https://doi.org/10.33263/Materials22.

150156

ISSN: 2668-5728 https://materials.international

Volume 2, Issue 2, Pages 0150-0156

2020
Received: 07.04.2020
Accepted: 12.04.2020
Article Published: 14.04.2020

Morphological and Thermal Properties of

Polystyrene Composite Reinforced with Biochar
from Plantain Stalk Fibre
Damilola Onifade 1 , Joshua Ighalo 1, * , Adewale Adeniyi 1, * , Kamalideen Hammed 1
1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, P. M. B. 1515,
Nigeria
* Correspondence: adeniyi.ag@unilorin.edu.ng; Scopus ID: 57203847713
oshea.ighalo@yahoo.com; Scopus ID: 57202955844

Abstract: The advantages of natural fibres of synthetic fibres in the reinforcement of plastic composites have
increased its use in diverse applications such as in the use of plant biochar in composite reinforcement. This research
developed polystyrene composite development using biochar from plantain stalk fibre as filler. The composites
obtained were analysed for their thermal and functional properties using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and
Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy (FTIR) respectively. The composite with 30% filler was seen to have
optimum thermal stability. The eco-friendliness of the composite gives a better solution to agro-waste disposal rather
than burning.
Keywords: plantain; polystyrene; biochar; composite; thermal.
© 2020 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction
In recent times, the use of plastic composites
in diverse applications is increasing rapidly thereby
giving importance to the characteristic properties of
the composites [1]. In the last two decades, plant
fibres have received considerable attention as
substitutes for synthetic fibre reinforcements.
Unlike the traditional synthetic fibres such as glass
and carbon, plant fibres are able to impart certain
benefits to the composites such as low density, high
stiffness, low cost, renewability, biodegradability,
environmentally friendly and high degree of
flexibility during processing [2].
Plant fibres often obtained from vegetables
constitute cellulose, a polymer of glucose bound to
lignin with varying amounts of other natural
materials. Synthetic, or man-made fibres are
generally obtained from synthetic materials such as
petrochemicals, but some types are manufactured
from natural cellulose, including rayon modal and
lyocell [3]. Plantains (Musa spp.) is mostly
cultivated in West Africa with Nigeria is one of the
largest producers of Musa spp. in the world [4].
Biochar is a product of the thermo-chemical
conversion of biomass through processes such as
pyrolysis, gasification, combustion and

MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL | https://materials.international | 150

Cite This Article: Onifade, D.; Ighalo, J.; Adeniyi, A.; Hammed, K. Morphological and Thermal Properties
of Polystyrene Composite Reinforced with Biochar from Plantain Stalk Fibre. Mat Int 2020, 2, 0150-0156.
https://doi.org/10.33263/Materials22.150156
 Morphological and Thermal Properties of Polystyrene Composite Reinforced with Biochar
from Plantain Stalk Fibre
•••
carbonisation. Other by products of the process include: clay [8], paper mill sludge [9], wood, tire
include bio-oil and bio-gas [5]. Biochar has found [10], metal oxides [10], perennial grass[10, 11]
applications in areas of carbon sequestration and Research and development in biochar
soil amendment to achieve a sustainable reinforced composites would enhance value
environment [6]. Bio-composites are composite addition through the conversion of agro-waste to
materials made of biodegradable matrix and wealth. This would also provide a better solution to
biodegradable NFs as reinforcement. The agro-waste disposal rather than burning [12]. In
development of biocomposites has attracted great addition, the development of the biochar reinforced
interest due to their environmental benefit (i.e., composites would attract more people into the
biodegradability) and improved properties agricultural sector and home based cottage industry,
especially using the biochar as the filler [7]. hence economic growth and livelihood
Several materials have been used by improvement.
researchers to produce biochar as reinforcement for This research presents the development of
polymer composites. Some of these materials polystyrene composite using biochar from plantain
stalk fibre as filler.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials.
Waste polystyrene also is known as styrofoam
was obtained from the solid waste stream of
University of Ilorin. The solid polystyrene was
converted to a solvated resin by dissolving it in a
chosen solvent, basically obtained from solid wastes
of the University of Ilorin. The process of
dissolution as described by Abdulkareem and
Adeniyi [13] is to make the polystyrene more
suitable for composite moulding.
Waste plantain stalk (empty fruit bunch) was
also gathered from a local market within Ilorin,
Kwara state. Nigeria. The fibres were extracted
from the stalk by the mechanical process of cutting
and pounding of the stalk causing the fibres to be
separated and yield juice extract. The fibres were
allowed to dry in open air for three days.
2.2. Biochar Production.
The plantain fibres were fed into a
carbonisation unit and was made to undergo
pyrolysis at a maximum temperature of 300 °C for
120 minutes to yield plantain biochar. Further
details on the design, operation and experimental
procedure of the carbonisation unit can be found in
Adeniyi, Ighalo and Onifade [5]. The biochar
obtained was crushed and sieved into particles with
an average size of 100 µm.
2.3. Composite Preparation.
The composite was produced by manual
mixing and hand lay-up method of composite
production. Polystyrene resin which was solvated at
room temperature was mixed with plantain fibre
biochar concentrations of 10, 20, 30 and 40 wt%
respectively. The composite samples were moulded
and allowed to cure at room temperature for 7 days.
2.4. Characterisation of Resin and
Composites.
Polystyrene resin and Plantain fibre composite
samples were analyzed for their surface, functional
group and thermal properties using Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform
Infra-Red Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) respectively. The
SEM of model S-3400N was used to identify surface
morphology of both resin and composite samples
while a Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS5-iD1 FTIR
machine was used to qualitatively identify the
constituent functional groups of the samples. DSC
was performed under a nitrogen atmosphere using
a heating rate of 10°C/min from 25 - 125 °C to
determine the thermal stability of the polystyrene
resin and the composite.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Properties of Polystyrene Resin. a slope change in temperature range 35-50ºC and
The thermal properties of the resin before the increases again then decreasing through a wide
introduction of biochar filler was analysed and the range. This may be due to the homogeneity of
obtained results are shown in Figure 1. The results matrix mixture tested. The heat capacity of the resin
show that thermal property of the matrix decreases was found to be 529.84J/kg.K.
steeply with increase in temperature increases with
MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL | https://materials.international | 151
 Damilola Onifade, Joshua Ighalo, Adewale Adeniyi, Kamalideen Hammed
•••
The morphology of polystyrene resin was vibrations as presented in Table 1. The peak at
studied using SEM at different magnifications as 2922.2cm-1 has O-H stretch indicating the presence
shown in Figure 2. Figure 2a viewed at 50µm of carboxylic acids and 2851.4cm-1 have H-C-H
revealed a plain surface with grains of undissolved asymmetric & symmetric Stretch of alkane group.
polystyrene foams on the surface. Spectra range 1871.1cm-1 and 1736.9cm-1 indicate
presence of C=O stretch vibrations and acyl
chlorides group, the peak at 1602.9cm-1 has N-H
bend indicating the presence of amides and
1490.9cm-1 have H-C-H bend of alkane group.
Spectra range 905.7cm-1 and 697.0cm-1 indicate the
presence of =C-H bend of alkene group. Some of
the peaks in FTIR spectra of polystyrene resin
indicate the presence of =C-H stretching which is
in line with the study of Hollas (2006) who reported
that the existence of one or more aromatic rings in
a structure is normally readily determined from the
Figure 1. Thermal Property Spectra of Polystyrene. CH and C=C-C ring-related vibrations. The C-H
stretching occurs above 3000cm-1 and is typically
The smooth surface of the matrix may indicate exhibited as a multiplicity of weak-to-moderate
the flexibility of polystyrene matrix that could allow bands, compared with the aliphatic C-H stretch.
for high elongation at break. This observation is
common to Figures. 2(b), (c) & (d) representing
80µm, 100µm and 200µm respectively. The
presence of micro-particles in the polystyrene
matrix was also observed which may be a result of
incomplete dilution. These particles have no
chemical effect on the polystyrene matrix and hence
not have any significant effect on composite formed
from the sample.

Figure 3. FTIR Spectra of Unfilled Polystyrene Resin.

3.2. Composite Thermal Property.

The thermal conductivity of the composite at
10, 20, 30 and 40% biochar composition was
determined over a temperature range of 25 0C -125
0C and the values represented in Figures. 4, 5, 6 and

7 respectively. The thermal conductivity of the

Figure 2. SEM Micrograph of Polystyrene (a,b,c,d)
The FTIR spectra of polystyrene resin are
presented in Figure 3. The peaks are located in
wavenumber ranging from 4000-500cm-1. The first
peak at 3026.6cm-1 has an =C-H stretching
composite at 20% is higher than that of the matrix
due to the density of the composite. The thermal
conductivity decreases steeply then sharply
increases again as the temperature increases over
time. The thermal conductivity at 10%, 30%, 40%
decreases steadily then slightly increase and then
decreasing steadily as the temperature increases
over time.
Behaviour of the heat capacity of different
percentage filler composition can now be explained
using thermal conductivity values of the biochar.
With the addition of 10, 20, 30 and 40% fraction of

MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL | https://materials.international| 152

 Morphological and Thermal Properties of Polystyrene Composite Reinforced with Biochar
from Plantain Stalk Fibre
•••
plantain stalk biochar in the polystyrene matrix, the 10min, then it tends to decrease, i.e., after material
heat capacity resulted in 2000.00, 2269.2, 3925.2, fracture takes place. The heat capacity behavior at
and 3363.6 J/kg.K respectively as shown in Figure 10, 20, 30 and 40% fraction of plantain stalk biochar
8. It was observed that the heat capacity increases at in the polystyrene matrix was observed at a time
increasing percentage fraction but sharply decreased range of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 minutes.
after adding 30% biochar. It can then be said that to
obtain a composite of heat capacity range between
2000-4000 J/kg.K, a percentage range of biochar
should be maintained at 10-30%.

Figure 6. Thermal conductivity of composite at 30%

biochar.

Figure 4. Thermal conductivity of composite at 10%

biochar.

Figure 7. Thermal conductivity of composite at 40%

biochar.

Figure 5. Thermal conductivity of composite at 20%

biochar.

In the study of the thermal properties of

natural fibres reinforced composites in comparison
with that of synthetic fibre reinforced composites,
Paul, Boudenne, Ibos, Candau, Joseph and Thomas
[14] found that thermal properties of natural fibres
reinforced composites are much lower than that of
synthetic one. Consequently, it is more difficult to
dissipate the heat and in some situations, this can be
an important consideration, particularly if electronic
components are situated very close to the material
[14].
From Figure 8, it was observed that the heat
capacity increases with the increase of composition
at different time interval up to around 538.31J/kg.K
at 2min, 1390.65J/kg.K at 4min, 2287.85J/kg.K at
6min, 2960.75J/kg.K at 8min and 3813.08J/kg.K at
Figure 8. Heat Capacity against Composition at
Different Time Interval.
Ihueze, Okafor and Okoye [1] also observed,
the stress increases with the increase of strain up to
around 700 N/mm2, then it tends to decrease, i.e.,
after material fracture takes place. From the graph,
it has been noticed that pure carbon fibre composite
is better when compared to other types composites
tested followed by 80% carbon and 20% banana
fibre reinforced composites. The flexural strength
comparisons of the different combinations of the
carbon/banana fibre reinforced composites as

MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL | https://materials.international | 153

 Damilola Onifade, Joshua Ighalo, Adewale Adeniyi, Kamalideen Hammed
•••
presented, the results indicated that the pure carbon peaks are located in a wide range of spectra scale.
fibre reinforced composites are performing better The first peak at 3332.2cm-1 may correspond to
than the banana/carbon fibre composite hydrogen-bonded O-H stretching vibrations. The
combinations were tested. This is due to the poor peak at 2888.7cm-1 can be attributed to H-C-H
flexural strength of the natural fibres when asymmetric and symmetric Stretch indicating the
compared to the synthetic carbon fibres. The results presence of alkane group. Spectra range 1722.0cm-1
have proved that the flexural strength of the natural and 1602.8cm-1 indicate presence of C-C=C
fibre composites is lesser than that of the synthetic symmetric stretch vibrations indicating the presence
one. The flexural strength values of these of aromatic ring group, the peak at 1423.8cm-1 has
composites are well ahead with the already H-C-H bend indicating the presence of alkane and
published results [15]. 1367.9cm-1 have N=O bend of nitro group. Spectra
3.3. Composite Functional Group. range 1028.7cm-1 and 667.2cm-1 indicate presence
The FTIR spectra of the biochar-polystyrene of =C-O-C sym. and ≡C-H bend of Ether and
composite are shown in Figure 9 and the peak alkyne groups [12].
analysis is presented in Table 2. The absorbance

Figure 9. FTIR Spectra of Biochar in Polystyrene Resin.

Table 1. Spectral Analysis of Unfilled Polystyrene Resin.

Observed peaks(cm-1) Functional Group Possible Assignments
3026.6 Alkenes =C-H stretch
2922.2 Carboxylic Acids O-H stretch
2851.4 Alkanes H-C-H Asymmetric & Symmetric Stretch
1871.1 Acyl Chlorides C=O stretch
1736.9 Acyl Chlorides C=O stretch
1602.9 Amides N-H bend
1490.9 Alkanes H-C-H Bend
1449.9 Alkynes Methyl C-H asym./sym. Bend
1028.7 Esthers =C-O-C sym.
905.7 Alkenes =C-H bend
752.9 Alkyl halides C-Cl stretch
697.0 Alkenes =C-H bend

Table 2. Spectral Analysis of Biochar in Polystyrene Resin.

EG (observed peaks) Functional Group Possible Assignments
3332.2 Carboxylic Acids O-H stretch
2888.7 Alkanes H-C-H Asymmetric & Symmetric Stretch
1722.0 Aromatic Rings C-C=C Symmetric Stretch
1602.8 Aromatic Rings C-C=C Symmetric Stretch
MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL | https://materials.international| 154
 Morphological and Thermal Properties of Polystyrene Composite Reinforced with Biochar
from Plantain Stalk Fibre
•••
EG (observed peaks) Functional Group
1423.8 Alkanes
1367.9 Nitro Groups
1227.5 Alkyl halides
1159.2 Alcohols
1028.7 Ethers
667.2 Alkynes
4. Conclusions
Polystyrene Composite reinforced with
plantain biochar was prepared through manual
mixing method and hand lay-up technique.
Characterizations of biochar revealed that
biochar has high potential as other commercial
fillers due to the presence of some polar
functional groups. Estimated heat capacities of
the composites from the thermal test results
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments
The Technical support of Mr. I. A. Tijani is highly acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1 Ihueze, C.C.; Okafor, C.E.; Okoye, C.I. Natural fiber
composite design and characterization for limit stress
prediction in multiaxial stress state. Journal of King Saud
University - Engineering Sciences 2015, 27, 193-206,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2013.08.002.
2 Jagadeesh, D.; Kumar, B.; Sudhakara, P.; Prasad, C.;
Rajulu, A.V.; Song, J. Preparation and Properties of
Propylene Glycol Plasticized Wheat Protein Isolate
Novel Green Films. Journal of Polymers and the Environment
2013, 21, 930-936, https://doi.org/doi:10.1007/s10924-
013-0572-4.
3 Lavanya, D.; Kulkarni, P.; Dixit, M.; Raavi, P.K.;
Krishna, L.N.V. Sources of cellulose and their
applications- A review. International Journal of Drug
Formulation and Research 2011, 2, 19-38.
4 Adeniyi, A.; O. Ighalo, J.; Onifade, D. Banana and
plantain fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Journal of
Polymer Engineering 2019, 39, 597-611,
https://doi.org/10.1515/polyeng-2019-0085.
5 Adeniyi, A.G.; Ighalo, J.O.; Onifade, D.V.
Production of Bio-Char from Plantain (musa Paradisiaca)
Fibers Using an Updraft Biomass Gasifier with Retort
Heating. Combustion Science and Technology 2019, 1-15,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00102202.2019.1650269.
6 Adeniyi, A.G.; Ighalo, J.O.; Onifade, D.V.
Production of biochar from elephant grass (Pernisetum
MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL | https://materials.international | 155
Possible Assignments
H-C-H Bend
N=O Bend
C-F stretch
C-O stretch
=C-O-C sym.
≡C-H bend
also showed that to obtain a composite of heat
capacity range between 2000-4000 J/kg.K, a
percentage range of biochar should be
maintained at 10-30%. Furthermore, the
addition of thermally stable biochar in the
composite is beneficial to the thermal
properties of the composite.
purpureum) using an updraft biomass gasifier with retort
heating. Biofuels 2019, 1-8,
https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2019.1613751.
7 Sizmur, T.; Fresno, T.; Akgül, G.; Frost, H.; Moreno-
Jiménez, E. Biochar modification to enhance sorption of
inorganics from water. Bioresource Technology 2017, 246, 34-
47, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.07.082.
8 Yao, Y.; Gao, B.; Fang, J.; Zhang, M.; Chen, H.;
Zhou, Y.; Creamer, A.E.; Sun, Y.; Yang, L.
Characterization and environmental applications of clay–
biochar composites. Chemical Engineering Journal 2014, 242,
136-143, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.12.062.
9 Devi, P.; Saroha, A.K. Synthesis of the magnetic
biochar composites for use as an adsorbent for the
removal of pentachlorophenol from the effluent.
Bioresource Technology 2014, 169, 525-531,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.07.062.
10 Karakoyun, N.; Kubilay, S.; Aktas, N.; Turhan, O.;
Kasimoglu, M.; Yilmaz, S.; Sahiner, N. Hydrogel–
Biochar composites for effective organic contaminant
removal from aqueous media. Desalination 2011, 280, 319-
325, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.07.014.
11 Behazin, E.; Ogunsona, E.; Rodriguez, A.; Mohanty,
A.; Misra, M.; Anyia, A. Mechanical, Chemical, and
Physical Properties of Wood and Perennial Grass
Biochars for Possible Composite Application.
 Damilola Onifade, Joshua Ighalo, Adewale Adeniyi, Kamalideen Hammed
•••
Bioresources 2016, 11, 1334-1348, 14 Annie Paul, S.; Boudenne, A.; Ibos, L.; Candau, Y.;
https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.11.1.1334-1348. Joseph, K.; Thomas, S. Effect of fiber loading and
12 Das, O.; Kim, N.K.; Sarmah, A.K.; Bhattacharyya, D. chemical treatments on thermophysical properties of
Development of waste based biochar/wool hybrid banana fiber/polypropylene commingled composite
biocomposites: Flammability characteristics and materials. Composites Part A: Applied Science and
mechanical properties. Journal of Manufacturing 2008, 39, 1582-1588,
Cleaner Production 2017, 144, 79-89, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.06.004.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.155. 15 Bhoopathi, R.; Ramesh, M.; Deepa, C. Fabrication
13 Abdulkareem, S.; Adeniyi, A. Production of particle and Property Evaluation of Banana-Hemp-Glass Fiber
boards using polystyrene and bamboo wastes. Nigerian Reinforced Composites. Procedia
Journal of Technology 2017, 36, 788-793. Engineering 2014, 97, 2032-2041,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.12.446.

MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL | https://materials.international| 156