
capacity of the hybrid CGH2 +MH hydrogen storage system is about
1.8 kg H2. The metal hydride hydrogen storage system comprises 64 kg
of an AB2-type hydrogen storage alloy with a total usable hydrogen
capacity of about 0.9 kg H2. The results showed that the electric forklift
use of the fully refuelled fuel cell power module with the metal hydride
hydrogen storage system as extension tank allows for uninterrupted
operation for 3 h 6 min and 7 h 15 min for heavy-duty and light-duty
operation, respectively. Then in 2019, Lototskyy et al. [13] further
increased the solid-state hydrogen storage capacity to 1.7 kg, accounting
for 95% of the total hydrogen storage capacity, and the maximum
hydrogen supply flow rate could still reach 170 SL/min, and successfully
integrated the solid-state hydrogen storage system into a prototype fuel
cell power module for an electric forklift.
Solid-state hydrogen storage device is generally used to load metal
hydride in powder state into tank/cylinder with certain pressure bearing
capacity. A key issue for solid-state hydrogen storage devices is to
2
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242
f formula
△H enthalpy of formation, J/mol H2
△S entropy of formation, J/K mol H2
ρ density, kg/m3
F completion rate, %
Subscripts
eq equilibrium
e effective
g gas: hydrogen
s solid: metal hydride
max maximum
i initial
ext heat exchange medium
achieve rapid hydrogen charging and discharging rates under moderate
operating pressure. Since the hydrogen absorption/desorption of metal
hydride is generally an exothermic/endothermic process, while the
thermal conductivity of metal hydride powder bed is usually poor, and
the metal hydride will be further pulverized after hydrogenation/
dehydrogenation, further worsening the heat transfer performance of
the metal hydride bed. Therefore, the rate of hydrogenation/dehydro­
genation is strongly controlled by the heat and mass transfer of the metal
hydride bed [18,19]. A theoretical study on the heat and mass transfer of
metal hydride bed based on the characteristics of hydro­
genation/dehydrogenation is strongly needed. Through numerical
simulation analysis of the heat and mass transfer in metal hydride beds,
the optimization design of the solid-state hydrogen storage device is
realized to meet the application requirements.
Many researchers have studied the heat and mass transfer of metal
hydride beds during the hydrogenation/dehydrogenation using nu­
merical models. Based on the different influencing factors considered in
the physical model, one-dimensional [20–22], two-dimensional
[23–40], and three-dimensional [41–46] numerical models for heat
and mass transfer have been developed. Due to the large computational
complexity of three-dimensional models, it requires higher computer
hardware, stronger computing power and longer calculation time, in
most cases, the two-dimensional models with allowable accuracy are
used.
In this work, the optimization design of solid-state hydrogen storage
device for fuel cell forklift was carried out, and the TiMn-based AB2-type
metal hydride was selected. A two-dimensional heat and mass transfer
numerical model was established to predict the performance of metal
hydride tank filled with Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy. The val­
idity of this numerical model was tested by comparison with the
experimental data of the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank with a
hydrogen capacity of 1 kg, achieving a good agreement between all the
data. Then, optimize the design of the solid-state hydrogen storage de­
vice through numerical simulation and predict its hydrogen supply
performance. The optimized solid-state hydrogen storage device was
integrated in a power module for 3.5 T fuel cell forklift. The fuel cell
forklift can uninterrupted operation for 6 h 8 min under rated operation.
The actual vehicle operation results indicate that the optimized solid-
state hydrogen storage device fully meets the operational re­
quirements of the fuel cell forklift and can maintain stable and long-term
operation.
2. Numerical model
In this work, the optimization design of the solid-state hydrogen
storage device for fuel cell forklift was carried out, and the TiMn-based
AB2-type hydrogen storage alloy (Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05) was
J. Ye et al. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242

selected as the hydrogen storage material. XRD pattern of

Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 is plotted in Fig. 1.
Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy was prepared by vacuum induction
melting, its mainly composed of C14 phase and a small amount of C15
and Ti. Fig. 2 shows the PCT curves of Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05
alloy. From the PCT curves, it can be seen that the maximum hydrogen
capacity of Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy can reach 2.02 wt%, and
the effective capacity under operating conditions (hydrogenation at
10 ◦ C and 4 MPa, dehydrogenation at 60 ◦ C and 0.3 MPa) is 1.84 wt%,
demonstrating excellent hydrogen storage performance.
In order to ensure the pressure bearing of hydrogen and improve the
heat exchange efficiency, many solid-state hydrogen storage devices
with large hydrogen storage capacity generally use a certain arrange­
ment of multiple metal hydride tanks to form a shell-and-tube heat ex­
change structure. The most common metal hydride hydrogen storage
tanks are cylindrical. The heat and mass transfer performance of the
metal hydride tank determines the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation
performance of the entire solid-stage hydrogen storage device. The
hydrogen storage characteristics of solid-stage hydrogen storage device Fig. 2. PCT curves of Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy.
can be calculated through the numerical simulation of a single metal
hydride tank, so as to ensure the calculation accuracy and improve the (4) The thermal conductivity, density and specific heat of the metal
calculation efficiency. The physical model of annular cylindrical metal hydride powder bed are assumed to be constant.
hydride tank considered here is illustrated in Fig. 3. A porous filter is (5) Thermal contact between the metal hydride bed and the tank wall
placed in the inner of the tank in order to make hydrogen gas freely flow is good, that is, thermal contact resistance can be neglected.
in or out of the powder bed, and prevents the escape of metal hydride (6) Considering the axisymmetric characteristic, there is no heat
powder along with hydrogen gas. The AB2-type hydrogen storage alloy transfer through the porous filter.
Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 powder is filled in an annular space be­
tween the filter and the tank wall to form a metal hydride bed. Due to The hydrogenation/dehydrogenation process of metal hydride
axial symmetry, all the state variables of the metal hydride bed, such as hydrogen storage tank mainly includes three processes: heat transfer,
the temperature and local hydrogen concentration of metal hydride bed hydrogen transmission, and hydrogenation/dehydrogenation reaction
only depend on the radial direction, length direction and time, so the of metal hydride. Therefore, the heat and mass transfer numerical model
numerical simulation has been done for a two-dimensional mathemat­ in the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank mainly includes the control
ical model. In order to derive the mathematical model, several as­ equations of heat transfer, mass transfer, and hydrogenation/dehydro­
sumptions are made in the analysis. genation chemical reactions. The equations governing the heat and mass
transfer of the metal hydride bed are as shown below.
(1) Convective heat transfer and local temperature difference be­
tween the hydrogen and metal hydride powder in metal hydride 2.1. Heat transfer equation
hydrogen storage tank is negligible, and it was verified by some
investigators [47]. The heat transfer equation with a heat source in metal hydride bed
(2) The radiative heat transfer is negligible. may be written as:
(3) Although the volume of metal hydride powder generally would ( )
( ( ) ) ∂T ∂c ΔH
change during the hydrogen absorption/desorption process, for ϕρg Cpg + 1 − ϕ ρs Cps (1 − ϕ) + ∇⋅( − λe ∇T) = ρs 1 − ϕ ,
∂t ∂t 2
simplicity, the variation of porosity in the hydride powder bed
with absorption/desorption is neglected, that is, the volumetric (1)
extension of metal hydride is neglected. Here set the porosity
where ρs, Cps, ρg, Cpg, are density, specific heat of metal hydride and
φ = 0.55.
hydrogen respectively, λe, φ, and c are the effective thermal conductiv­
ity, porosity and hydrogen capacities of the metal hydride powder bed,
respectively. The heat source on the right side of the heat transfer
equation is calculated form the hydrogen sorption/desorption rate per
mass of metal hydride (∂c/∂t), bulk density of metal hydride (ρs(1-φ))
and the enthalpy of reaction of hydrogenation/dehydrogenation (△H).
The effective thermal conductivity of AB2-type metal hydride powder
bed is around 1 W/(m⋅K) [18].

2.2. Mass transfer equation

The metal hydride is filled into tank in the form of powder to form
porous medium. The mass transfer process of hydrogen in porous metal
hydride bed is calculated using Darcy’s law.
( ( )) ( )
∂(ρH2 ϕ) K ∂c
+ ∇ ρH2 − ∇p = ρs 1 − ϕ , (2)
∂t μ ∂t

where K is the permeability of the metal hydride porous bed, and μ is the
fluid viscosity of the hydrogen. The mass source on the right side of the
Fig. 1. XRD pattern of Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy. mass transfer equation depends on the hydrogen sorption/desorption

3
J. Ye et al. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242

Fig. 3. The schematic sketch of metal hydride hydrogen storage tank.

rate per mass of metal hydride (∂c/∂t). function of equilibrium pressure peq(Tr) and hydrogen concentration c
The hydrogen density ρH2 is influenced by temperature and pressure, (wt%) for every two adjacent data. By comparing Eqs. (5) and (6), a
and can be represented by the equation below: mathematical equation for the variation of equilibrium pressure with
temperature T and hydrogen concentration c can be obtained:
pMH2
ρ H2 = , (3) [ ( )]
RT(1 + αp/T) − |ΔH| 1 1
Peq = f (c)Tr exp − (7)
R T Tr
where R is the universal gas constant and MH2 is the molecular weight of
hydrogen, p is the hydrogen pressure in the metal hydride bed. In this Fig. 4 shows the good agreement between the linear fitting method
equation, 1 +αp/T is the compressibility factor of hydrogen under mentioned above and the test data.
pressure p and temperature T, the value of coefficient α is (2) Kinetic equations of hydrogenation/dehydrogenation.
1.9155 × 10− 6[K/Pa]. In this work, TiMn based AB2 type metal hydride is selected for the
solid-state hydrogen storage device. The kinetics of hydrogenation and
dehydrogenation for AB2 type metal hydride depend on the hydrogen
2.3. Control equation of hydrogenation/dehydrogenation reaction of pressure (Pg), the equilibrium pressure (Peq), the hydrogen concentration
metal hydride (c) and the temperature (T), as described in the reference [34], as
follows:
The hydrogenation/dehydrogenation reaction of metal hydride is
determined by their thermodynamic and kinetic properties. The ther­ 1) For hydrogenation
modynamic properties determine the metal hydride whether hydroge­ ( ) ( ) ( )[ ( )]n−n 1
nation or dehydrogenation under specific temperature and hydrogen ∂c 9833 Pg c c
= 4.004cmax exp − ln n 1− − ln 1 − ,
pressure conditions, and the kinetic characteristics determine the ∂t RT Peq cmax cmax
hydrogen absorption/desorption rate of metal hydride. (8)
(1) Equilibrium pressure determination.
The pressure composition isotherm (PCT) curves are important
characteristic curve representing the thermodynamic properties of 2) For hydrogenation
metal hydrides. The PCT curves of Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 for ( )( )( ( ))
∂c 18433 Pg c
four temperatures (10, 20, 40 and 60 ◦ C) are shown in Fig. 2. The PCT = 94.288cmax exp − 1− 1− 1− , (9)
∂t RT Peq cmax
curves show a strong dependence of equilibrium pressure on tempera­
ture and hydrogen concentration. By calculation, the hydrogenation/ where c and cmax are the real-time hydrogen storage capacity and
dehydrogenantion enthalpy are − 21.28 and 26.39 kJ/mol H2, respec­ maximum hydrogen storage in gravimetry, respectively, n = 0.868.
tively, and the hydrogenation/dehydrogenation entropy are − 93.83
and 115.29 J/K/molH2, respectively. These features can be represented
in the form of the Van’t Hoff equation as follows: 2.4. Initial and boundary conditions

− |ΔH| ΔS
ln Peq = − , (4) The metal hydride bed is assumed as a uniformly distributed porous
RT R
medium with uniform temperature, pressure and hydrogen concentra­
According to Van’t Hoff Eq. (4), the relationship between equilib­ tion. Initially, t = 0 s, the temperature, pressure and hydrogen concen­
rium pressure Peq with temperature T can be obtained: tration in the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank are assumed to be
( ) ( ) constant:
− |ΔH| ΔS
Peq = exp × exp − (5)
RT R Tt=0 = Ti , ct=0 = ci , Pt=0 = Peqi (10)
At a given reference temperature Tr, the equilibrium pressure Peq(Tr) where Peqi refers to the initial equilibrium pressure of the metal hy­
only varies with hydrogen concentration, that is, the equilibrium pres­ dride bed, which is the function of initial concentration (ci) and tem­
sure is a function of the hydrogen concentration, as follows: perature (Ti), and can be calculated by Eq. (7) according to the PCT data
( ) ( ) of the metal hydride at the reference temperature (Tr).
− |ΔH| ΔS
Peq(Tr ) = exp exp − = f (c)Tr , (6) Considering the axisymmetric characteristics, there is no heat
RTr R
transfer through the porous filter, i.e. at r = r0:
The function f(c)Tr is the relationship between hydrogen concentra­
− n⋅( − k∇T) = 0 (11)
tion c (wt%). Based on the actual test data of metal hydride PCT under Tr
temperature conditions, linear fitting is used to obtain a multi-stage The convective heat transfer between the heat exchange medium

4
J. Ye et al.
Fig. 4. Numerical fitting and test date of equilibrium pressure as a function as c (wt%) and temperature T for Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05, (a) is hydrogen ab­
sorption case and (b) is hydrogen desorption case.
(such as cooling/heating water or air) and the hydrogen storage tank
wall is used as the boundary condition for the tank surface.
− n⋅( − k∇T) = h(Text − T)
where h is the overall convective heat transfer coefficient, Text is the
temperature of the heat exchange medium.
3. Validation of the model
In order to verify the reliability of the heat and mass transfer nu­
merical model of the metal hydride bed, a metal hydride hydrogen
storage tank filled with about 56 kg of Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05
alloy with the hydrogen storage capacity of 1 kg was designed and
manufactured as shown in Fig. 5. The radius and length of the metal
hydride hydrogen storage tank are 133 mm and 1500 mm, respectively.
A jacket is designed outside the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank,
and a coil type flow guide structure is installed inside the jacket to
improve the heat exchange efficiency of the cooling/heating water.
When the water flow speed reaches 1 m/s, the overall convective heat
transfer efficiency can reach over 1000 W/m2/K. The metal hydride
hydrogen storage tank absorbs hydrogen saturation at temperature of
5 ◦ C and hydrogen pressure 4.2 MPa, and then tests its hydrogen supply
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank with
1 kg hydrogen storage capacity.
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242
performance. The hydrogen release flow rate is set to 125 SL/min, the
temperature of heating water is 65 ◦ C, and heating water flow rate is
about 0.8 m3/h. Fig. 6 shows the comparison between the numerical
(12)
results and experimental data, and a fairly good agreement between the
numerical results and experimental data can be observed. Therefore, the
numerical model of heat and mass transfer in the metal hydride bed
could be used to predict the hydrogen absorption and desorption per­
formance of solid-state hydrogen storage devices under different work­
ing conditions and efficiently optimize their design.
4. Optimization design of solid-state hydrogen storage device
The hydrogen absorption and desorption performance of the solid-
state hydrogen storage device mainly depends on the heat transfer ef­
ficiency of the metal hydride bed. It is necessary to improve the heat
transfer performance of the metal hydride bed to ensure efficient heat
exchange during the hydrogen absorption and desorption process of the
metal hydride. In numerous heat transfer simulation studies on the
metal hydride beds [20–46], the effects of hydrogen pressure, initial
temperature and pressure of metal hydride bed, the temperature and
overall convective heat transfer efficiency of cooling/heating water, and
the aspect ratio of cylindrical tank on the metal hydride bed were sys­
tematically analyzed. All previous simulation results show that the
entire hydrogen absorption/desorption process occurring in the metal
hydride bed is governed by the heat transfer between the metal hydride
bed and the surrounding cooling/heating fluid. The higher thermal
conductivity of metal hydride bed, smaller cylindrical hydrogen storage
Fig. 6. Comparison between the numerical results with experimental data of
the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank with 1 kg hydrogen storage capacity.
5
J. Ye et al.
tank diameter, more heat transfer fins, and larger convective heat
transfer efficiency of cooling/heating fluid, etc. can effectively improve
the heat transfer efficiency between the metal hydride bed and the
surrounding cooling/heating fluid, thus improving the hydrogen
absorption/desorption performance of the solid-state hydrogen storage
devices. Metal hydride hydrogen storage tanks are generally cylindrical
in shape to improve their pressure bearing capacity, and ensure their
safe use under the combined influence of hydrogen pressure and
expansion stress during the hydrogen absorption process of the metal
hydride bed. Among the aforementioned methods for improving heat
transfer, the most crucial one is to design an appropriate diameter for the
metal hydride hydrogen storage tank. The smaller the diameter, the
more conductive it is to heat transfer. However, under the same
hydrogen storage capacity, a decrease in diameter means an increase in
the total length of the tank, which increases the overall weight and
structural complexity of the solid-state hydrogen storage device. Ac­
cording to the requirements of 3.5 T fuel cell forklift for hydrogen supply
and rapid hydrogen refueling, the optimization design of the solid-state
hydrogen storage device based on Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy is
carried out. For the 3.5 T fuel cell forklift, the hydrogen storage capacity
of its onboard hydrogen storage device is required to be 1.5 kg, and it is
also required that the time to complete 95 % H2 refueling is controlled
within 30 min. Among them, the requirement for rapid hydrogen refu­
eling is more stringent for heat transfer conditions. Therefore, firstly,
according the requirement that the onboard hydrogen storage device for
fuel cell forklift can complete 95 % hydrogenation within 30 min, the
hydrogenation process of metal hydride hydrogen storage tanks with
different diameters under the condition of 4 MPa hydrogen pressure and
5 ◦ C circulating water cooling conditions is simulated through the above
established metal hydride bed heat and mass transfer numerical model,
and the appropriate tank diameter is optimized. Then, according to the
size of the space used to place the hydrogen storage device, complete the
design of the onboard metal hydride hydrogen storage device for the fuel
cell forklift, and simulate its hydrogen supply performance under the
heavy-duty and light-duty operation.
Fig. 7 displays the comparison of the hydrogen refueling time of
metal hydride hydrogen storage tanks with different diameters under
the condition of 4 MPa hydrogen pressure and 5 ◦ C cooling water heat
transfer with a total efficiency convective heat transfer coefficient of
1000 W/m2/K. In Fig. 7, F is the completion rate of the hydrogen ab­
sorption reaction in the metal hydride tank, F= (c-c0)/(cmax-ci). The
thermophysical properties and the initial and boundary conditions are
kept constant during the simulation of hydrogen refueling process in the
metal hydride tanks of all diameters. Among them, the outer diameter of
Fig. 7. Comparison of hydrogen refueling time of metal hydride hydrogen
storage tanks with different diameters at 4 MPa hydrogen pressure and 5 ◦ C
cooling water.
6
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242
the hydrogen storage tank is selected based on commonly used stainless
steel seamless pipe specifications. It is noticed that the reduction of the
diameter of the tank accelerates the hydrogen absorption reaction and
can significantly shorten the hydrogenation time of the metal hydride
tank. This is because the metal hydride bed is thinner, which shortens
the heat transfer distance, reduces the heat transfer resistance, and the
heat generated by hydrogenation of metal hydride can be quickly
transferred out, ultimately reducing the hydrogen refueling time. It can
be seen from the simulation results in Fig. 7 that when the diameter of
tank is reduced to 70 mm, the completion rate of hydrogen refueling in
the metal hydride tank will reach 97.6 % within 30 min. Therefore,
316 L stainless steel seamless tube with a diameter of 70 mm is selected
to prepare the on-board solid-state hydrogen storage device for fuel cell
forklift.
Fig. 8 shows the schematic diagram (left) and actual photo (right) of
the solid-state hydrogen storage device for fuel cell forklift. The solid-
state hydrogen storage device consists of a total of 14 metal hydride
tanks with diameter of 70 mm (optimized as mentioned above), with a
rated hydrogen storage capacity of 1.5 kg, and a total of 82 kg
Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy is used. In the same space, the
effective hydrogen storage capacity using a 35 MPa high-pressure cyl­
inder is only 1 kg H2. Using the solid-state hydrogen storage device
increased the effective hydrogen storage capacity by 60 %, while also
reducing counterweight components. For the improvement of the heat
exchange efficiency between the cooling/heating water and the metal
hydride tanks, the solid-state hydrogen storage device adopts a shell and
tube heat exchange structure, and 5 baffles installed inside the device to
improve the flow path and uniformity of the cooling/heating water.
During the hydrogen refueling, the cooling water in the hydrogen
refueling station is connected to the inlet/outlet of the cooling water at
the front end of the solid-state hydrogen storage device through quick
insertion.
For 3.5 T fuel cell forklift, it usually uses an 18 kW fuel cell, and the
required hydrogen flow rates are approximately 250 SL/min and 150
SL/min under full power and half power conditions, respectively. The
hydrogen discharge performance of the designed solid-state hydrogen
storage device is simulated using the heat and mass transfer mathe­
matical model, as shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. During the simulation of
its hydrogen discharge process, the solid-state hydrogen storage device
is heated with 65 ◦ C heating water to simulate the circulating water
temperature during fuel cell working. From the simulation results, it can
be seen that the designed solid-state hydrogen storage device can
discharge 1.5 kg hydrogen at flow rates of 250 SL/min and 150 SL/min,
meeting the hydrogen usage requirements of a 3.5 T fuel cell forklift
working at full power and rated power.
It can be observed from Fig. 9 and Fig. 10, in the initial stage, the
hydrogen pressure inside the solid-state hydrogen storage device in­
creases and then gradually decreases, and the maximum pressure in­
crease values under the conditions of 250 SL/min and 150 SL/min flow
rates are 5.8 MPa and 7.3 MPa, respectively. This is because during the
simulation calculations, the convective heat transfer conditions at the
boundary of the metal hydride tanks are simplified to an ideal state, and
the temperature of heating water is set to a constant 65 ◦ C, with an
effective convective heat transfer coefficient of 1000 W/m /K. There­
fore, the heat transfer between the metal hydride tanks and the heating
water is sufficient, leading to an increase in the equilibrium pressure of
the metal hydride in the initial stage. However, in the actual operation of
fuel cell forklifts, the hydrogen pressure inside the solid-state hydrogen
storage device is adjusted by controlling the temperature and flow rate
of the heating water. Fig. 11 shows the experimental results of hydrogen
discharge performance of the solid-state hydrogen storage device at 120
NL/min. It can be seen that the solid-state hydrogen storage device can
discharge 1.52 kg H2 at the flow rate of 120 SL/min, with a total
hydrogen discharge of 1.54 kg.
J. Ye et al.
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram (left) and actual photo of solid-state hydrogen storage device for fuel cell forklift.
Fig. 9. Hydrogen discharge performance of the solid-state hydrogen storage
device at 250 SL/min (heating water temperature is 65 ◦ C).
Fig. 10. Hydrogen discharge performance of the solid-state hydrogen storage
device at 150 SL/min (heating water temperature is 65 ◦ C).
5. Integrated application of solid-state hydrogen storage device
on fuel cell forklift
The optimized solid-state hydrogen storage device described above is
integrated in a power module for 3.5 T fuel cell forklift. The power
module jointly developed by GRINM Group Co., Ltd and JustPower
Technology Co., Ltd provides output electric power up to 18 kW. Fig. 12
shows a simplified schematic diagram of the power module integrated
with a solid-state hydrogen storage device installed on a 3.5 T fuel cell
forklift. The power module (general views in Fig. 13) includes a solid-
7
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242
Fig. 11. Experimental results of hydrogen discharge performance of the solid-
state hydrogen storage device at 120 SL/min.
state hydrogen storage device with a hydrogen storage capacity of
1.5 kg, a fuel cell with a rated power of 18 kW, a circulating water heat
exchange and control system, a fuel (H2) charging/discharging control
system, an air supply subsystem, and a power regulation and control
system. The solid-stage hydrogen storage device is located at the bottom
of the power module. The H2 consumption flow rate of the fuel cell
operating at the maximum power of 18 kW is estimated as 250 SL/min,
which is the hydrogen flow rate set during the simulation prediction in
the previous section. In the same limited space, if a 35 MPa high-
pressure hydrogen cylinder is used, its effective hydrogen capacity is
only about 1 kg, while the effective hydrogen capacity of the solid-state
hydrogen storage device can reach 1.5 kg, which is more than 50 %
higher. In addition, another major advantage of the solid-state hydrogen
storage device is in a lower hydrogen storage pressure and safer, and the
fuel (H2) refueling is more convenient and lower costs.
The solid-stage hydrogen storage device is charged with hydrogen at
a pressure of 4 MPa, and is cooled by external circulating cooling water
during charging, thereby shortening the hydrogen refueling time. In this
arrangement, a plate heat exchanger is used for heat exchange between
the fuel cell and the solid-state hydrogen storage device. During oper­
ation, the waste heat of the fuel cell stack is supplied by the cooling
subsystem through the plate heat exchanger to the circulating heating
water of the solid-state hydrogen storage device, thereby providing the
heat required for the hydrogen discharge process of the solid-state
hydrogen storage device.
Fig. 14 shows a 3.5 T fuel cell forklift equipped with a solid-state
hydrogen storage device operating in a logistics warehouse. And
Fig. 15 shows a data fragment of a 3.5 T fuel cell forklift equipped with a
solid-state hydrogen storage device under actual continuous working
J. Ye et al.
Fig. 12. Simplified schematic diagram of the integration of the solid-state hydrogen storage device with fuel cell in forklift power module.
Fig. 13. The solid-state hydrogen storage device installed in the fuel cell forklift power module.
conditions, including the hydrogen pressure and water temperature in­
side the solid-state hydrogen storage device, as well as the water tem­
perature and power generation of the fuel cell. The fuel cell forklift has
been operating continuously for 6 h 8 min. During operation, the power
of fuel cell stack is mostly around 9 kW, with a cumulative total power
generation of approximately 19.5 kWh. At the end of its operation, the
hydrogen pressure in the solid-state hydrogen storage device still re­
mains at 1.4 MPa, and it is expected that there will be about 15 %
hydrogen remained, which still meets the operating requirements of the
fuel cell forklift for about 1 h. It can be observed that a gradual decrease
of hydrogen pressure in the solid-state hydrogen storage device, it is due
to hydrogen consumption of fuel cell when it generates power. At the
beginning, the hydrogen pressure rapidly decreased from 4.6 MPa to
2 MPa, because the heat generated by the fuel cell stack in the initial
stage was not provided to the solid-state hydrogen storage device in a
timely manner. However, after working for half an hour, the
8
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242
temperature inside the solid-state hydrogen storage device gradually
increases to around 50 ◦ C and is maintained until the end of operation.
Meanwhile, the hydrogen pressure inside the solid-state hydrogen
storage device is maintained between 1 and 2 MPa, corresponding to the
hydrogen storage characteristics of the selected AB2 type metal hydride
(as shown in the PCT curves in Fig. 2).
The actual vehicle operation results indicate that the optimized solid-
state hydrogen storage device fully meets the operational requirements
of the fuel cell forklift and can maintain stable and long-term operation.
More than 100 sets of fuel cell forklifts equipped with solid-state
hydrogen storage devices have been mass-produced. The next step will
be to accumulate its operational data and further optimize its structure
and integrated control optimization with fuel cells.
J. Ye et al.
Fig. 14. 3.5 T fuel cell forklift equipped with solid-state hydrogen storage
device in operation.
Fig. 15. Operation data fragments of a 3.5 T fuel cell forklift equipped with
solid-state hydrogen storage device under actual operating conditions.
6. Conclusions
A two-dimensional heat and mass transfer numerical model has been
developed to predict the hydrogen absorption/desorption process of
metal hydride tanks filled with Ti0.9Zr0.1Cr0.35Mn1.4V0.2Fe0.05 alloy. The
validity of this numerical model was tested by comparison with the
experimental data of the metal hydride hydrogen storage tank with a
hydrogen capacity of 1 kg, achieving a good agreement between all the
data. Then, in response to the application requirements of fast fuel (H2)
refueling and stable hydrogen supply for fuel cell forklifts, the solid-state
hydrogen storage device was optimized and designed through numerical
simulation. The completion rate of hydrogen refueling in the solid-state
hydrogen storage device will reach 97.6 % within 30 min, while
continuously discharging over 1.5 kg of hydrogen under flow rates of
150 SL/min and 250 SL/min. The optimized solid-state hydrogen stor­
age device was integrated in a power module for 3.5 T fuel cell forklift.
The power module jointly developed by GRINM Group Co., Ltd and
JustPower Technology Co., Ltd provides output electric power up to
18 kW. The fuel cell forklift allows for uninterrupted operation for 6 h
8 min under rated operation. The actual vehicle operation results indi­
cate that the optimized solid-state hydrogen storage device fully meets
the operational requirements of the fuel cell forklift and can maintain
stable and long-term operation.
9
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 970 (2024) 172242
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jianhua Ye: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Investi­
gation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing, Visualization. Lijun Jiang: Conceptualization, Resources,
Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Zhinian Li: Methodology,
Resources. Shumao Wang: Methodology, Resources. Qi Wang: Meth­
odology, Investigation, Data curation. Man Luo: Writing – review &
editing. Yuanfang Wu: Investigation, Resources. Xiumei Guo: Inves­
tigation, Formal analysis. Jianqun Wu: Investigation. Liyu Zhang:
Investigation. Haitao Chen: Investigation, Resources, Data curation.
Rui Wu: Investigation, Resources, Data curation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Jianhua Ye reports financial support was provided by National Key
Research and Development Program of China. Jianhua Ye reports
financial support was provided by Key Technologies R&D Program of
Guangdong Province of China. Jianhua Ye reports financial support was
provided by Project of High Level Innovation Research Institute of
Guangdong Province of China.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports for this
research from the National Key Research and Development Program of
China (2022YFB3803803), the Key Technologies R&D Program of
Guangdong Province of China (2023B0909060001), and the Project of
High Level Innovation Research Institute of Guangdong Province of
China (2021B0909050001).
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