Ational Structure and Texture Properties of Fried Potato Products

Food Reviews International, 22:173–201, 2006
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 8755-9129 print / 1525-6103 online
DOI: 10.1080/87559120600574584
Structure and Texture Properties of Fried

1525-6103
8755-9129
LFRI
Food Reviews International
International, Vol. 22, No. 02, February 2006: pp. 0–0
Potato Products
MISAEL L. MIRANDA AND JOSÉ M. AGUILERA

Properties
M.L. Miranda
of Fried
and J.M.
Potato
Aguilera
Products
Department of Chemical Engineering and Bioprocesses, Pontificia Universidad

Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Potatoes are the fourth most important vegetable crop in the world, and in 2003, it was a
2.7 billion dollar business in the US alone. Nearly one-third of the potato production is
processed into par-fried frozen potatoes and fried chips (snacks). Frying imparts desirable
taste and textural properties to these products, the latter described usually by the sensorial
term crispness. Frying is reviewed as a structuring process, and methodologies to deter-
mine texture in fried potato products are discussed. It is demonstrated that the histological
and microstructural heterogeneity of potato tubers have hampered clear interpretation of
experimental data and a rigorous modeling of frying. Moisture uptake during post-frying is
critical in the loss of crispness (limpness) of fries and in softening of potato chips. Methods
to evaluate these changes and alternatives to prolong the shelf life are discussed.
Keywords potatoes, frying, texture, microstructure, modeling, limpness
Introduction
Origin of Potatoes
The potato belongs to the family Solanaceae along with other well-known cultivated
plants including chilies, tomatoes, tobacco, pepper, and eggplant.(1) “Papas”—a Quechua
(Inca’s language) word for potatoes (Solanum tuberosum)—are native to the Andean
regions of South America, where they have been an important staple food for 8,000
years.(2) They are consumed cooked or freeze-dried in the sun, as a dry product called
“chuño” obtained after repeated freezing, thawing and pressing in the high altitudes of the
Andes.(3) Potatoes seemed to have been introduced to Spain in 1570, from there they were
taken to Italy and England in 1596, and to Germany in 1601—spreading out all around
Europe in the first quarter of the 17th century.(4) Once introduced into a country, new vari-
eties were developed to suit the local conditions and consumer preferences. Today, hun-
dreds of varieties of this popular vegetable are grown around the world, differing in
texture, flavor, shape, and color, hence, in suitability for end use.(5)
Economical Importance of Potatoes

The annual world production of potatoes is around 300 million tons, and areas planted
cover more that 18 million hectares.(6,7) Major producing countries (and the world’s share
Address correspondence to Misael L. Miranda, Department of Chemical Engineering and

Bioprocesses, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Vicuna Mackenna, Santiago 354-5803,
Chile. E-mail: misael@mail.usa.com
173
174 M.L. Miranda and J.M. Aguilera
Figure 1. Utilization of potatoes in different products and applications.(138)
of production) are China (20%), Russia (12%), India, and the US (8% each). Potatoes are
one of the most important vegetable crops in the United States.(8,1)
Fried potato products account for a large proportion of the total potato crop utiliza-
tion. The main utilization of processed potatoes includes table stock (31%), frozen French
fries (30%), chips and shoestrings (12%), and dehydrated items (12%), as shown in Fig. 1.
Potato chips and French fries (crisps and potato chips, respectively, in the UK and the
rest of the Commonwealth) account for more than 42% of the total potato crop in the
United States.(9) Global production capacity of frozen potato products is estimated to be at
least 9.6 million metric tons per year. Worldwide exports of frozen potato products in
2000 (over 90% of which are frozen French fries) were valued at $1.9 billion. This amount
does not account for the billions of dollars of frozen potato products produced and sold
domestically in different countries around the world.(10) Leading exporting countries of
frozen potato products, including, amounts and values are shown in Table 1.
Many aspects of the markets for fried foods, the manufacture of pre-fried potato prod-
ucts, and improvement of their quality are found in the book edited by Rossell.(11)
Table 1
Main exporters of frozen potato products (year 2003)
Country Quantity (metric tons) Value (106 US$)
Netherlands 1,167,193 810
Canada 892,878 573
USA 453,049 339
Belgium 674,858 419
France 198,401 147
Germany 159,104 104
UK 53,101 41
Source: FAOSTAT.(6)
Properties of Fried Potato Products 175
The Appeal of Fried Potato Products

It is believed that continuous purchases of the same food are based mainly on taste.
People buy fast food because it has been carefully designed to taste good, but it is also
inexpensive and convenient.(12) The fast food industry sells about 90% of the fries con-
sumed in the U.S. Hot oil is the secret behind making a good fried product; it gives the
crisp texture and taste that people find so enjoyable, and it provides a pleasurable sen-
sation of satiety.(12) Consumers appreciate light-colored to golden fried potato prod-
ucts. Americans consume approximately 14 kg of French fries (equivalent to 205 sixty-
eight gram servings) annually and over 10 kg of snack foods, the majority of which are
fried chips.
French fries in America were popularized by World War I veterans who had
enjoyed them in Europe. They named the hot and crispy fried product “French Fries”
after the french-speaking people who sold them. A major technological breakthrough
for their widespread consumption as fast food occurred when McDonald’s began
switching to frozen French fries in 1966, a business that grew to $2.83 billion in
2002.(9,6) On the other hand, potato chips did not gain wide-spread popularity until the
1930s when Herman Lay began producing Lay’s potato chips, the first successfully
marketed national brand.
Production of Fries and Chips
Processing
Frozen par-fried French fries are prepared first by washing and peeling the potatoes by
abrasion after treatment with lye. Peeled potatoes are trimmed, sorted, and cut along the
long axis to produce strips with a 1.0 to 1.3 cm2 in cross section by means of a water jet
that propels potatoes at a speed of almost 40 m/s through a grid of sharpened steel
blades. Strips are blanched to make the color more uniform after frying and to form a
layer of gelatinized starch that limits oil absorption and improves texture.(13) Next, they
are par-fried for 1–3 minutes, drained of the oil, frozen as loose pieces in a continuous
freezer, and packaged (Fig. 2). The selection of the frying oil considers the degradation
it suffers while it is used and the absence of saturated and trans fats. The oil content of
par-fried strips varies from 5–7% w.b. Frozen par-fried potatoes are finished fried at
home or in institutional outlets at 180–195°C for 2 to 3 minutes. The oil content of fin-
ished French fries is 10–15% w.b.
Potato slices for chips are commonly cut thin (1.27–1.78 mm thick) and fried in a
continuous fryer with a final oil content of 33–38% w.b. at oil temperatures that range
from 177–190°C. During this process, the starch in the potato is gelatinized, and the water
content is reduced from 75–85 to 1–2% w.b., obtaining a characteristic crispy product
after partial shrinkage of close to 65%. A low content in reducing sugars is required to
obtain a golden color avoiding brownings.(13) The common stages for processing of
French fries and chips are summarized in Fig. 2.
The most desirable textural properties of these foods are imparted during a short
period of frying of a few minutes where they attain their maximum quality. Thereafter,
this attribute decays either rapidly as in French fries or more slowly in the case of potato
chips. Both events, frying and post-frying, are reviewed under this perspective, particu-
larly the latter which has been largely disregarded in the specialized literature.
Storage – receiving – holding bins
Washing and sizing Cleaning tables
French fries (par-fried) Potato chips (crisps)
Peeling - trimming Peeler
Singularizing Inspection table
Cutting - Sizing Slicer
Trimming -resizing Washer and rinser
Blanching - coating Cooker-fryer
Frying - oil-removing Salt and flavouring
Cooling and freezing Packaging and sealing
Grading and packaging Inspection and cooling
Storing and shipping Storing and shipping
Figure 2. Schematic of French fries and potato chip processing.(2)
Morphology and Microstructure of Potatoes

The potato tuber is essentially an underground stem that has been thickened, resembling
the aerial stem of the plant. The main internal tissues are shown in Fig. 3. The tuber is
divided into the bud and stem ends, the latter situated on the stolon. The bud end of the
tuber is richer in eyes than the stem end. The outer skin consists of a layer of corky perid-
erm, approximately 10 cells deep, formed by dead cells that do not contain starch or pro-
tein grains, and have thicker cell walls than parenchyma cells.(14)
Underlying the periderm or skin is the cortex, a thin layer of parenchyma tissue, where
the cells normally contain numerous round and oval-shaped starch grains. These cells appear
to be the largest in the tuber, with dimensions up to 146 × 189 μm.(14) Vascular storage
parenchyma, high in starch content, lies within the shell of the cortex.(1) Xylem and phloem
are found in minute strands or bundles, most of which form a narrow, discontinuous ring
(the vascular ring) just within the boundary between the cortex and the vascular areas. Stor-
age parenchyma cells adjacent to vascular tissue contain starch granules that are generally
small and round. Cells located only three cells away contain oval starch grains that are least
twice as large. Forming a central core, but radiating narrow branches to each of the eyes, is
the pith, sometimes called the medulla or water core.(1) The cells in the pith (Fig. 4A) are
smaller and have a lower starch content. The internal phloem (perimedullary zone) occupies
Figure 3. Cross section of a potato tuber.(14)

Reprinted from J. Inst. Can. Sci Technol. Aliment. (now Food Research International), Vol, 10,
Fedec, P., Ooraikul, B., Hadziyev, D. “Microstructure of raw and granulated potoes,” 295–306,
Copyright (1977), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 4. Photomicrographs of: A. MRI view of a cross section of a raw potato tuber. B. Light pho-
tomicrograph from square area in A showing potato tissue stained with iodine solution.
close to 75% of the total volume of the tuber. This histological variability of potato tissue
will be a critical factor when determining textural properties of finished products.
A characteristic of potato cells is the presence of a cell wall that limits the expansion of
the cytoplasm. The outer layer of the cell wall is the middle lamella composed of pectic
material that cements cells together and is dissolved during heating. Cells normally contain
numerous starch granules. The high variability in the distribution of starch in potato tubers
can be readily appreciated by a simple staining test with iodine,(15) as shown in Fig. 4B.
This microstructural feature together with the histological variability make potato
tubers an extremely anisotropic material. Microstructural differences in potato tissue have
been recently quantified by electron microscopy and image analysis.(16) Sensory and
instrumental measurements of texture of cooked potatoes, especially with regard to the
ratio of mealiness/softness and the degree of cell-to-cell bonding, correlated well with the
microstructure of the tissue as seen by SEM.
Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of potatoes varies with cultivar, location of growth, cultural
practices, maturity at harvest, subsequent storage history, and other factors. Table 2 sum-
marizes the range and average values of major chemical components of potatoes.
Dry matter content and specific gravity reflect the amount of starch present and are
used as crude indicators of the processing quality. In general, tubers with high dry matter
content (20–22%) and a specific gravity (1.08–1.09), high amylose-to-amylopectin ratio,
small cell size, and low sugar content are preferred for frying.(17) The content of reducing
sugars is related to the final color, i.e. the higher content of sugars, the darker tone is
expected in potato products such as French fries, potato chips and others. Moreover, pota-
toes high in sugar taste sweet and have a poor/soft texture after cooking. This poor texture
is probably related to the low starch levels associated with the high sugar content. Starch
provides the most important contribution to the texture of processed potatoes. Cultivar and
environmental conditions during growing (e.g., temperature, fertilizer type) have been
demonstrated to have an effect on swelling and gelatinization of potato starch, with higher
temperatures reducing the swelling and increasing the gelatinization temperature.(17)
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Potatoes

Tubers used for French fries and other fried potato products are usually stored between 7.2
and 8.8°C. Storage at cooler temperatures promote the rapid conversion of starch to
reducing sugars (glucose), whereas above 10°C, respiration and starch degradation are in
Table 2
Chemical composition of potato tubers
Substances Average value Range
Water (%) 77.5 63.2–86.9
Total solids (%) 22.5 13.1–36.8
Dry matter (%) 21.5(2) 20–23(2)
Total carbohydrate (%) 19.4 13.3–30.53
Specific gravity (g/ml) 1.087 1.080–1.095
Crude fiber (%) 0.6 0.17–3.48
Protein (%) 2.0 0.7–4.6
Fat (%) 0.1 0.02–0.96
Ash (%) 1.0 0.44–1.9
Source: Smith(18) and Pavlista and Ojala.(2)
balance with each other so glucose and sucrose levels do not increase. This balance will
shift to larger starch degradation if tubers experience stress while in storage, increasing
levels of glucose and more non-enzymatic browning during frying.(18) The issue of sugar
content is not minor these days due to increasing scientific concern about its role in acryla-
mide formation in fried potato products.
Several other defects may arise during storage of tubers.(19) Bruising due to a high
stacking height of potatoes causes softening of the tissue, difficulty cutting, and discolora-
tion. Presence of “black hearts” is caused by lack of oxygen or high temperatures. Other
defects in finished products may arise directly from growing conditions. This is the case of
so-called “glassiness” or the absence of dry matter in cells leading to “water bags” during
the first weeks of storage.
The Frying Process
Frying of Potatoes
Even though frying is a cooking method used worldwide by industry, street vendors, and by
consumers to produce unique flavors and textures, its study as a unit operation by food
engineers was almost neglected until around twenty years ago.(20) Frying can be continuous
or batch and may involve immersion of food pieces in hot oil (deep-fat frying) or exposure
of the surface to hot oil (shallow frying). Vacuum and pressure frying are used for specific
applications such as frying fruits and vegetables containing a high concentration of carbo-
hydrates.(21,22) In the case of French fries, the frying conditions (i.e., high temperatures and
the use of oil as frying medium), yield a unique product of composite structure; that is, a
tender moist core containing cooked mealy cells enrobed by a crisp, oily, and dehydrated
crust that contributes to the expected structural integrity. Potato chips, on the other hand,
are crisp dehydrated discs (1–2% moisture content) infiltrated by oil.
Deep-fat Frying
A good description of the deep-fat frying process is provided by Saguy et al.(23) and condi-
tions prevailing in the product are shown schematically in Fig. 5. It involves heat transfer
by convection from the surrounding oil to the surface of the product and then heat conduc-
tion into the interior of the piece (core). Also, mass transfer occurs due to release of water
and by oil uptake. After addition of the potato piece into the hot oil (160–180°C), the tem-
perature of the surface layers rises rapidly, water starts to boil at 100°C and is released
from the surface as bubbles. Initially, the oil temperature cools down depending on the
mass of food added and rises back to the preset temperature. A moving boundary is pro-
duced within the piece separating the forming crust from the core that is being
cooked.(24,25) As frying proceeds, the thickness of the developed crust continues to
increase and the number of steam bubbles is reduced.
Immersion frying is an unsteady state process (Fig. 5). As the dehydrated crust is
formed the temperature of the outer surface reaches equilibrium with Toil, and a steep tem-
perature gradient sets in through the crust into the moving crust/core interface at Tint,
approximately a few degrees above the boiling point of water.(26) Heat transfer through the
crust is dissipated by further heat conduction into the interior of the piece, eventually
cooking it into a mealy core. Whereas in large pieces the temperature of the core does not
exceed 100°C, in thin potato chips that become almost fully dehydrated, the temperature
at the end of frying is close to the oil temperature throughout the piece.
Figure 5. Scheme of heat and mass transfer during frying, and the prevailing temperature and
moisture profiles.
Changes Induced by Frying

A scheme of physical, chemical, and structural changes occurring during frying of pota-
toes due to temperature are summarized in Fig. 6. In the case of frozen products, water
changes from the solid to the liquid phase throughout the piece and to vapor (steam) in
the outer, hot layers. After removal from the fryer, cooling steam condenses back to the
Smoke point of oil

190 SH
steam Frying oil Brown
160 Surface
Crispy
Temperature (ºC)
crust
Vapor Separation
Dehydration
100
Soggy Inside
Mealy Softening
Water (core) of cement
Liquid uptake
swelling
Cemented
Native Turgid Outside
0
Ice Yellow
Water Starch Cells Cell Oil in Color of

walls crust crust
Figure 6. Physical, chemical, and structural changes occurring during deep-fat frying.
liquid state. Heating up to 100°C induces changes in starch and cells similar to those
observed in cooking of potatoes.(27) Starch granules undergo gelatinization at around
60–70°C (i.e., they imbibe water and swell inside cells). In a similar temperature range
(60–80°C), the middle lamellae between cells disintegrates and cells separate giving the
so-called mealy texture. Exposure to temperatures above 100°C causes starch granules
and cells located in the forming crust to become dehydrated. Oil may then penetrate into
crevices in the crust, but major impregnation occurs after frying and on cooling. The
surface color of products changes gradually with temperature to golden yellow and later
to brown. Prolonged use of oil at high temperature and in the presence of air leads to
many reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation, polymerization, etc., and some of the
formed chemicals have been reported to pose health hazards.(28) Surfactants formed in
the heating oil improve the wetting of the surface by lowering the surface tension and
are supposed to increase fat uptake and heat transfer into the product.(29) Acrylamide, a
probable carcinogen for humans, appears to form as a result of a reaction between spe-
cific amino acids and sugars found in foods when heated to high temperatures. The high
temperature of oil (e.g., >120°C) also promotes formation of acrylamide in French fries
and chips.(30)
Frying and Microstructure

Frying induces significant microstructural changes that have been recently unveiled using
different modern visualization techniques. Most revealing has been the video microscopy
study of in-situ frying of potato cells that clearly showed that starch granules swelled rap-
idly by intracellular water at a temperature (e.g., 60–70°C) well below that of the frying
occupying the whole interior of the cells. Steam bubbles leave the interior of the cells
through pores in the cell walls (probably through plasmodesmata) and find their way to
the product/oil interface through many intercellular passages.(31) Swollen starch granules
remained as a compact mass pressing on the outer cell wall before becoming dehydrated at
higher temperatures.(32) Cells heated in oil to 180°C remained largely intact and decreased
slightly in area without any evidence of oil in their interior.(33) Confocal laser scanning
microscopy (CLSM), a non-invasive technique that produces optical sections at increasing
depths in the specimen, demonstrated that oil is placed as an egg-box arrangement sur-
rounding intact potato cells.(34)
Fig. 7 shows scanning electron micrographs of cross-sections produced by free frac-
ture of the crust of a French fry and a potato chip. Both microstructures are quite similar
(even in thickness) and characterized by remnants of dry cells and numerous voids. In
Figure 7. SEM photomicrographs of the cross-section of: A. The crust of a French fry, and; B) a
potato chip.
fact, a French fry can be considered as a rigid hollow beam filled with a soft, mealy puree
and properties of the crust may be associated for modeling to those of a thin fried potato
slice.
Fat Uptake During Deep-fat Frying

Fat uptake is an important quality parameter of fried foods, discussed by Moreira et al.(13)
and presently a major health concern for the potato processing industry. The mean oil con-
tent (in g/100 g of edible portion) of potato chips is 34.6 and for French fries, 14.8.(23)
Similar values are reported by Moreira et al.(13) The subject of oil uptake during deep-fat
frying is well covered by Mellema(35) and Saguy et al.(23)
The early work by Gamble et al.(36) suggested that in thick pieces, such as French
fries, the oil was confined to the crust (0.5–1.0 mm thickness) and did not penetrate into
the core, a result that was confirmed later using advanced techniques described
below.(37,38,39) However, Gamble et al.(36) suggested wrongly, that oil infiltrated places
where water was easily lost (i.e., oil got into cells). This erroneous concept pervaded until
a few years ago. It is now quite clear that oil uptake is initially a surface phenomenon
depending on a balance between oil retained on the surface and oil drained after retrieval
of the product from the oil bath.(40) Thus, oil is mostly absorbed from the surface into the
product at the end of frying.
Several factors affect oil uptake by fried products. The effect of frying temperature on
oil uptake is unclear. Some authors state that frying at higher temperatures leads to a
decrease in oil uptake, possibly due to the reduced frying time necessary, formation of
a better developed crust which would act as a barrier for oil absorption, or by a reduction
in porosity of the crust.(41,42) Other authors have shown that the temperature effect on
oil absorption is not significant.(43,26) What has become recently clear is that frying
potato slices at lower temperatures decreases dramatically the formation of acryla-
mide.(44) A linear relation has been found between the surface area and the amount of
oil uptake.(45) Surface roughness increases overall surface area, resulting in higher oil
uptake.
The mechanisms of fat uptake differ for French fries and for potato chips. In the
former case, when the product is removed from the fryer oil is sucked into the crust
through an interconnected network of pores and cavities left by the escaping vapor.
Pressure-driven flow by the vacuum caused by the condensing steam and capillary suc-
tion are believed to be major transport mechanisms of oil penetration into the crust and
not Fickean diffusion as initially proposed.(40,46) In chips, capillary action by thin pores
after most of the steam has been released is supposed to be the major mechanism of fat
uptake.(35)
Studies of oil uptake and location of oil inside fried products have taken advantage of
modern techniques that replace the tedious solvent extraction method (Soxhlet). Aguilera
and Gloria(38) effectively quantified oil in the crust of fried potato samples by differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) for samples of about 30 mg and with a sensitivity of 1 mg of
oil. Bouchon and Aguilera(32) using epifluorescence microscopy reported that oil in a fried
potato slab was located mainly in the crust with a few traces visible in the area underneath,
whilst the core was virtually oil-free. These observations coincided with results obtained
by Keller et al.(47) and Saguy et al.(48) Using infrared microspectroscopy, Bouchon et al.(37)
precisely determined that the maximum penetration distance of oil in the crust of fried
potato cylinders was about 300 μm, thus reflecting the anisotropic nature of the structure
developed during deep-fat frying.
Color Changes During Frying

Main changes in color of fries and chips occur by the Maillard reaction between amino
acids or free amino groups of proteins and peptides, and reducing sugars, mainly glu-
cose and fructose. Browning becomes very rapid at temperatures higher than 150°C and
volatile flavor compounds are produced as secondary products. Treatments to lower the
content of reducing sugars prior to deep-frying include exposing tubers to about 21°C
for 1–3 weeks, leaching sugars out from the surface with water or by blanching, expo-
sure of slices to a solution of the enzyme glucose-oxidase or by lactic fermentation with
lactic bacteria.(49,50)
Modeling the Frying Process

According to Bailey,(51) modeling should bring order to experience, clarify which compo-
nents and interactions are important, generate new working hypotheses and lead to proper
interpretation of qualitative observations. The ultimate goal of modeling is to provide reli-
able predictions of behavior under conditions different from those under which experi-
ments were carried out. For obvious reasons, heat and mass transfer models have been
extensively applied to frying. Several parameters related to the process or product have
been determined by various authors and Table 3 is a summary of the most relevant litera-
ture. Table 4 lists some kinetic models used in literature to describe changes in textural
and other related properties of fried and heat-treated potatoes.
Improving the Quality of Fried Products
Prefrying Treatments
Several alternatives have been proposed to improve or preserve the textural quality, and
reduce fat uptake of fried products. Blanching of raw potato slices and slabs has been
proposed to decrease oil absorption and enhance post-frying quality by creating a surface
barrier. Among the major effects induced by blanching are a reduction in surface moisture
content, surface smoothing by gelatinized starch and sealing of intercellular pores by cell
expansion. Surface drying or pardrying is used in the French fries industry to reduce oil
uptake.(45,43,52,53) Lowering the moisture content before frying can be achieved using
microwaves or hot-air treatments.(54) Other drying pre-treatments such as freeze drying
increase the oil absorption presumably by increasing the overall porosity of the prod-
uct.(54,55) Surface dehydration prior to frying may also be induced by osmotic drying,
although potato tissue is known to have a very low porosity. Bunger et al.(56) mentioned
that soaking potato strips in 3% sodium chloride solutions for 50 min (25°C) improved the
texture of French fried potatoes and reduced oil absorption. To achieve a similar purpose,
Moyano and Berna(57) suggested blanching followed by solute impregnation at 25°C with
a solution of sucrose-NaCl-water (20–5–75% by weight).
Low temperature blanching enhances pectin methyl esterase (PME) activity(58) and is
another option proposed that affects both textural quality and oil uptake.(59) In potatoes
and most vegetables, texture depends on the presence of pectic substances, which are part
of the intercellular material. PME hydrolyzes the methyl ester bonds in pectin leaving free
carboxylic groups that can then react with divalent ions such as calcium and magnesium,
increasing firmness.(59) The use of infrared irradiation to blanch potato strips was reported
by Weaver and Huxsoll.(60) A short irradiation period of 0.5 minutes reduced limpness
Table 3
Parameters predicted by modeling frying (several products) or other
thermal processes for potatoes
Product Process Predicted parameter Reference
Potato chips Frying Oil absorption (45)
Moisture content (96)
Temperature profile (115)
Potato slabs Frying Water loss (57)
Maximum rupture force (81)
Mass transfer coefficient (52)
Temperature and moisture profiles (116)
in core and crust
(117,118)
Post-frying (97)
Potato cylinders Frying Latent heat of vaporization (119)
Heat conduction and moisture (120)
diffusion
Blanching Modulus of elasticity and viscosity (121)
Restructured Frying Oil uptake (65)
potato product
Oil uptake (100)
Porosity (39,82)
Fractal dimension of the surface (61)
Temperature and crust thickness (122)
Elastic modulus (98)
Thermal diffusivity (123)
Tortilla chips Frying Thermal conductivity, specific heat (124)
Capillary pressure (125)
Degree of shrinkage in volume (%) (126)
Moisture content and temperature (127)
profiles
Potato slices Temperature profile and (128)
convective mass transfer
Indentation stiffness (129)
French fries Moisture content and oil content (130)
prediction
Drying and frying kinetic (53)
French fries Frying Color changes (49)
Frozen potatoes Frying Fat content, moisture content and (131)
with edible temperature profile
coatings
Potato slices Thermal conductivity and specific (128)
heat
Donuts and Oil uptake (99)
falafel balls
Table 4
Kinetic models for textural and related properties of fried and heat-treated potatoes
Model Treatment Response variable References
Zero order kinetics Cooking Texture and taste (132)
First-order kinetics Blanching Color (49)
Blanching/cooking Tensile force (133)
Cooking Force/initial force (134)
Cooking Shear force (132)
Cooking Rupture force (135)
Thermal inactivation Peroxidase activity (136)
Two consecutive Frying of potato strips Normalized springiness/ (81)
first-order kinetics core force
Hardness, stiffness, (137)
firmness and color
compared to non-irradiated controls while potato strips that were blanched before the
infrared treatment, par-fried, frozen and then finished-fried exhibited a much improved
rigidity. It was also found that the infrared treatment reduced the oil content in either fin-
ish-fried or baked par-fried potato strips.
The idea of coating pieces with film-forming materials attempts to minimize crust poros-
ity and allow formation of a smoother surface that acts as a barrier to oil infiltration and facil-
itates draining.(61,62,63,64,65,66) The application of hydrocolloid solutions on the surface of
products prior to frying has received much attention. French fries coated with a combination
of calcium chloride and pectin were reported to have 40% less oil than untreated samples.(67)
Bouchon and Pyle(55) reported that oil absorption decreased between 5–14% when native
potato starch was allowed to form a smooth surface in a thick restructured potato chip. In
another study, Malikarjunan et al.(68) found a reduction in fat uptake between 51.4–83.6% in
restructured potato balls coated with methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, or corn
zein. To reduce heat loss and improve crispness in take-away portions, Burger King devel-
oped starch-coated fries only to find out that consumers complained of the poor taste.(69)
US Patents #5,620,727(70) and #5,601,861(71) propose the enrichment of breadings
and batters with calcium and later immersion in a pectin solution “to resist absorbing oil
during frying.” The patent goes further to claim an increase in moisture content, crispness
and “heat lamp stability” due to the additional layer formed. Protein films are mentioned
in US Patent #5,527,549(72) where the battered and breaded substrates are submerged in an
aqueous dispersion of a protein that is capable of forming a thermally irreversible film
during frying by dehydration.
Post-Frying
Post-frying quality of fried products is in part determined by pre-frying processing and
frying conditions. Lately, efforts have been made to reduce the fat content of deep fried
products and consequently lower their caloric density. The fat content of chips may be
reduced using hot-air and super-heated steam at the discharge end of the fryer, which
removes non-absorbed surface oil before it enters into the product. This procedure (low-fat
stripping system) is claimed to reduce oil content in chips by 25%.(73) Although a similar
concept (blowing away or physical removal of oil) may be thought to work for French
fries, its implementation in food outlets is not practical, and excess surface oil is removed
during draining. Blotting of fries in paper towel, as practiced at home right after frying,
removes around 3 to 4 percent of oil.(38)
Instrumental Techniques to Measure Potato Texture
Definition of Texture
The overall quality of foods is a combination of the sensorial perception of appearance,
texture and flavor. Bourne(74) defined textural properties as a group of physical character-
istics that: i) arise from the structural elements of the food; ii) are sensed by the feeling of
touch; iii) are related to the deformation, disintegration and flow under a force, and; iv) are
measured objectively by functions of mass, time and distance. Another definition of tex-
ture is “the sensory and functional manifestation of the structural and mechanical proper-
ties of foods, detected through the senses of vision, hearing, touch and kinesthetics.”(75)
Although sensory methods are the primary means of determining the textural charac-
teristics that are relevant to consumers, the complexity of sensory analysis has led to the
development of instrumental methods. The underlying assumption is that parameters
derived from empirical methods to assess texture relate to those of perceived texture.
Extensive use is made of instrumental methods in industry for quality control and in
research and development to evaluate product properties.
Brittle Materials
From a materials science standpoint, solid foods can behave as brittle or ductile materials.(76)
Materials are considered brittle if they exhibit a relatively small strain up to the point of rup-
ture and a low work to fracture.(77) Materials are said to be ductile (Fig. 8) when they show a
relatively large strain to reach the rupture point. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm has
been suggested as the dividing line between these two types of behavior.(78)
Since texture of fried products is manifested when they are fractured, either experimen-
tally or by mastication, they may be analyzed from the viewpoint of fracture of materials.
Materials contain flaws and cracks that act as stress concentrators, lowering their theoretical
ultimate strength predicted from interatomic forces. In brittle materials, the stress is concen-
trated locally around the crack tip and the energy supplied makes it easy for the crack to
propagate rapidly. The rapid liberation of elastic energy is partly transformed into acoustic
energy in the form of sound. Besides having a clean fracture surface, most brittle materials
have lines and ridges beginning at the origin of the crack and spreading out across the crack
surface. Ductile materials dissipate energy through plastic deformation around the crack tip,
preventing crack propagation. Plastic flow, hence ductile fracture, depends on the rate of
deformation, whereas brittle fracture is almost independent of the rate.
In low moisture foods, water acts as an effective plastizicer due to its low molecular
weight, low density, high dielectric constant and ability to form H-bonds. This role of water is
affected by its affinity with macromolecules and the interactions with charged and polar
groups, shielding intra- and intermolecular interactions. The net effect is a drop in the modulus
of the material and increased mobility of macromolecules (motion of chains, chain segments,
torsion of end segments and side groups, etc). Brittle behavior is lost as moisture content
increases, either by redistribution within the product or moisture pick-up from the environ-
ment. A loss of brittleness is detected in instrumental testing as a change in the pattern and in
1.4
Maximum force
1.2
1
Force (N)
0.8
POTATO CHIP POTATO STRIP
0.6
0.4
Core force
0.2 Springiness or
stiffness
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance (mm)
Figure 8. Force-distance curve of a puncture test for a French-fry and a potato chip.
300
Stress, σ (kPa)
Brittle x
x 0 < aw < 0.33
200 Ductile
0.44 < aw < 0.75
100
Plastic deformation
aw = 0.85
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Strain ( ε )
Figure 9. Brittle and ductile behavior of food materials and the effect of water activity (x represents
fracture point).
the value of parameters derived form the force-deformation curve. As water activity is
increased, a shift from brittle fracture to plastic flow and ductile fracture is observed (Fig. 9).
Crispness of Fried Products

Crispness is a major textural property of fried foods derived from the low moisture
content induced by frying either on the outer layers of thick pieces or throughout thin
specimens. Crispness is a quality of brittle materials that rapidly fracture under stress
at small strains and has been studied both by instrumental and sensory techniques.(79,77)
The interpretation of crispness from a force-deformation curve proposed by Vincent(77)
will be adopted here. The initial rising part of the curve is a function of the stiffness of
the sample, also called modulus of deformation by Moreira et al.(13) Stiffness depends
on mechanical properties of the material and structural elements (e.g., air cells, micro-
heterogeneities, geometrical parameters, etc). The maximum force achieved before
fracture is called hardness. An object may appear harder simply because it is denser
(structure) or it has less cracks and not necessarily because the material is different. A
brittle object will exhibit a large hardness, low work to fracture and a sudden drop in
force as the crack propagates rapidly. In products that are heterogeneous at the
microsctructural level, as deformation increases the phenomena repeat as a few smaller
events of rise and sudden drop of the force giving a jagged appearance to the diagram
(Fig. 10). Small fractures are stopped by the presence of microheterogeneities such as
the presence of air cells, oil pockets and hard cells. This mechanical behavior is known
in textural terms as crispness. If the events after fracturing become smaller and more
frequent, the texture is called crunchy, but very often the terms crispness and crunchi-
ness are used interchangeably. A related term is crumbly texture, which is associated
with interparticle brittle fracture and the release of many small fragments (e.g., in a
biscuit). The area under the force-displacement curve is defined as work (or as work
per unit volume if measured in a stress-strain curve) and known in engineering as
toughness. Work to fracture is the area under the curve to the initial fracture point. (13)
Objective Measurement of Texture of Fried Products

Instrumental methods giving force-deformation (or force-distance) curves are widely used
as objective measurements of textural properties of foods due to the simplicity of their
implementation, low cost, easier interpretation of the results and avoidance of dealing
with human responses (sensory methods). Destructive methods are preferred by food
Hardness Noise
Stiffness (acoustic
event)
Forcce (N)
Micro events of
brittle nature
Heterogeneity
Fast
Work to global
fracture cracking
Applied deformation (mm)

Figure 10. Typical force-displacement curve for the first bite on a brittle material.(77)
technologists because they are usually better related to sensorial responses. Based on the
pattern of loading, the most common destructive tests used in assessing the texture of fried
products include puncture, compression, shearing and bending tests.
Fig. 8 shows typical force-distance curves obtained by puncture testing of a French
fry and a fried potato chip. Stress-strain curves can be obtained if the force is divided by
the cross-section of the plunger (stress) and the travel distance of the plunger at any partic-
ular instant is divided by the total displacement of the plunger, giving the engineering
strain.(80,78) Parameters that are commonly derived from these curves in the case of fried
products are:
• Maximum force (MF), detected as a peak of the force with a pronounced change
in curvature.(77) This parameter is also called hardness, fracturability, peak force or
rupture force.
• Springiness (S), defined as the slope of the initial “linear region” of the force-dis-
tance curves,(81) and represents the bending resistance of the material before rupture
(Fig. 10). Vincent(77) calls the rising portion of the curve stiffness. Other authors
refer to this section as deformability modulus,(61) modulus of deformation(39,82,13) or
firmness.(83)
• Core force (CF): is the resistance opposed by the core of fried foods,(81) after the
probe has passed through the crust.
Even though potato chips and French fries are described as crisp foods(84) their mechanical
signature in a puncture test is quite different (Fig. 8). Potato chips are firm and fracture at a
small strain with a large drop of force after fracture and minor successive fracture events
thereafter. On the other hand, penetration of the plunger a French fry occurs after extensive
deformation of the crust, which is layered over a soft core. The force after rupture of the
crust does not fall to zero but reflects the resistance imposed by the mealy core (core
force). A list of methods to determine instrumental texture in fried potato products is pre-
sented in Table 5.
Sound Emission and Texture

Quality of crisp foods is often assessed by the sounds emitted during crushing or biting.
Sound is produced in brittle cellular solids when the cell walls snap during fracture and
energy is released. The sound signal is recorded as an amplitude versus time diagram
and properties of the sound waves (e.g., jaggedness) are measured. Many cereal-based
foods and fried snacks emit sounds after fracturing, a characteristic of crisp texture that
becomes weaker as the moisture content increases.(85) A low audible noise during masti-
cation is perceived sensorially as an undesirable softening of the product, which is
related to poor quality.(86) Differences between crispness and crunchiness might be in
the pitch of their respective sounds, even though pitch is a complex characteristic being
also a function of the intensity and wave form. Seymour and Hamman,(87) using trained
panelists to evaluate crispness in a crunch twist, saltine cracker and three different types
of potato chips, found that crisp products (potato chips) had a higher frequency than
crunchy products.
Mechanical and acoustic data can be acquired simultaneously with a shear/compres-
sion cell enclosed in an acoustically-insulated chamber where the emitted sound is
recorded together with the force.(87) Good correlations between crispness and mechanical/
acoustical parameters have been found for potato chips by Vickers(88)
Table 5
Methods for instrumental texture evaluation of fried potato products and restructured potato or starch models
Crosshead speed
Product Probe Measured parameter of probe Reference
Restructured potato starch Puncture probe 2 mm in Hardness 1 cm/s (97)
product diam.
Restructured potato model Puncture test, 3-point Failure force and failure strength 0.02 mm/s (92)
system w/gums bending, 1.07 mm diam.
plunger
Restructured potato product Puncture test, probe Maximum strength required to 10 mm/min (39)
3.2 mm diam. puncture the crust
Potato chips 17 mm diam. plunger Force, work and cohesivity 2 cm/min (90)
Potato chips Pin 5/16 inch diam. Force 2 cm/min (89)
(3 cm support ring)
190
Potato chips Rectangular cutting device Cutting force 250 mm/min (138)
Potato chips Puncture test, 5.3 mm Fracture force, deformation at 60 mm/min (96)
diam., 3-point stand fracture, and stiffness
Potato chips 5/16 in diam. pin Initial slope in F vs deformation curve 2 cm/min (89)
French fries Puncture test with 1 mm Peak force 5 mm/s (59)
diam. probe.
Reheated frozen French fries Durometer, truncated Force n.r. (107)
cone-shaped indentor
French fried potatoes Kramer shear press Force (pounds) 0.12 inch/s (106)
Potato strips Puncture test. 2 mm Springiness, rupture force and core 2 mm/s (81)
dia. rod. force
n.r. = not reported.
Crispness = −15.6 + 5.35(number of peaks) + 133(mean height of peaks) – 6.21(peak force)

with R2 = 0.98 and by Seymour and Hamman(87)
Crispness = 9.904 – 0.134(work) + 0.025(mean sound pressure) – 6.21(peak force) with

R2 = 0.95.
To conclude this section, the sentence by Duizer,(86) who has recently reviewed the
subject of crispness and crunchiness, seems appropriate: “. . . the next stage for acoustic
research should be to relate structure of the products to the sounds produced during
mechanical breakdown.”
Variability of Experimental Texture Data

Mention has been made of the structural heterogeneity of potato tubers displayed histologically
(i.e., different tissues within the same tuber) and at the cellular level (i.e., variable starch content
within cells). The complex structure introduces a large physical and chemical variability in strips
or slices cut at different positions within the same tuber. This heterogeneity, in turn, has caused
major problems in the interpretation of highly scattered data derived from instrumental analysis
performed on individual fried pieces (replicates), even those taken from the same potato. Large
data scatter was already reported by Bourne et al.(89) for the texture of potato chips, who found
that the maximum force of breakage varied considerably. Katz and Labuza(90) found that
mechanical data for potato chips acquired from a snap and a punch test produced no useful
quantitative information for the initial slope analysis because the fracturing pattern was inconsis-
tent. Results reported by Kozempel et al.(91) using a back extrusion test to quantify the texture of
French fries showed that the maximum force varied between 200 and 2100 N for the same fry-
ing conditions. More recently, data for mechanical measurements of the crust of fried potatoes
exhibited a variation coefficient (defined as 100 × standard deviation/mean value) of 33%.(92)
Similarly, in the case of potato chips the variation coefficient of data was 34.9% for the fracture
force, 29.8% for deformation at fracture and 51.7% for stiffness.(93) The large dispersion of data
has been attributed to the heterogeneous distribution of starch and other compounds in the tuber
and to the complex structure obtained after frying. Aguilar et al.(59) stated that data from a punc-
ture test showed less variability in the ends than in the central part of fries. Crisp texture
was reported to depend on the dry matter of the raw potato product with tubers rich in dry matter
(> 25%) exhibiting a harder texture and lower final oil content.(54) The problem of chemical
variability extends also to color as mentioned by Jankowski et al.(94) who attributed non-uniform
browning or “mottling” in French fry products to the heterogeneous distribution of reducing
sugars. Slicing may be another source of sample variability. Gamble and Rice(45) found a large
variation in thickness of potato slices cut with an Urschel industrial slicer with the mean value
being always less than the set value (approximately by 10%). They reported discrepancies in
moisture content after frying, particularly for short frying times and for thicker slices.
The uneven spatial distribution of water between potato tubers has been confirmed by
MRI.(95) Segnini et al.(96) used a punch test with a 3-point support and found that the parame-
ters contributing most to variability of moisture and texture of chips were the cutting device,
and the position within the sample from where the sample was cut. Their data for puncture
force of chips equilibrated at different moisture contents are shown in Fig. 11 and represents
quite well the problem faced by researchers. Although a trend appears to exist i.e., force
increases with moisture content, the data exhibit an appreciable standard deviation and scatter
particularly at higher moisture contents, hence a weak correlation between force and moisture
content (R2 = 0.2306). To summarize, most of these data variations can be attributed, first, to
6
Force (N)
5
2 Force = 0.61(Moisture) + 2.85

R2 = 0.23
1
0
2 3 4 5 6
Moisture (%)
Figure 11. Maximum breaking force vs. moisture of potato chips (Data from 96).
the anatomical and chemical heterogeneity of the potato tuber, and second, to the uneven dis-
tribution of gelatinized starch, oil, cell sizes, etc of the tissue structure after frying.
To circumvent the difficulty of translating into statistical significance or high correla-
tion coefficients the observed trends in data of physical properties of fried products, sev-
eral researchers have recurred to homogeneous restructured potato or starch models as
proxi to study mechanical and transport properties.(97,98,91,65,100,82,101) However, the prob-
lem of data variability has been only partially offset by frying restructured model systems,
meaning that frying introduces considerable physical and structural changes in products.
Data from Rovedo et al.(97) for hardness of the crust of a restructured fried starch product
exhibited a wide variation in the first 30 s after frying (e.g., between 95 and 390 g-force).
In their work on deformability of the crust of a fried restructured potato model system,
Lima & Singh(98) pointed out that samples for instrumental analysis were first selected
based on surface homogeneity, constant thickness and lack of cracks and blisters. Extrap-
olation of results obtained for “homogeneous” restructured models to actual cellular sys-
tems (i.e., potato tissue), particularly with regard to oil uptake and mechanical properties,
is questionable due to obvious structural differences between both types of materials.
Post-Frying and Loss of Texture Quality

During the post-frying period, fried potato products show two phenomena that reduce their
textural quality: development of limpness in French fries and softening in the case of potato
chips. Limpness of French fries has also been referred to as “sagging” or “drooping.” In an
early review on quality of French fries, Davis and Smith(102) mentioned that sogginess was
one of the most detrimental factors influencing quality, and that limp or soggy French fries
were also the oiliest. Although there is extensive work reported in the scientific literature
on frying, few studies have dealt with textural changes during post-frying.
Moisture and Temperature Conditions After Frying

The highest quality of fried products is achieved rapidly after removal from the fryer and
drainage of the excess oil. A different situation exists for French fries and potato chips
with regards to product structure, content and distribution of moisture in the product, and
temperature. With respect to the latter, potato chips are cooled before packaging, whereas
French fries are supposed to remain hot for immediate food service.
Approximate moisture and temperature profiles for fried potato products are depicted
in Fig. 12. Transient heat and mass transfer (moisture) prevail during post-frying of fries
with major boundaries being the surface of the crust and the crust/core interface. The main
source for moisture transfer to the dry crust is the moist core and diffusion is likely to pro-
ceed very quickely under the impetus of a steep moisture gradient. This is the reason for
fries getting soggy within minutes. Moisture gradients (and temperature gradients as well)
get less steep as time proceeds. The crust is also below the equilibrium moisture content
with the relative humidity of the surrounding air but moisture transfer from this edge is
slower and less important than from the core. In potato chips, moisture uptake from the
humid air is the sole mechanism of water transport; hence, softening takes place in a mat-
ter of hours.
Fries are consumed hot and within minutes from removal from the oil. Heat is trans-
ferred from the hot interior to the surface by conduction and lost to the cool ambienair.
In fact, standards in some fast food outlets call for a maximum keeping period for fries of
8–10 minutes after frying even when maintained under heating of an infrared lamp. Potato
chips, in turn, leave the fryer at low moisture content, which is usually further equilibrated
by drying to below 2%, and are cooled before packaging. Moisture pickup from the envi-
ronment is precluded by proper packaging with a film composite that acts as a moisture
barrier.
Post-frying Changes in the Texture of French Fries and Potato Chips

Limpness is the term used by consumers to describe the loss of texture of French fries due
to moisture uptake by the crust. Limpness is probably the major problem associated with
French fries and even if the product is crisp immediately upon removal from the fryer, it
becomes limp and soggy within minutes after preparation.(60)
Figure 12. Scheme of the moisture and temperature profiles in a French fry during post-frying and
in a potato chip exposed to ambient conditions. White ovals symbolize oil within the product.
Several instruments and techniques have been used to assess limpness. The so-called
RPC droopmeter was developed many years ago to visually quantify the bending under
gravity and rate of droop of French fries.(103) The apparatus was basically an acrylic holder
where about 20 fries were clamped horizontally and visually observed as they droop dur-
ing cooling. Similarly, the Nylund Limpness Sag instrument was used to measure the
limpness angle during cooling of 24 French fries. A change in angle exceeding 5° was
taken as an indication of a limp strip. Sensorial and instrumental limpness were related to
the specific gravity of the fry.(104) Recently, Miranda et al.(105) have used a video camera to
record deflection angles and drop of the free end of a clamped fry and calculated varia-
tions of an apparent modulus of rigidity with cooling time.
Several studies have demonstrated that loss of textural quality during the post-frying
period is correlated with moisture uptake and in some cases with cooling. One of the first
studies on instrumental texture of French fries was the work by Ross and Porter(106) using
the Kramer shear press, a force-distance measuring device having a slotted sample cell that
can hold several fries. They noticed that the peak force corresponding to the crust as well as
the maximum force for shearing decreased continuously during 10 minutes of post-frying.
This was attributed to a redistribution of moisture in the pieces, causing softening of the
crust and a concomitant lower shear force value. Weaver and Huxsoll(60) mentioned that the
use of infrared processing before par-frying greatly reduced limpness in potato strips fin-
ished by baking or frying in oil. Blanching prior to infrared treatment and par-frying in oil
improved significantly the rigidity of potato strips. Firming agents such as modified
starches, gums, calcium salts, alginates and other compounds have been used to improve
the rigidity of potato strips upon cooling.(102) Different U.S. patents describe processes to
extend the shelf-life of fries including blanching, adding hydrocolloids or batter, drying(108)
and the use of starch-based coatings as a crisp outer surface.(109,110,111,112)
Loss of Crispness and Moisture Uptake

When the moisture content of crisp/crunchy fried potato products increases due to water
adsorption from the atmosphere or by moisture transport from neighboring layers, a loss of
crispness is observed. The effect on perceived and instrumental crispness has been attributed
to increased mobility of the system and results in a decrease of the rigidity of the hydrated
product as water activity increases.(79) Crispness and crunchiness decreased while force (hard-
ness) and mechanical work increased at high moisture contents in all dry foods studied by
Seymour and Hamman.(87) This result confirms what Vickers(88) found for potato chips;
namely, an inverse relationship between crispness and the mechanical breaking force. Sey-
mour and Hamman(87) studied the crispness of five food products (three different potato chips
and two saltine crackers) equilibrated at different water activities finding that the higher the
water activity, the lower the reported crispness and crunchiness. A similar trend was found for
the mean sound pressure, confirming what was reported by Roudaut et al.(79) As mentioned, if
left out of the package, potato chips pick up moisture from the environment. Fig. 13 compares
force-deformation curves obtained by a puncture test for potato chips equilibrated in desicca-
tors at different relative humidity for 2 weeks and that of a fried potato slab (10 mm sides) one
minute after frying.(105) A notable decrease in values of springiness (S) and change in the frac-
ture pattern of chips is observed in the range 0.33 < aw < 0.65. At aw = 0.85, the chip behave
like a ductile solid without fracture taking place after a deformation of 5 mm. The crust of the
fried slab deforms in a pattern similar as if it were a chip at 0.65 < aw < 0.85, but the fracture
behavior is affected by the mechanical properties of the layer below or core.(84) Eventually the
force drops to a point reflecting the resistance of the moist core (core force, see Fig. 10).
2,0
aw=0.33
Rupture force
aw=0.65
1,8 S=1.12 S=0.71 aw=0.85
aw=0.0 S=0.10
1,6
S=1.30
Force (N) 1,4
1,2
1,0
Slab 10 mm
0,8 side
S=0.32
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Deformation (mm)
Figure 13. Force-deformation curves (puncture test) of potato chips (grey lines) and a fried potato
slab (black lines) after equilibration at different water activities.
1.0
Acoustic
Relative crispness
data
FRYING POST-FRYING
0.5 Crispy Limpness/

texture Sensorial/ softening
Instrumental/
data
Critical aw
0.0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Water activity
Figure 14. Scheme showing the influence of water activity on relative crispness of potato chips.
Acoustic properties are also affected by moisture. Alchakra et al.(113) (1997) reported
that acoustic parameters of brittle materials exhibit a sharp drop between water activities of
0.48 and 0.75. The loss of brittleness and crunchiness as moisture content increases is
expressed also as a decrease in the fractal dimension of the jaggedness and the disappearance
of the high-frequency harmonics from the power spectrum of the acoustic signature.(114)
Fig. 14 shows a scheme summarizing the effect of water activity on the relative crispness
of chips (crispness after frying / crispness in post-frying stages), indicating the zones where
sensorial, acoustic and instrumental data are clustered. Loss of crispness has been modeled as
a sigmoidal curve where most changes occur in an interval that starts around aw = 0.4.
Conclusions
Frying is a structure-building process that imparts desirable crispy textures to potato prod-
ucts by dehydration and oil infiltration. In French fries, the large moisture gradient between
two structural macro-domains (core and crust) that provides desirable sensorial traits also
induces a fast moisture transfer, and the rapid emergence of limpness during the post-frying
period. In potato chips, water uptake from the environment and diffusion into the interior
causes softening within hours. Researchers have used several instrumental techniques to
quantify the loss of texture in fried potato products, including sensorial, mechanical and
acoustical means. The extreme histological and microstructural heterogeneity of potato
tubers is responsible for a large variability in experimental data and the problem to interpret
observed trends in texture. Nevertheless, several models have been proposed to derive
critical parameters of the frying process and to assess the texture during and after frying. The
tremendous effort in recent years to understand the mechanisms of structure build-up and
texture loss may result in innovative solutions to retain the quality of fried potato products.
Acknowledgments
Research partly funded by FONDECYT project 1030339, the ALFA program of the EU, project
CYTED XI.13 and the Office of Research, College of Engineering, Universidad Católica (DIPEI).
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Ational Structure and Texture Properties of Fried Potato Products

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Ational Structure and Texture Properties of Fried Potato Products

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Food Reviews International, 22:173–201, 2006

Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Structure and Texture Properties of Fried

MISAEL L. MIRANDA AND JOSÉ M. AGUILERA

Department of Chemical Engineering and Bioprocesses, Pontificia Universidad

Keywords potatoes, frying, texture, microstructure, modeling, limpness

Economical Importance of Potatoes

Address correspondence to Misael L. Miranda, Department of Chemical Engineering and

Figure 1. Utilization of potatoes in different products and applications.(138)

The Appeal of Fried Potato Products

Production of Fries and Chips

Storage – receiving – holding bins

Washing and sizing Cleaning tables

French fries (par-fried) Potato chips (crisps)

Peeling - trimming Peeler

Singularizing Inspection table

Cutting - Sizing Slicer

Trimming -resizing Washer and rinser

Blanching - coating Cooker-fryer

Frying - oil-removing Salt and flavouring

Cooling and freezing Packaging and sealing

Grading and packaging Inspection and cooling

Storing and shipping Storing and shipping

Figure 2. Schematic of French fries and potato chip processing.(2)

Morphology and Microstructure of Potatoes

Figure 3. Cross section of a potato tuber.(14)

Postharvest Handling and Storage of Potatoes

The Frying Process

Changes Induced by Frying

Smoke point of oil

Water Starch Cells Cell Oil in Color of

Frying and Microstructure

Fat Uptake During Deep-fat Frying

Color Changes During Frying

Modeling the Frying Process

Improving the Quality of Fried Products

Instrumental Techniques to Measure Potato Texture

Crispness of Fried Products

Objective Measurement of Texture of Fried Products

Applied deformation (mm)

Sound Emission and Texture

Crispness = −15.6 + 5.35(number of peaks) + 133(mean height of peaks) – 6.21(peak force)

Crispness = 9.904 – 0.134(work) + 0.025(mean sound pressure) – 6.21(peak force) with

Variability of Experimental Texture Data

2 Force = 0.61(Moisture) + 2.85

Post-Frying and Loss of Texture Quality

Moisture and Temperature Conditions After Frying

Post-frying Changes in the Texture of French Fries and Potato Chips

Loss of Crispness and Moisture Uptake

0.5 Crispy Limpness/

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