Chapter 1.1: Chapter details: Basics of electricity © Evolution in human comforts © Whatis engineering? © Matter © Valence electron © Classification of materials © Comparison between conductor, insulator and semi Conductor © Charge © Voltage and current © Ohm's law ® How to remember Ohm's lawObjectives On completion of this period, you would be able to know © Evolution in human comforts © What is engineering ? © Matter Valence electron © Classification of materials ® Comparison between conductor, insulator and semi conductor © Charge © Voltage and current © Network terminology © Ohm's law © How to remember ohm’s law ® Problems regarding ohm's lawEvolution in human comforts © What do you infer from the following pictures? For shelter Cave Hut Buildings Fig1 For transport Walking man Bullock cart Car Fig 2 For light aa 1 > g > | Mud lamp Kerosene lantern _ Kerosene lamps Fig 3El. y Candle LED’s Fig 4 © With advent of electricity the human comforts have increased tremendously. © Whatare the basic requirements of a human being ? © Food © Cloths © Shelter In addition to these we cannot imagine life without one more factor what is it? © Yes itis electricity From where we get electricity ? © Transformer on the street end. 2-4 Fig 5: Distribution transformer From where the transformer is getting the supply ? © Substation Be| ee ‘ain Fig 6: Substation From where the substation is getting to supply ? @ Power station Sq Fig 7: Power station What do you observe from the pictures ? sf Fig 8 © Both are lifting stone G4 © Whois lifting the stone with less effort ? © The person using lever and pilot ++ PAGE END --What is engineering ? © The application of science to the needs of humanity. © The profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to use economically the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind. © The work ofan engineer. What is electrical engineering ? © The branch of engineering that deals with the technology of electricity, especially the design and application of circuitary and equipment for power generation and distribution, machine control and communications. Machine control Distribution Power generation Fig 9 Electricity © Electricity is a form of energy. @ Itobeys the principle of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy © Energy ina system may take on various forms (eg, kinetic, potential, heat, light).© The law of conservation of energy states that energy may neither be created nor destroyed. © Therefore the sum ofall the energies in the system is constant. Is electricity superior form of energy ? Q Isit True or False. © True. © Letus take an example Normal scooter Electric scooter Fig 10 Can you list some advantages of electric scooter ? Q Smokeless Q Clean Q No Air pollution © No sound pollution Q Efficient © Quick Q Less maintenance. ++ PAGE END --Matter .—¥ © A body which has a definite weight and which occupies some space is called the matter. © The matter is found in three stages solids, liquid and gas. © Solids do not change their shape and volume without any change in their physical conditions, e.g,, iron, stone etc. ® Liquids have no shape of their own but they take the shape of the vessel in which they are contained, e.g,, water, oil etc. © Gases have no shape or volume of their own but they take the shape and volume of the vessel in which they are contained. Molecule $4 © Matter can be divided into tiny particles. © The smallest particle of a matter which contains all the physical and chemical properties of the matter is called a molecule. © Ina solid the molecules are closely packed, in a liquid they are loosely packed and ina gas the molecules are almost unpacked. © Due to this reason, gases can change their volume. Atom $4 © Molecules can be further subdivided into atoms. © The smallest particle of a matter which can take part in chemical reactions but can not exist freely, is called an atom. © Anatom does not contain all the physical and chemical properties of the matter: Atomic structure 2-4 © Anatom of and element consists of three fundamental particles-electron, proton and neutron. © The masses and the charges of these particles are different as shown in the following table.Particl Mass Charge rticle (in grams) (in coulombs) Electron 9.02 x 10°** = 1.602x 10°” Proton 1.673 x10 ** +1.602x10" Neutron 1.765 x10 ** 0 Electron $4 © The smallest particle of an atom having a smallest possible quantity of negative charge is called an electron. © The charge of 6.25 x 10" electrons is equal to one coulomb. © The diameter of an electron is 1.0 x 10-3 cm. Proton 4 © The positively charged particle ofan atom is called a proton. © Ithas a positive charge of 1.602 x 10 coulombs which is equal in amount to the charge of an electron but of opposite nature. Neutron ax © Ithas no charge and its mass is nearly equal to the mass of a proton. ++ PAGE END --Valence electron ex © The electrons in the outer most orbit are called valence electrons. © They determine the stability of an atom. © They play a vital role in defining the properties of elements. ° The valance electrons which are very easily attached to the nucleus of an atom is called free electrons. © Example © Among these electrons which one is the valence electron? Valence electron Fig 11: Copper atom Energy bands © The range of energies that an electron may posses in an atom is know as energy band. © Three important energy bands are ® Valence band © Conduction band © Forbidden band& g 3 3 a Bdge of the nucleus Fig 12: Energy band diagram Valence band © The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band. Conduction band © These electrons are also called as conduction electrons. © The range of energy possessed by these electrons is known as conduction band. Forbidden band (or) energy gap © The energy band in between the conduction band and the valence band is called forbidden band. Electrical resistivity (specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) Q Itis a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. © Alowresistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electrons. © The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the Ohm-meter (9-m). © Electrical resistivity is represented by “p”.Resistivity p = BA Fig 13: Resistivity of material -- PAGE END --Classification of materials . 3 © How the materials can be classified? © Conductors. © Insulators. © Semi conductors. Various types of classifications can be done based on © Valence electrons. © Energy band. © Resistivity value. Based on valence electrons © If the valence electrons in an atom of a material is less than 4, then that type of material is called conductor. © Example are sodium, magnesium and aluminium which have 1, 2 and 3 valence electrons respectively. © The atomic structure of sodium, magnesium and aluminium is shown in figure. $4 Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Fig 14 © Ifthe valence electrons of an atom of a material is greater than 4 then that type of materials are called insulator. © Examples are nitrogen, sulphur and neon which have 5, 6 and 8 valence electrons respectively. © Glass, wood, mica, paper, rubber also comes under insulators. © The atomic structure of nitrogen, sulphur and neon is shown in figure. $4Nitrogen Sulphur Neon Fig 15 © Ifthe valence electrons of an atom are equal to 4, it is a semiconductor. © The semiconductor has both metal and non-metal properties i.e., properties lies between conductor and insulator. © Examples are germanium, silicon and carbon. © The atomic structure of carbon, silicon and germanium is shown in figure. $4 Carbon Based on energy band © Inconductors. . 3 © The valence band and the conduction band overlaps. ® No forbidden energy gap in an conductors. © Easier movement of electrons from valence band to conduction band.& s e 3 5 a Bage of the nudeus Fig 17: Energy band diagram for an conductors © Ininsulators. G4 © The valence band conduction band are separated by a long forbidden energy gap. © No movement of electron from valence band to conduction band. Forbidden band Band energy —— Edge of the nudeus Fig 18: Energy band diagram for an insulators @ Insemi conductors. 2-4 © The forbidden energy gap between valence band and conduction band is very narrow. © The conduction band of the semiconductor is empty. © The valence band of the semiconductor is full.& g 3 a Bdge of the nudeus Fig 19: Energy band diagram for an semiconductors Based on resistivity © Inconductors 4 © The resistivity of a material lies in between 10 Q-m to 10 0-m. © insulators GB4 © The resistivity of a material lies in between 10° Q-m to10'* Q-m. © Insemi conductors 4 © The resistivity of a material lies in between conductors and insulators, 10° 0- m to 10°0-m. -- PAGE END --Comparison between conductor, insulator and semi conductor Cite Insulato} Semi conductor Valence <4 o4 =4 electrons Energy gap Overlap Large Narrow Resistivity 10-8 0-m to 10'?.0-m to 10° Q-m to 10°0-m 10°0-m 10? O-m Electricity Conducts Does not conduct | Paritally conduct Charge Freeelectrons | No charge carriers [Electrons and holes carriers ++ PAGE END --Charge <4 © Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when close to other electrically charged matter. © There are two types of electric charges called positive and negative. Positive charge 2-4 © Positively charged substances are repelled from other positively charged substances, but attracted to negatively charged substances. © Example © Rubbed a glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. ig Negative charge @&-4 © Negatively charged substances are repelled from negative and attracted to positive. © Example © Rubbed sealing wax with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. ex © Like charges repel and opposite charges attract each other. © The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C). © One coulomb of charge is equal to 6.28 x 10'* electrons Fig 20: Example of positive charge and negative charge arom 4 © Consists of a central nucleus and electrons that orbit around the nucleus.eee © The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. © Three fundamental particles. © Electrons -~ have a negative electrical charge of 1.6 x 10°'°C. ® Protons - have a positive electrical charge with magnitude equal to the charge of an electron. © Neutrons have no charge. © Each electron is held in orbit by the electrostatic attraction between it and the nucleus © Atoms of different elements differ by their atomic number which is equal to the number of protons. © Anatomis electrically neutral as the number of electrons and protons are equal. Positive ion © Anatom becomes a positive ion when it looses one or more electrons. Negative ion © Negative ion is created when additional gain of electrons by an atom. Electrons and orbits © Can orbit only in orbital shells which are at fixed distance from the nucleus. © Each shell is associated with definite energy and the electrons in a shell have the same energy. © Each shell can contain only a particular number of electrons.° ° ° ‘The electrons can jump from one orbital shell to another. © By making up for the difference of energy levels of the shells. © By absorbing energy if the transition is from a shell of lower energy level to a higher energy level shell. © By giving up energy if the transition is from higher to lower. ‘The difference in energy levels of orbital shells is referred to as energy gap. The electrons in the outer shell called valence shell, determine the electrical and chemical characteristics of a particular element. Electric potential ° ° ° When a body is charged, work is done in charging it. This work done is stored in the body in the form of potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving other charges either by attraction or repulsion. The ability of the charged body to do work is called electric potential. ‘The capacity of a charged body to do work is called electric potential. The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its electric potential. Obviously, the work done to charge a body to 1 coulomb will be a measure of its electric potential ice., Work done _W Charge Q Electric Potential, V = The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs. Therefore, the unit of electric potential will be joules/coulomb or volt. If W =1 joule, Q =1 coulomb, then V = 1/1 = 1 volt. Hence a body is said to have an electric potential of 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done to give ita charge of 1 coulomb. Potential difference 2-4 ° ° ° The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential difference. If two bodies have different electric potentials, a potential difference exists between the bodies. Consider two bodies A and B having potentials of 5 volts and 3 volts respectively as shown in figure.° ° Each coulomb of charge on body A has an energy of 5 joules while each coulomb of charge on body B has an energy of 3 joules. Clearly, body A is at higher potential than the body B. Qas=©@ Fig 22 If the two bodies are joined through a conductor then electrons will flow from body B to body A. When the two bodies attain the same potential, the flow of current stops. We arrive at a very important conclusion that current will flow in a circuit if potential difference exists. No potential difference, no current flow. It may be noted that potential difference is sometimes called voltage. Electro Motive Force (E.M.F) ° ° ° ° ° EMF is the force which drives or tends to drive the electrons in a circuit. The unit of e.m.fis Volt. There is a distinct difference between e.m.f. and potential difference. ‘The e.m.f. of a device, say a battery, is a measure of the energy the battery gives to each coulomb of charge. Thus if a battery supplies 4 joules of energy per coulomb, we say that it has an emf. of 4 volts. The energy given to each coulomb ina battery is due to the chemical action. The potential difference between two points, say A and B, is a measure of the energy used by one coulomb in moving from A to B.hit, AMM 20 20 RIA Yv ail B=4 volts Fig 23: Circuit diagram of two points A and B -- PAGE END --Voltage eX © Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when close to other electrically charged matter. © The magnetic field produced by a current is related the magnitude of the current. © Thisis generally measured between two points and its unit is volt. W __Joule Volt = — = ———— nq” Coulomb © Ifthe work done in moving a charge of one coulomb between the two points is one joule, then we say that the potential of one point with reference to the second point is one volt. © Voltage can be thought of as a measure of stored electrical energy that has the ability to do work, such as moving other charges via an electric field. © This stored energy is equal in magnitude to the work done to move a charge from point A to B where A and B are of different potentials (millimeter). Current 4 @ The flow of free electrons is called electric current. © The flow of electric current can be beautifully explained by referring to figure. © When electric pressure or voltage is applied, then free electrons, being negatively charged, will start moving towards the positive terminal around the circuit as shown in figure. This directed flow of electrons is called electric current. Copper strip Fig 24: Flow of electric current Unit of current © The strength of electric current | is the rate of flow of electrons i.¢., charge flowing per second.Current, 1 a © The charge Q is measured in coulombs and time t in seconds. Therefore, the unit of electric current will be coulombs/sec or ampere, If Q = 1 coulomb, t = 1 sec, then 1=1/1= Lampere. © One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any section one coulomb of charge flows in one second. © IfS amperes current is flowing through a wire, it means that 5 coulombs of charge per second flow past any point on the wire. © Note, 1 C = charge on 6.25 x 10'S electrons, Thus when we say that current through a wire is 1 A, it means that 6.25 x 10° electrons per second flow past any cross- section of the wire. where 1.610 °C Concept of current direction 2-4 © Green arrow head indicates the direction of flow of electrons. (i.e, From — ve to + ve terminal of the battery) © Red arrows indicates the direction of conventional current. (i.e., From + ve to — ve terminal of the battery) Q Direction of electrons is in opposite to the direction of conventional current. Fig 25: Direction of electric current © Incircuits, we always represent the current direction in the conventional form. -- PAGE END --Ohm's Law sa © Ohm's law states that at constant temperature the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor and it is expressed as I a V, which is mathematically written as, Where Ris a constant and is called the resistance of the conductor. © From the formula, the resistance of a conductor which passes one ampere with a PD of one volt applied between its ends would therefore be 1 ohm. Fig 26: Ohm's law © In the cartoon picture, the voltage (V) is pushing the current (1) through a wire and resistance (R) is making this difficult. -- PAGE END --How to remember ohm’s law .- 3 © Anaid to remembering the ohm’s law relationship is shown in the divided triangle. Fig 27 where V = Voltage in volts J =Currentin amps R= Resistance in ohms To remember resistance (R) © Ifyou want to find out the resistance (R) to hide R using the finger. -|< Fig 28 To remember current (1) © Ifyou want to find out the current (I) to hide | using the finger.T= Fig 29 Voltage (V) Current (1)=$—0 88°C) Resistance(R) To remember voltage (V) © Ifyou want to find out the voltage (V) to hide V using the finger. V=IR Fig 30 Voltage (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R) -- PAGE END --Problem 1 ex © How much current flows through a 50 ohm resistance when a potential difference of 12 volts is applied across its terminals? Given data Resistance, R = 50 ohms Potential difference, V = 12 volts To find Current, I Circuit diagram Fig 31 Formulas required Solution Applying ohm’s Law, 2 50 I 1=0.24 amps -- PAGE END --Problem 2 .- 3 © Determine the voltage to be applied across a 40 ohm resistor so as to make a current of 5 ampere flows through it. Given data Resistance, R = 40 ohms Current, I= 5 amps To find Voltage, V =? Circuit Diagram R=400 1=5AA ve? ] Fig 32 Formulas required 4 Solution Applying Ohm's Law, uf V=IR V=5x40 V = 200 Volts -- PAGE END --Problem 3 ex © Aresistance of 10 9 is connected across a supply of 100 volts which varies in steps of 10 volt from 0 to 100 volts. Calculate the corresponding current for each step of voltage and also draw the graph by assuming voltage on x-axis and current on y- axis. Given data Resistance, R = 10.Q Voltage varies from 0 to 100 volt. In steps of 10 volt. To find Current at corresponding steps Circuit diagram R=100 A yi (@-100)V Fig 33: Circuit diagram Formulas required iv R Applying Ohm's law, SolutionVevolts) | R(ohms) | | = (Amps) a & 0 10 0 4 10 10 1 g 20 10 2 E 30 10 3 8 40 10 4 50 10 5 60 10 6 70 10 7 80 10 8 90 10 9 100 10 10 Fig 34 -- PAGE END -- Voltage (Volts)Problem 4 ex © Asource of e.m.f. = 12 volts and internal resistance 0.1 2 is connected to resistance to 14.9 Q, determine the current and potential difference across the resistance and terminal voltage of the source. Given data Source e.m.f, E = 12 volts Internal resistance, r = 0.10 External resistance, R = 14.90 To find Current Potential difference across the resistance Terminal voltage of the source Circuit diagram E=12volts reo1n ? Sr-1490 _——— re Fig 35 Formulas required Total resistance = Internal resistance + External resistance Solution ® What is the total resistance present in the circuit? Total resistance present in the circuit = 0.1 + 14.9From Ohm's law |= zl als Is .8 amps The potential difference across the resistance V=IR V=08 x 14.9 V= 11.92 volts The terminal voltage of the source, V=E-Ixr V=12-08x01 V=12-0.08 V = 11.92 volts -- PAGE END --Summary In this lesson, we have learnt about © Evolution in human comforts © What is engineering ? © Matter ® Valence electron © Classification of materials © Comparison between conductor, insulator and semi conductor © Charge © Voltage and current ® Network terminology © Ohm's law © How to remember ohm’s law ® Problems regarding ohm's lawQuiz Choose the correct answer : Enter the answer (a Cock agar 1. The nature of charge of electron is a. Negative b. Positive Ans a c. Neutral I] d. None of the above 2. The nature of charge of proton is a. Negative b. Positive c. Neutral d. None of the above 3. Where street end transformer getting the power supply ? a, Power station b, Substation Ans c, Generator d. None of the above 4. Where we get the electricity to the house? a. Generator b. Motor Ans c. Transformer d. Alternator -- PAGE END --Frequently Asked Questions © Whatare the limitations of ohm’s law? © How much current flows through a 50 0 resistance when a potential difference of 12 volts across its terminals? © Aresistance of 2 9 is connected across a supply of 12 volts which varies in steps of 2 volt from (0-12) V. Calculate the corresponding current for each step of voltage and also draw graph by assuming voltage on x-axis and current on y-axis. -- PAGE END -