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Title: Special education in contemporary society : an introduction to exceptionality / Richard M. Gargiulo, University
8
of Alabama at Birmingham, Emily C. Bouck, Michigan State University.
Description: Sixth edition. | Los Angeles : SAGE Publications, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
9
Brief Contents
1. Special Features
2. Preface
3. Acknowledgments
4. A Special Thank-You to Our Filming Participants
5. About the Contributors
6. About the Authors
7. Part 1 Foundations of Special Education
1. 1. Special Education in Context: People, Concepts, and Perspectives
2. 2. Policies, Practices, and Programs
3. 3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and Exceptionality
4. 4. Parents, Families, and Exceptionality
5. 5. Assistive Technology
8. Part 2 A Study of Individuals With Special Needs
1. 6. Individuals With Intellectual Disability
2. 7. Individuals With Learning Disabilities
3. 8. Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
4. 9. Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
5. 10. Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
6. 11. Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments
7. 12. Individuals With Hearing Impairments
8. 13. Individuals With Visual Impairments
9. 14. Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related
Low-Incidence Disabilities
10. 15. Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented
9. Postscript
10. Appendix A: Federal Definitions of Disabilities
11. Appendix B: Professional Standards
12. Glossary
13. References
14. Author Index
15. Subject Index
10
Detailed Contents
Special Features
Preface
Acknowledgments
A Special Thank-You to Our Filming Participants
About the Contributors
About the Authors
PART 1 Foundations of Special Education
1. Special Education in Context: People, Concepts, and Perspectives
Definitions and Terminology
Exceptional Children
Disability Versus Handicap
Developmentally Delayed and At Risk
First Person: Elizabeth: Perceptions and Impressions
Special Education
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Suggestions for
Communicating About Individuals With Disabilities
Categories and Labels
Prevalence of Children and Young Adults With Disabilities
Number of Children and Young Adults Served
A Brief History of the Development of Special Education
Pioneers of Special Education
The Establishment of Institutions
Special Education in the Public Schools
Professionals Who Work With Individuals With Exceptionalities
Insights: A Timeline of Key Dates in the History of Special Education in
the United States
Consultative Services
Service Delivery Teams
Cooperative Teaching
One Teach, One Observe
One Teach, One Support
Station Teaching
Parallel Teaching
Alternative Teaching
Team Teaching
Universal Design for Learning
Exceptionality Across the Life Span
Infants/Toddlers and Preschoolers With Special Needs
Adolescents and Young Adults With Disabilities
11
2. Policies, Practices, and Programs
Litigation and Legislation Affecting Special Education
Key Judicial Decisions
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act: 1975–1997
Educational Reform: Standards-Based Education
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
Every Student Succeeds Act
Civil Rights Legislation
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
First Person: Lisa: Teaching in the Age of Accountability
Public Law 101–336 (Americans With Disabilities Act)
Public Law 110–325 (the Americans With Disabilities Act
Amendments of 2008)
Identification and Assessment of Individual Differences
Referral and Assessment for Special Education
Prereferral
Referral
Assessment
Insights: Assessment Accommodations
Instructional Programming and Appropriate Placement
Designing Individualized Instructional Programs
Individualized Education Program
Insights: Elements of a Meaningful IEP
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Suggested Individualized
Education Program Meeting Agenda
Individualized Family Service Plan
Service Delivery Options: Where a Special Education Is Provided
Educational Placements
A Cascade of Service Delivery Options
A Contemporary Challenge
3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and Exceptionality
Cultural Diversity: The Changing Face of a Nation
Insights: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity Quiz
Cultural Diversity in the Teaching Profession
From Assimilation to Cultural Pluralism
Terminology of Cultural Differences
Describing Diversity
Multicultural Education, Bilingual Education, and Student Diversity
Multicultural Education: Concepts and Characteristics
Bilingual Education: Concepts and Characteristics
Bilingual Special Education: Concepts and Characteristics
12
Insights: Instructional Options for Students Who Are Bilingual
Disproportionate Representation of Minority Students in Special
Education Programs
First Person: Jenny: Teaching English Learners
Factors Contributing to Over- and Underrepresentation
Consequences of Disproportionate Representation
Issues in Assessing Students From Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Groups
Assessment Challenges
Assessment Safeguards
Assessment Innovations
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Recommendations for
Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Pupils
Contemporary Assessment Strategies
Assessment Recommendations
Educational Programming for Students With Exceptionalities Who Are
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Guidelines for Selecting
and Evaluating Instructional Materials
4. Parents, Families, and Exceptionality
Parent–Professional Relationships: Changing Roles
Antagonistic and Adversarial Relationships
Working Partnerships
Parent Empowerment and Family-Centered Relationships
A Family Systems Approach
The Effects of a Child’s Disability on Parents and the Family
Stages of Parental Reaction to Disability
Disability and the Family
Marital Relationships
Mothers of Children With Disabilities
First Person: Kristina: Day Dreams
Fathers of Children With Disabilities
Siblings of Children With Disabilities
Grandparents of Children With Disabilities
First Person: Mindy: The Other Children
Working With Families Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Cultural Reactions to Disability
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Recommendations for
Providing Families With Culturally Sensitive Services
Suggestions for Facilitating Family and Professional Partnerships
5. Assistive Technology
Technology in Education
13
Assistive Technology
History and Legislation of Assistive Technology
Assistive Technology Decision Making
Assistive Technology and the IEP
Assistive Technology Categorization
Devices and Tools
First Person: Matthew: Teaching in the Age of Technology
First Person: Whitney: Teaching in the Twenty-First-Century Classroom
Issues With Assistive Technology
Assistive Technology Future Trends
PART 2 A Study of Individuals With Special Needs
6. Individuals With Intellectual Disability
Defining Intellectual Disability: An Evolving Process
Historical Interpretations
Contemporary Viewpoints
Assessing Intellectual Ability and Adaptive Behavior
Intellectual Ability
Adaptive Behavior
Classification of Individuals With Intellectual Disability
An Etiological Perspective
Intellectual Deficits
An Educational Perspective
Levels of Support
A Brief History of the Field
Early Civilizations
The Middle Ages
Early Optimism
Protection and Pessimism
The Emergence of Public Education for Students With Intellectual
Disability
Prevalence of Intellectual Disability
Etiology of Intellectual Disability
Prenatal Contributions
Perinatal Conditions
Postnatal Factors
Characteristics of Individuals With Intellectual Disability
Learning Characteristics
Social and Behavioral Characteristics
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Intellectual Disability Educated?
Educational Programming Options
Instructional Methodology
14
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Teaching Pupils With
Intellectual Disability
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Using Scaffolding in the
Classroom
Services for Young Children With Intellectual Disability
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Intellectual Disability
Transition Into Adulthood
Adults With Intellectual Disability
Family Issues
Issues of Diversity
First Person: Meredith: In Her Own Words
Technology and Individuals With Intellectual Disability
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
7. Individuals With Learning Disabilities
Defining Learning Disabilities
Federal Definition of Learning Disabilities
Association for Children With Learning Disabilities
The Continuing Debate
A Brief History of the Field
Foundation Phase
Transition Phase
Integration Phase
Twenty-First-Century Issues
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities
Etiology of Learning Disabilities
Acquired Trauma
Genetic/Hereditary Influences
Biochemical Abnormalities
Environmental Possibilities
Characteristics of Individuals With Learning Disabilities
Learning Characteristics
Social and Emotional Problems
Attention Problems and Hyperactivity
Assessment of Learning Disabilities
Assessment Decisions
Response to Intervention
Assessment Strategies
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Learning Disabilities Educated?
Instructional Approaches
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Supporting Mathematics
Problem Solving for Students With Learning Disabilities
15
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Suggestions for Teaching
Students With Learning Disabilities
Services for Young Children With Learning Disabilities
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Learning Disabilities
Transition Into Adulthood
First Person: Christopher: In His Own Words
Adults With Learning Disabilities
Family Issues
Issues of Diversity
Technology and Individuals With Learning Disabilities
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
Challenges in Service Delivery: The Full Inclusion Movement
Insights: Learning Disabilities Association of America
8. Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Defining Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
A Brief History of the Field
Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Etiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Neurological Dysfunction
Hereditary Factors
Environmental Factors
Characteristics of Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder
Behavioral Inhibition and Executive Functioning
First Person: Helen: Good Things Come in Small Packages
Social and Emotional Issues
Comorbidity
Assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Medical Evaluation
Behavioral/Educational Evaluation
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder Educated?
Functional Behavioral Assessment
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Accommodations to Help
Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Self-Regulation/Monitoring
Home–School Collaboration
Instructional Modification
Medication
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder
16
Insights: Myths and Misunderstandings About Stimulant Medication: A
Quiz for Teachers
Adolescents and Adults With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Educational/Vocational Outcomes
Issues of Diversity
Technology and Individuals With ADHD
9. Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Defining Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Federal Definition
An Alternative Definition
Classification of Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
First Person: My Eagle Scout
Clinically Derived Classification Systems
Statistically Derived Classification Systems
A Brief History of the Field
Prevalence of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Etiology of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Biological Risk Factors
Psychosocial Risk Factors
Prevention of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Research on Resiliency
Research on Positive Behavioral Support
Characteristics of Children and Youth With Emotional or Behavioral
Disorders
Learning Characteristics
Social Characteristics
Language/Communication Characteristics
Assessing Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Assessment Strategies
Recent Trends in Assessment of Students With Emotional or
Behavioral Disorders
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Educated?
Physical Environment Interventions
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Suggestions for Effective
Scheduling
Academic and Instructional Interventions
Behavioral and Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral
Disorders
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Guidelines for
17
Establishing Classroom Rules
Other Interventions
Services for Young Children With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Transition Into Adulthood
Adults With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Representative Behavioral
Principles
Family-Centered Interventions
Issues of Diversity
Technology and Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
10. Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Defining Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Evolving Process
The Early Years
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act
American Psychiatric Association Definition
A Brief History of the Field
Psychogenic Theories
Organic Theories
Behavioral Theories
Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Characteristics of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Intellectual Functioning
Theory of Mind
Social Interaction
Communication
Repetitive and Restrictive Behaviors
Other Characteristics
Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Intellectual Assessment
Screening and Diagnosis
Screening for Asperger Syndrome
Educational Considerations
Where Are Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Educated?
Instructional Approaches
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Tips for Teaching High-
Functioning Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Services for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Early Intervention Services
18
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Social StoriesTM
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Using Applied Behavior
Analysis in the Classroom: A Token Economy
Preschool Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Transition Into Adulthood
Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Insights: Transition Planning: Questions to Consider
Employment Options
Family Issues
Issues of Diversity
Technology and Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
11. Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments
The Nature of Speech, Language, and Communication
Defining Speech and Language Impairments
Insights: The Genetics of Speech
Classifying Speech and Language Impairments
Speech Disorders
Insights: Questions and Answers About Articulation Problems
Insights: Questions and Answers About Stuttering
Language Disorders
Central Auditory Processing Disorder
Historical Perspectives
Prevalence of Speech and Language Impairments
Etiology of Speech and Language Impairments
Prevention of Speech and Language Impairments
Characteristics of Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments
Assessing Speech and Language Impairments
First Person: Emily: A Journey Toward Success
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Teaching Language Skills
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Speech and Language Impairments
Served?
Services for Young Children With Speech and Language Impairments
Adolescents and Adults With Speech and Language Impairments
Family Issues
Issues of Diversity
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Speech and Language
Impairments
Technology and Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
12. Individuals With Hearing Impairments
19
Definitions and Concepts in the Field of Hearing Impairment
The Anatomy of the Auditory System
Classifications of Hearing Loss
Measurement of Hearing Impairment
Other Types of Hearing Assessment
Age of Onset
A Brief History of the Field
Prevalence of Hearing Impairment
Etiology of Hearing Impairment
Genetic/Hereditary Factors
Infections
Developmental Abnormalities
Environmental/Traumatic Factors
Characteristics of Individuals With Hearing Impairments
Intelligence
Speech and Language
Social Interactions
Educational Achievement
Assessment of Individuals With Hearing Impairments
Cognitive Assessment
Communication Assessment
Personal/Social/Behavioral Assessment
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Hearing Impairments Served?
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Suggestions for Teaching
Students With Hearing Impairments
First Person: Mindy: Believing in Yourself
Instructional Interventions
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Hearing Impairments
Services for Young Children With Hearing Impairments
Transition and Individuals With Hearing Impairments
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Promoting Language
Development in Young Children With Hearing Impairments
Services for Adults With Hearing Impairments
Family Issues
Family Reaction
Siblings and Grandparents
Issues of Diversity
Technology and Individuals With Hearing Impairments
Hearing Aids and Auditory Training Devices
Computers
Alerting Devices
20
Real-Time Captioning/Interpreting Technology
Insights: How to Check a Hearing Aid
Captioning
Telecommunication Devices
Cochlear Implants
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
13. Individuals With Visual Impairments
Defining Visual Impairments
The Eye and How It Works
Classification of Visual Impairments
A Brief History of Visual Impairments
Prevalence of Visual Impairments
The Vision Process and Etiology of Visual Impairments
Prevention of Visual Impairments
Early Detection
Eye Safety
Characteristics of Individuals With Visual Impairments
Academic Performance
Socialization
Travel Skills
Vocational Skills
Assessment of Students With Visual Impairments
Functional Vision Evaluation
Learning Media
Educational Assessment and Program Planning
Eligibility Determination
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Visual Impairments Educated?
Instructional Considerations
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Accommodations for
Students With Visual Impairments
Orientation and Mobility
Young Children With Visual Impairments
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Visual Impairments
Transition Into Adulthood
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Orientation and Mobility
Tips
Adults With Visual Impairments
Family Issues
Issues of Diversity
Technology and Individuals With Visual Impairments
First Person: Carrie: The Face of “Different”
21
IDEA Requirements
Technology and Literacy
Technology and Mathematics
Mobile Computing Devices
Technology Competency
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
14. Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related
Low-Incidence Disabilities
Defining Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-
Incidence Disabilities
A Brief History of the Field
Early History
Emergence of Public Education
Prevalence of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-
Incidence Disabilities
Etiology of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-
Incidence Disabilities
Chromosomal and Genetic Causes
First Person: Virginia: One Day at a Time
Teratogenic Causes
Prematurity and Complications of Pregnancy
Acquired Causes
Characteristics of Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health
Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities
Characteristics of Students With Orthopedic Impairments
Characteristics of Students With Multiple Disabilities
Characteristics of Students With Traumatic Brain Injury
Characteristics of Students With Other Health Impairments
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Strategies That May Be
Used for Students With Traumatic Brain Injury
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Steps for Teachers to
Take When a Tonic-Clonic Seizure Occurs
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health
Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities
Characteristics of Students With Deaf-Blindness
Assessment of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related
Low-Incidence Disabilities
Assessment of Students With Deaf-Blindness
Educational Considerations
Where Are Students With Physical or Health Disabilities
Educated?
Impact on School Performance
22
Meeting Educational Needs
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Teaching Students With
Physical or Health Disabilities
Meeting the Educational Needs of Students Who Are Deaf-Blind
Services for Young Children With Physical Disabilities, Health
Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities
Transition Into Adulthood
Adults With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-
Incidence Disabilities
Family Issues
Issues of Diversity
Technology and Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health
Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities
Computer Access
Augmentative and Alternative Communication
Positioning and Seating Devices
Mobility Devices
Environmental Control and Assistive Technology for Daily Living
Assistive Technology for Play and Recreation
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
15. Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented
Defining Giftedness: Refining the Meaning
Insights: FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) About Children and Youth
Who Are Gifted and Talented
Assessing Giftedness and Talent
Differences Among Children Who Are Gifted and Talented
A Brief History of the Field of Gifted and Talented Education
The First Half of the Twentieth Century: Pioneering the Field
The 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s: Establishing Foundations for the
Field
The 1980s and 1990s: The Field Matures and Provides Focus for
School Reform
The Twenty-First Century: Challenges and Promise Present
Prevalence of Giftedness and Talent
Etiology of Giftedness and Talent
Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented
Educational Considerations
Differentiation
Insights: Myths and Truths About Gifted Students
Instructional Strategies
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning: Differentiated Instruction
First Person: Patrice: One Size Does Not Fit All
23
Service Delivery Options
Self-Contained Classes and Special Schools
Making Inclusion Work: Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented
First Person: Graham: Summer Programming
Services for Young Children Who Are Gifted and Talented
Adolescents and Adults Who Are Gifted and Talented
Family Issues
Issues of Diversity
Students With Gifts and Talents and Disabilities
Girls Who Are Gifted and Talented
Identifying and Serving Children From Diverse Backgrounds
Technology and Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
The Excellence Gap
Striving for World-Class Standards
Equity and Excellence
Full Inclusion
Services for Gifted Students Instead of the Gifted Program
Talent Development
Postscript
Appendix A: Federal Definitions of Disabilities
Appendix B: Professional Standards Council for Exceptional Children
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
24
Special Features
First Person
Elizabeth: Perceptions and Impressions 7
Lisa: Teaching in the Age of Accountability 53
Jenny: Teaching English Learners 90
Kristina: Day Dreams 120
Mindy: The Other Children 123
Matthew: Teaching in the Age of Technology 143
Whitney: Teaching in the Twenty-First-Century Classroom 149
Meredith: In Her Own Words 201
Christopher: In His Own Words 241
Helen: Good Things Come in Small Packages 262
Anonymous: My Eagle Scout 290
Emily: A Journey Toward Success 383
Mindy: Believing in Yourself 421
Carrie: The Face of “Different” 475
Virginia: One Day at a Time 495
Patrice: One Size Does Not Fit All 562
Graham: Summer Programming 570
Insights
A Timeline of Key Dates in the History of Special Education in the United States 19
Assessment Accommodations 60
Elements of a Meaningful IEP 63
Cultural and Linguistic Diversity Quiz 80
Instructional Options for Students Who Are Bilingual 88
Learning Disabilities Association of America 246
Myths and Misunderstandings About Stimulant Medication: A Quiz for Teachers
278
Transition Planning: Questions to Consider 352
The Genetics of Speech 367
Questions and Answers About Articulation Problems 370
Questions and Answers About Stuttering 372
How to Check a Hearing Aid 434
FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) About Children and Youth Who Are Gifted and
Talented 544
Myths and Truths About Gifted Students 558
Making Inclusion Work
Individuals With Intellectual Disability 194
Individuals With Learning Disabilities 238
Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 274
25
Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 310
Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 346
Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 390
Individuals With Hearing Impairments 424
Individuals With Visual Impairments 470
Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-
Incidence Disabilities 510
Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 568
Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning
Suggestions for Communicating About Individuals With Disabilities 9
Suggested Individualized Education Program Meeting Agenda 65
Recommendations for Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Pupils 98
Guidelines for Selecting and Evaluating Instructional Materials 100
Recommendations for Providing Families With Culturally Sensitive Services 127
Teaching Pupils With Intellectual Disability 190
Using Scaffolding in the Classroom 193
Supporting Mathematics Problem Solving for Students With Learning Disabilities
233
Suggestions for Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities 237
Accommodations to Help Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
268
Suggestions for Effective Scheduling 307
Guidelines for Establishing Classroom Rules 312
Representative Behavioral Principles 317
Tips for Teaching High-Functioning Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
345
Social StoriesTM 348
Using Applied Behavior Analysis in the Classroom: A Token Economy 349
Teaching Language Skills 386
Suggestions for Teaching Students With Hearing Impairments 419
Promoting Language Development in Young Children With Hearing Impairments
428
Accommodations for Students With Visual Impairments 468
Orientation and Mobility Tips 472
Strategies That May Be Used for Students With Traumatic Brain Injury 506
Steps for Teachers to Take When a Tonic-Clonic Seizure Occurs 509
Teaching Students With Physical or Health Disabilities 521
Differentiated Instruction 560
26
Preface
Special Education in Contemporary Society is first and foremost a textbook about people—
individuals who, in many ways, are very much just like you. Yet these individuals happen to
be recognized as exceptional—either as someone with a disability or as someone with
unique gifts and talents. Second, this book serves as a comprehensive introduction to the
dynamic field of special education and the children and young adults who benefit from
receiving a special education. Our intention in writing Special Education in Contemporary
Society was to provide you with a readable, research-based book that also stresses classroom
application. By blending theory with practice, our aim was to provide teachers-in-training
and practicing professionals with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that are crucial
to constructing learning environments that enable all students to reach their potential. We
also wanted to portray the “human” side of special education. The field of special education
is much more than meetings, forms, legal issues, or specific instructional strategies; it is
about children and their families—their frustrations and fears—but perhaps more
important, it is also about their accomplishments and triumphs. Richard is a father of four
daughters who has traveled this rocky road. Each of his girls is recognized as exceptional:
Three are gifted, and one has a disability. To him, special education is real. It is something
he confronts on a daily basis—it is his passion. We hope that by studying this book you,
too, will develop an appreciation for and understanding of the children whose lives you will
touch.
27
Introducing
It is with tremendous pride that I introduce the reader to my colleague and friend, Emily
C. Bouck, as a new co-author for the sixth edition. Readers may already be familiar with
her work as she contributed the chapter on assistive technology to the fifth edition. Dr.
Bouck brings a wealth of skill and knowledge to Special Education in Contemporary Society.
Her deep understanding of the critical issues confronting today’s educators is unsurpassed.
Emily’s dedication to and passion for individuals with disabilities can be found throughout
the pages of this book. It is rare to find someone who shares your vision and values and
who is willing to work to ensure that all students with exceptionalities receive a quality
education that allows them to reach their full potential. I am honored that Dr. Bouck is
joining me in this labor of love and I am confident that the legacy of this book is in very
capable hands.
28
Audience
Special Education in Contemporary Society was written for two primary audiences. First are
those individuals preparing to become teachers, either general educators or special
educators. Second, because meeting the needs of students with exceptionalities is often a
shared responsibility, this book is also appropriate for professionals who work with
individuals who have special needs. Physical therapists, school psychologists, orientation
and mobility specialists, and speech–language pathologists are only a few of the individuals
who share in the responsibility of providing an appropriate education.
29
Organization of the Text
The first five chapters constitute Part 1 and focus on broad topics affecting all individuals
with an exceptionality; these chapters are foundational for the remainder of the book.
Chapter 1 introduces the field of special education, providing an overview of important
terms, the prevalence of children and young adults with disabilities, and a framework for
understanding exceptionality. An overview of important litigation and legislation, the
identification and assessment of individual differences, the development of meaningful
individualized instructional programs, and the issue of where students with exceptionalities
are to be served are addressed in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, we examine cultural and
linguistic diversity and its relationship to exceptionality. Chapter 4 looks at issues
confronting the parents and families of individuals with special needs. The final chapter of
Part 1 explores the exciting field of assistive technology and the role it plays in the lives of
individuals with exceptionalities.
30
Key Features of the Text
In order to make this textbook meaningful, practical, and also enjoyable to read, we have
incorporated several distinct features. These learning tools include the following:
31
New to This Edition
In addition to its key hallmarks, the sixth edition incorporates the following features and
content:
32
Additions Found Throughout the Book
References have been completely revised and updated to reflect the most current
thinking in the field.
Updated or new tables and figures portray current information.
Learning Objectives at the beginning of each chapter guide the reader to the most
important points to be gleaned from the chapter.
End-of-chapter key terms include the page number where the term is initially
introduced.
Each chapter utilizes the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) initial-level special
educator preparation standards.
A glossary of key terms in Spanish is available on the website and in the interactive
eBook.
33
Chapter-Specific Additions
Chapter 5, “Assistive Technology,” provides the most current ideas on using assistive
technology with individuals with exceptionalities.
Chapter 8 reflects the latest thinking found in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) on ADHD.
Chapter 10, “Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders,” incorporates the new
paradigm for classifying individuals on the spectrum as outlined in the DSM-5.
Chapter 13, “Individuals With Visual Impairments,” includes information about
Unified English Braille, a recent replacement to English Braille, American Edition.
Appendix B has been redesigned so that chapter content is aligned with the CEC
teacher preparation standards.
34
Digital Resources
SAGE edge offers a robust online environment featuring an impressive array of tools and
resources for review, study, and further exploration, keeping both instructors and students
on the cutting edge of teaching and learning. SAGE edge content is open access and
available on demand. Learning and teaching have never been easier!
35
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no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.