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Preface
The latest edition of Polymers: A Property Database is an improved version of an indispensable polymer reference
work. The database is a comprehensive and in-depth collection of properties for a very wide range of polymers,
both synthetic and natural; and where polymers exist with subtle variations in structure, these are also covered in
some detail. Processing grades are also described along with typical applications for each major polymer.
Each polymer has a general properties section, where very useful information such as chemical structure,
synonyms, CAS registration numbers, and monomers used in the polymerisation is given. The mechanical
properties are particularly well presented and all source material is meticulously referenced.
The database is well indexed (even more comprehensively in the online version) and extremely easy to use
making this a very desirable addition to any researcher’s library. Polymers are indexed by common name
allowing ease of access even to those with only a basic knowledge of polymers; industrial/commercial names are
also used where these exist. This is particularly useful for those working in industry or in multidisciplinary fields
where polymers are used.
vii
Editorial Board
Editors
Bryan Ellis
Formerly Sheffield University, UK
Dr. Ray Smith
University of London, UK
Advisory Editor
Dr. Howard Barth
Formerly DuPont, US
Executive Editors
Dr. Fiona Macdonald
CRC Press, Boca Raton, US
Dr. Matt Griffiths
CRC Press, London, UK
Contributing Editors
Dr. Paul Tindal
Dr. Martin Edwards
Dr. Philip Drachman
Additional data collected by contributors to the CRC Chemical Database.
ix
Introduction
Those of us who work with polymers and polymeric materials rely heavily on data regarding solution and bulk
properties, and manufacturing procedures. These parameters usually can be found spread over different
handbooks, encyclopedias, and the Internet. However, Polymers: A Property Database is one-stop shopping,
whereby this information is now available from a single source. Entries range from a few lines for research
polymers to encyclopedic submissions for more common polymers. (An online version of the Database for
simplified data retrieval and entry updates is now available from Taylor & Francis Group.)
To produce this comprehensive Database, which conveniently can be used as a desk reference book, a double-
column format was used with small, but easy to read font with spaced-out tables. Because main-chain or common
polymer names are used as headers, arranged alphabetically in dictionary style, the Database is practical to use.
(IUPAC approved nomenclature is given under a separate heading). To quickly locate a polymer, a comprehensive
polymer name index is available.
The Database contains a listing of polymer properties that are, for the most part, associated with polymer
manufacturing, processing, and applications. As such, the Database contains other useful information in addition
to polymer properties, not found in other source books; an example of this is given for nylon 6,6, a well-studied
commercial polymer:
Structural Formulae Elastic Modulus

Additives Poisson Ratio
Morphology Tensile Strength Yield
Density Compression Strength
Thermal Expansion Coefficient Impact Strength
Latent Heat Crystallization Viscoelastic Behavior
Thermal Conductivity Hardness
Specific Heat Capacity Failure Properties
Glass Transition Temperature Fracture Mechanical Properties
Melting Temperature Friction Abrasion and Resistance
Deflection Temperature Electric Properties
Brittleness Temperature Dielectric Permittivity
Surface Properties Dielectric Strength
Solubility Dissipation Power
Transport Properties Magnetic Properties
Melt Flow Index Optical Properties
Intrinsic Viscosity Refractive Index
Polymer Melts Molar Refraction
Permeability of Gases Polymer Stability
Permeability of Liquids Thermal Stability
Water Content Upper-Use Temperature
Water Absorption Decomposition
Gas Permeability Flammability
Mechanical Properties Environmental Stress
Tensile Modulus Chemical Stability
Flexural Modulus Hydrolytic Stability
Tensile Strength Break Biological Stability
Flexural Strength at Break Applications and Selected References
The Database also lists many types of polysaccharides, modified cellulosics, and other important biopolymers.
Different types of polymers and polymeric structures are presented, such as inorganic polymers, blends, block
copolymers, graft polymers, ionomers, elastomers, fibers, hydrogels, interpenetrating networks, structural foams,
polymer composites, polysiloxanes, resins, and natural rubbers.
For this second edition, an introductory chapter has been added that reviews polymer complexity as it relates
to polymer properties. Furthermore, tabulated lists of polymer properties are given to serve as a guide in selecting
appropriate test procedures.
xi
Polymer property data are now available on the Internet in a variety of tabular forms. The advantages and
convenience of having a desk reference book of the magnitude of Database cannot be overstated. No other
reference handbooks contain the caveats, descriptions, and explanations that are found in Polymers: A Property
Database as exemplified in the above table.
A. IMPORTANCE OF POLYMER PROPERTIES

Because of their high molecular mass, polymers, as compared to small molecules, have unique properties that are
often difficult to predict. As such, some background knowledge of the physical chemistry of polymers is desirable
for dealing with polymers and polymeric materials.
Polymer properties, like solubility behavior, are used as a guide on a laboratory scale when analyzing or
characterizing polymers or when determining structure-property relationships. On an industrial scale, properties
such as melt viscosity or heat capacity are important for establishing polymerization and processing conditions.
A listing of properties is required for selecting polymers to meet specific applications.
Polymers are ubiquitous as they are used in all applications, from consumer products to high-temperature
industrial use to medical devices, under a wide-range of conditions. In modern polymer science and engineering,
more complex structures, such as multilayer films, nanomaterials, electro-optical, and electronic devices, are
being developed that require more specialized and complex testing for end-use performance evaluation.
Furthermore, from knowledge of structure-property relations of polymers and polymeric materials, one can
begin to design and tailor-make polymers and complex polymeric structures to meet specific end-use performance
requirements.
It is sometimes difficult to accurately predict end-use performance characteristics of the final product using
tabulated data of individual components. As a result, accurate measurements are those made on the final product
itself, rather than using model polymers or components. In these cases, empirically derived measurements using the
actual product, verified with authentic samples, may be the best option. It should be noted that most empirically
derived data are trade secrets, and, as such, not available. Nevertheless, compilations of properties are still valuable.
B. POLYMER COMPLEXITY
Because of polymer complexity, property variability must be taken into consideration. In this section, we will
discuss possible sources of polymer inconsistency and offer suggestions to recognize and reduce these errors.
Chemical or compositional heterogeneity refers to the chemical or structural difference among chains of the
same polymer. Thus, a measured property of a chemically heterogeneous sample will be an averaged value
dependent upon sample source. For chemically homogeneous samples, property variability will not be a concern.
In a similar fashion, polymers that are polydisperse in molecular weight have averaged property values, while
monodisperse samples will give accurate data. Obviously, samples that are both chemically homogeneous and
monodisperse will give the most accurate and precise values.
Compared to synthetic polymers, almost all nucleic acids and mammalian proteins are compositionally
(chemically) homogeneous and monodisperse. If not, there would be no life; biopolymers carry highly specific and
selective information. Mammalian polysaccharides, for the most part, are also compositionally homogeneous, but
are polydisperse in molecular weight; whereas plant polysaccharides are polydisperse. Chemically modified
cellulose (cellulosics) are typically both compositionally heterogeneous and polydisperse in molecular weight.
Starches (a-amylose and amylopectin), another major class of polysaccharides, are highly polydisperse in
molecular weight, but quite compositionally homogeneous. In addition, amylopectin and many other
polysaccharides are highly branched, which may further complicate listed property values.
Synthetic polymers can be quite complex and, as such, tabulated and measured property data must be interpreted
with care. Homogeneous synthetic polymers are those produced from condensation polymerization reactions, in
which all polymer chains are chemically indistinguishable from another. Even though these types of polymers show a
finite polydispersity of two, accuracy and precision will not be compromised because all samples (and reference
standards) will have the same degree of polydispersity. Lastly, synthetic polymers produced by addition
polymerization (i.e., ionic, complex coordination catalytic or free-radical copolymerization) will have the greatest
amount of compositional heterogeneity and, with the exception of anionically polymerized samples, will also have a
large molecular weight polydispersity. For these polymers, tabulated data must be interpreted with caution, unless
users establish their own data sets with reference polymers obtained from the same polymerization conditions.
Sequence distribution or polymer microstructure is the next higher level of complexity in which the average
arrangement of monomers along a chain is considered. The polymerization mechanism and reactivity ratios of
xii
monomers dictate this parameter. Monomers can be randomly arranged along chains in the case of statistic or
random copolymers or, in the extreme form, as block copolymers. In any event, the microstructure of reference
polymers should be defined when properties are listed.
Next in line of complexity is macromolecular architecture, or polymer configuration, in which the topological
nature of the chain is of interest. Thus polymer branching can take on a wide range of configurations including
short- and long-chain branching, and comb, star, and dendritic structures with or without comonomer
segregation or blockiness. Because of the strong influence of polymer configuration on properties, this parameter
needs to be defined and care taken when comparing tabulated data to those of actual samples.
In summary, polymers may have up to two or more distributed characteristics depending on the number of
different monomers used in the polymerization, the type of polymerization mechanism, and whether or not the
sample was fractionated during isolation. As a rough estimate, polymer ‘‘complexity’’ increases exponentially
with the number of distributive properties, making it more difficult to measure accurate polymer properties.
Some polymers are modified after polymerization; however, this process can be somewhat difficult to control
because polymer chain segments can influence the chemistry of a neighboring groups. Chemical modifications are
done mainly on cellulosics and other polysaccharides to tailor-make specific property characteristics. Thus
tabulated property data given for cellulosics and polysaccharides represent average values of the entire sample
ensemble of polymer chains that differ in composition. To complicate matters further, insoluble gels, comprised of
three-dimensional networks, may form if chains are allowed to chemically or physically (via hydrogen bonding)
react with one another, either during or after polymerization.
Post-polymerization processes are also accomplished via vulcanization, irradiation, or through the addition of
a low molecular weight cross-linking agent. The resulting polymer (i.e., rubber, elastomer, resin, or gel) in
essence, is one super or giant molecule approaching infinite molecular weight. These viscoelastic materials have
wonderful consumer, industrial, and aerospace end-use applications when properly formulated.
The next level of polymer complexity is polymer blends and multicomponent systems. To adjust the glass-
transition temperature, plasticizers are added, often times at high concentrations. To increase polymer strength,
reinforced polymeric materials are used that consist of added inorganic material, the most common being carbon
black or glass fibers. Laminated structures are also produced for increased material strength.
High-value added, specialty products with controlled molecular weight, branching, or architecture are being
developed for high-technology industries, most notably electronic and optical devices, printing inks, and coatings
in the aerospace industry. Because of their specialized uses, most of these polymeric materials are not listed in this
compilation.
C. REGULATORY AGENCIES
Most industries issue testing protocols and polymer property specifications to the trade. To ensure uniformity,
national regulatory agencies have formed to deal with standardized methods and testing approaches. In the
United States, ASTM is the most prominent independent agency supported by industry with about 100 test
methods in place specifically for polymers and polymeric materials. API specializes in the development of
procedures for petroleum products, some of which are polymeric. In Britain, BSI is the key agency for testing,
while in Europe, DIN procedures are followed. Many of these agencies are overseen by ISO, a federation of
national regulatory bodies. (See Table 1 for complete names and acronyms.)
Governmental departments of commerce, defense, and military are also involved in issuing protocols and
specifications. For example, the FDA is responsible for establishing acceptable limits of extractable components
from polymeric materials in contact with food and drugs.
Table 1. Key agencies involved in standardized testing of polymersand polymeric materials under the umbrella of ISO
Abbreviation Organization
API American Petroleum Institute

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BSI British Standards Institution
DIN Deutsches Institut fur Normung
FDA Food and Drug Agency
ISO International Organization for Standardization*
*Global federation of national standards bodies representing 100 countries
xiii
D. REFERENCE POLYMERS AND SPECIALTY MATERIALS
Sources of reference polymer standards that can be used for instrument calibration and validating methods are
listed in Table 2. In the United States NIST is responsible for distributing a number of well-characterized
polymer standards.
These standards have well-defined chemical composition and molecular weight, and are also suitable for
formulating materials for R&D. All reference standards and polymeric material should come with certificates of
analysis. (Because water content in polymers, especially hydrophilic ones and polysaccharides, may affect
properties, it is advisable to vacuum dry and properly store them to prevent moisture buildup and degradation.)
Table 2. Sources of polymer standards used for instrument calibration, method development and verification, and formulating
R&D samples
American Polymer Standards Corp. USA

Gearing Scientific Ltd. UK
National Institute of Standards and Technology USA
Polymer Laboratories Varian UK
Polymer Source Inc. Canada
Polymer Standards Service (PSS) Germany
Pressure Chemical Co. USA
Putus Macromolecular China
Sigma-Aldrich USA
Tosoh Corporation Japan
Waters Corporation USA
E. POLYMER PROPERTIES
In this section we discuss and list polymer properties that are included in data tables of this book. Some properties
reviewed in this section are not listed in this text, but they are included for completeness. Specific properties for
certain classes of polymers are not given, especially those used for optical, electronic and magnetic devices.
Much of this section and the book’s content is based on van Krevelen’s (1976) property schemes, with
modification. His book should be consulted for more detailed discussions. Other books of interest are listed at
the end of this chapter.
Basic information that characterizes polymers is listed in Table 3. These properties can be estimated from the
expected outcome of the polymerization, measured, or calculated from group contributions (see van Krevelen,
Table 3. Basic polymer information
Property measured Remarks
CAS registration number

Physical state at rt
Chemical composition of repeat units
Structural formula of repeat group
Comonomer molar ratios For copolymers
Molar substitution For cellulosics
Molecular weight of repeat unit
Statistical average molecular weights Mn, Mv, Mw, Mz, and polydispersity
Percent added inorganic or carbon filler or plasticizer Polymer additives used to impart selected performance
Polymer additives, e.g., antioxidants, UV stabilizers, etc.
Moisture level
Crosslinking density If applicable
Branching, degree (frequency) and extent (length) Short- or long-chain branching if applicable, as estimated
Polymer architecture (topology), other than linear or branched, if applicable graft, star, comb, or dendritic
Crystallinity
Tacticity
Microstructure, i.e., monomer sequence distribution Block, random, or alternate
Toxicity and stability Should be determined or at least estimated from structure of
corresponding comonomers
Environmental impact Must be known or at least estimated for safe disposal
xiv
1976). Methods for measuring these properties can be found in the reference list (for example, see Barth and
Mays 1991; Brady 2003; Wu 1995). Some of the more important properties will be considered here.
The most useful average molecular weights are the number- (Mn), weight- (Mw), and z-averages (Mz). These
averages are easily determined from the molecular weight distribution obtained using size exclusion
chromatography (Mori and Barth 2001). Oftentimes just the viscosity-average molecular weight (Mv) is
available, which can be conveniently determined from the measured intrinsic viscosity of the polymer in a given
solvent at a specified temperature using tabulated MarkHouwink coefficients. Alternatively, Mw can be
determined from light scattering and Mn from osmometry.
Branching, molecular topology, and comonomer sequence distribution along the chain are more difficult to
estimate; these properties are best estimated by the chemistry of the polymerization procedure, with support from
NMR measurements. Polymer toxicity and stability must be known or at least estimated from functional group
and comonomer chemistry. It should be realized that polymer toxicity, to a first approximation, is lower than the
corresponding comonomer toxicity; because of the low polymer diffusion coefficient, macromolecules cannot
readily pass through biomembranes, thus have limited bioavailability.
The effect of molecular weight of a polymer in solution on its colligative properties, summarized in Table 4, is
a well-established phenomenon. These properties are dependent on the number of macromolecules in solution,
which independent on molecular weight and chemical composition. In fact, the number-average molecular weight
of a polymer can be determined by measuring one of its colligative properties.
Table 4. Colligative polymer properties
Freezing point depression MW dependent

Boiling point elevation MW dependent
Vapor pressure depression MW dependent
Osmotic pressure elevation MW dependent
Table 5 lists volumetric properties of polymers in the liquid or solid state as a function of temperature; these
properties are related to the compactness of chains and the interaction of comonomers within and among
neighboring chains. These properties are more dependent on chemical composition, than molecular weight.
Volumetric properties also depend on factors influenced by comonomer sequence distribution, such as tacticity,
branching, and polymer crystallinity.
Table 5. Volumetric properties
Specific volume (reciprocal of specific density) Depends on polymer state

Molar volume (reciprocal of molar density) Depends on polymer state
Specific thermal expansivity Depends on polymer state
Molar thermal expansivity Depends on polymer state
Specific melt expansivity Applicable to crystalline polymers
Molar melt expansivity Applicable to crystalline polymers
Table 6 lists thermodynamic and calorimetric attributes of a polymer, while Table 7 deals with polymer
solubility and cohesive energy. Except for molar entropy, all these properties depend mainly of chemical
composition, rather than molecular weight. Furthermore, polymer crystallinity, in addition to the chemical
nature of a polymer, plays a major role in dictating solubility behavior. In order to effect solubility in the case of
crystalline or semicrystalline polymers, the solution must be heated near or above its melting point to break up
crystalline regions.
Light scattering and inherent viscosity measurements made at infinite dilution are used to determine polymer
size parameters, conformation, second virial coefficient, weight-average molecular weight, and long-chain
branching parameters (Table 8). These are fundamental parameters that allow us to probe structural features of
polymer molecules. These properties are dependent on molecular mass and shape, rather than polymer
composition.
xv
Table 6. Calorimetric and thermodynamic properties including transitiontemperatures
Molar entropy
Molar enthalpy
Molar heat capacity
Latent heat of crystallization
Thermal conductivity
Melting temperature, Tm Disappearance of polymeric crystalline phase
Glass-transition temperature, Tg Onset of extensive macromolecular motion
Secondary transition temperatures Other than Tm and Tg
Deflection temperature (heat distortion) Highest continuous temperature material will withstand
Vicat softening point Temperature at which a needle penetrates material
Brittleness temperature
Table 7. Cohesive properties and solubilities
Cohesive energy
Cohesive energy density Related to the ‘‘internal pressure’’ of a polymer in solution
Surface and interfacial energy
Solubility parameter Equal to the square root of the cohesive energy density
Good Solvency Good solvent imparts solubility via polymer solvation
Nonsolvency Poor solvent cannot solvate polymer
Theta temperature The temperature at which polymerpolymer, polymersolvent, and solventsolvent interactions are equal
Theta solvent A solvent in which polymerpolymer, polymersolvent, and solventsolvent interactions are equal
Table 8. Dilute solution properties
Intrinsic viscosity Measured quantity related to the hydrodynamic shape and molecular
volume of a polymer in solution
MarkHouwink coefficients Coefficients related to the shape of macromolecules in solution.
Molecular conformation Molecular shape parameter
Specific refractive index Parameter needed for calculating Mw from light scattering data
Polymer-solvent 2nd virial coefficient Determined from light scattering measurements
Radius of gyration Macromolecular size parameter
End-to-end distance Macromolecular size parameter
Hydrodynamic volume Macromolecular volume parameter
Melt index and viscosity are critical parameters needed for polymer processing. These and other polymer
transport properties are listed in Table 9. As in the case of other viscosity measurements, these properties depend
mainly on higher statistical molecular weight averages, such as Mw and Mz.
Table 9. Transport properties
Melt viscosity Depends on molecular weight and chain entanglement

Melt index Inversely proportional to viscosity
Gas permeability across a polymer film or membrane Usually water vapor, oxygen, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide, or specialty gases
Diffusion coefficient Diffusion of polymer in a given solvent at defined conditions
Water absorption Water content taken up at specified relative humidity and temperature
Tables 10 to 13 list polymer characteristics directly involved with end-use properties: mechanical properties
(Table 10), electric and magnetic properties (Table 11), optical properties (Table 12), and polymer stability (Table
13). (A more complete discussion of these properties is given in selected references at the end of this chapter.)
xvi
Table 10. Mechanical properties
Adhesion (tackiness)
Ball indentation hardness
Bulk modulus (reciprocal of compressibility)
Coefficient of friction
Compression strength Force needed to rupture material
Tensile creep Shape change of material caused by suspended weight
Damping Absorption or dissipation of vibrations
Dynamic mechanical behavior
Elastic modulus
Elongation
Fatigue Number of cycles required for fracture
Flexural stiffness
Flexural strength at break Amount of stress needed to break material
Fracture mechanical properties Fracture energy, fatigue resistance, fatigue crack growth, void coalescence
Friction abrasion and resistance
Hardness Resistance to compression, indentation, and scratch
Impact strength Energy absorbed by sample prior to fracture
Indention hardness
Load deformation
Mar resistance
Mold shrinkage
Poisson’s ratio
Scratch resistance
Shear strength Maximum load to produce a fracture by shearing
Surface abrasion resistance
Tear resistance
Tensile strength break (yield) See Young’s modulus
Toughness Amount of energy to break a material (area under stress-strain curve)
Ultimate strength
Viscoelastic behavior
Young’s modulus
(Tensile strength) Modulus of elasticity or tensile modulus
Table 11. Electrical and magnetic properties
Arc resistance Time needed for current to make material surface conductive because of carbonization
Dielectric constant Ability of material to store electric energy for capacitor application
Dielectric permittivity
Dielectric strength Voltage required to break down or arc material
Dissipation power factor (loss tangent) Watts (power) lost in material used as insulator
Insulation resistance
Magnetic susceptibility
Resistivity
Volume resistivity
Table 12. Optical properties
Color Physiological response; measured using three parameters: lightness, chroma, and delta
Luminous transmittance Measure of plastic haze or clarity
Molar refraction
Percent transmission Transparency
Refractive index
Specular gloss Surface ‘‘flatness’’; mirror ‘‘finish’’
Total internal reflectance
UV-visible absorbance spectrum
xvii
Table 13. Polymer stability
Accelerated aging studies

Biological stability Stability in the presence of microorganisms
Burning rate
Chemical resistance Hydrolytic stability (extreme pH conditions), exposure to chemicals and solvents
Flammability Flame resistance
Flash ignition temperature
Long-term immersion
Permeability Amount of gas or liquid penetrating film
Recyclability
Resistance to cold
Self-extinguishing temperature
Stress cracking Caused by weathering
Thermal stability In addition to temperature, decomposition products are measured
UV resistance Color fading, pitting, crumbling, surface cracking, crazing, brittleness
Weathering (environmental stress) Color and gloss change, cracks, crazing, weakening (see UV resistance)
CONCLUSIONS
Polymer science can be viewed as an applied branch of chemistry based on deliverable properties. It is of interest
to note that most of these properties depend on just four attributes: (1) polymer molecular weight, (2)
crystallinity, (3) chemical composition, and (4) macromolecular topology or architecture; furthermore, these
parameters interact with one another in a complex manner. By varying these parameters, polymers can be tailor-
made to fit a list of desirable characteristics.
It is hoped that this polymer property database will serve as a guideline to help pave the way for the
development of newer materials of improved characteristics.
POLYMERS: A PROPERTY DATABASE ON THE WEB

To maintain state-of-the-art property listings and to facilitate searches, Polymers: A Property Database, Second
Edition is also published online at http://www.polymersdatabase.com. Space considerations have precluded the
inclusion of indexes other than a Name and Synonym Index in the hard-copy version of the Polymer Database. In
contrast, the online version contains searchable indexes on each of the fields present in the database, covering all
text and numerical fields in the following categories:
General Description
Volumetric and Calorimetric Properties
Surface Properties and Solubility
Transport Properties
Mechanical Properties
Electrical Properties
Optical Properties
Polymer Stability
Applications and Commercial Products
References
Upon entering the database you will be presented with the polymer search screen illustrated below (Figure 1).
It is from here that searches will be performed.
xviii
Figure 1
From the search window, design your search profile using text, numerical fields or a combination of both.
Once your search has been performed the resultant hits are listed alphabetically by polymer name in the hit
list window. Clicking on any one of the hits in the hit list window will result in that entry being displayed
(Figure 2).
xix
Figure 2
In addition, the online version also contains a searchable monomers database. Monomers may be searched by
a combination of text and structure searching via a downloadable browser plug-in (Figure 3).
xx
Figure 3
xxi
SELECTED REFERENCES
Billmeyer, F. W., Textbook of Polymer Science, 3rd ed., Interscience Publishers, 1984 (classic book with excellent
treatment of polymer properties).
Barth, H. G. and Mays, J. W., Eds., Modern Methods of Polymer Characterization, New York: Wiley, 1991
(covers latest developments at the time of most methods).
Brady, Jr., R. F., Ed., Comprehensive Desk Reference of Polymer Characterization and Analysis, American
Chemical Society-Oxford, 2003 (survey of characterization and analytical methods).
Brandrup, J., Immergut, E. H.,Grulke, E. A., Abe, A, and Bloch, D. R., Eds., Polymer Handbook, 4th ed., New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 2005 (premier handbook of polymer science, listing virtually all polymer characteristics
for most polymers).
Brydson, J. A., Plastics Materials, Butterworth Heinemann, 2000 (comprehensive treatment of plastics, their
synthesis, properties, and applications).
Bueche, F., Physical Properties of Polymers, Krieger Publishing, 1979 (emphasis is on polymer physics).
Cowie, J.M.G. and Arrighi, V., Polymers: Chemistry and Physics of Modern Materials, 3rd ed., CRC Press, 2008
(excellent discussion of physical properties and applications).
Heimenz, P.C. and Lodge, T. P., Polymer Chemistry, 2nd ed., CRC Press, 2007 (comprehensive treatment of
polymer chemistry*synthesis and physical chemistry).
Mark, J.E., Allcock, H. R., and West, R., Inorganic Polymers, Oxford, 2005 (physical chemistry and properties of
inorganic polymers).
Mark, J. E., Ed., Polymer Data Handbook, Oxford, 1999 (compilation of major classes of polymers and their
physical properties).
Mori, S. and Barth, H. G., Size Exclusion Chromatography, Springer-Verlag, 1999 (comprehensive treatment of
SEC, theory and applications).
Munk, P. and Aminabhavi, T. M., Introduction to Macromolecular Science, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 2002 (emphasis on polymer physical chemistry).
Nielsen, L. E., Polymer Rheology, Marcel Dekker, 1977 (introductory text on polymer rheology).
Richardson, T. L. and Lokensgard, E., Industrial Plastics: Theory and Applications, Delmar, 1996 (practical
overview of some important properties and polymer processing).
Carraher, Jr., C. E., Seymour/Carraher’s Polymer Chemistry, 7th ed., CRC Press, 2007 (popular introduction to
polymer chemistry).
Seymour, R. B., Engineering Polymer Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, 1990 (good overview of physical properties of
engineering polymers).
Sperling L. H., Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, 2nd ed., Wiley-Interscience, 1992 (good treatment of
polymer physics and properties).
van Krevelen, D. W., Properties of Polymers, 3rd ed., Elsevier, 1990 (in-depth treatment of polymer properties,
best resource available).
Whistler, R., Industrial Gums, 2nd ed., Academic Press, 1973 (although outdated, gives solid background on the
chemistry and properties of cellulosics and polysaccharides).
Wu, C. S., Ed., Handbook of Size Exclusion Chromatography, 2nd ed., Marcel Dekker, 2003 (covers all aspects of
this important technique).
xxii
ABS, Blow moulding ABS, Carbon reinforced A-1 A-2
A-1
ABS,
A-1 Blow moulding A-1 Deflection Temperature:
Monomers: Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene, Styrene
Material class: Thermoplastic, Copolymers No. Value Note
Polymer Type: ABS 1 808C 1.8 MPa, ASTM D648 [3]
CAS Number:
2 908C 0.45 MPa, ASTM D648 [3]
CAS Reg. No.
9003-56-9
Surface Properties & Solubility:
Solvents/Non-solvents: Sol. polar solvents, esters, ketones and
some chlorinated hydrocarbons [5]
Applications/Commercial Products:
Transport Properties:
Trade name Supplier Transport Properties General: Exhibits viscoelastic behaviour in
both the melt and solid states. Like other thermoplastics, it may be
Cycolac MSB General Electric Plastics described as exhibiting non-Newtonian behaviour; viscosity
Cycolac MSC General Electric Plastics decreases due to increasing shear rate [2]
Water Absorption:
Cycolac MSD General Electric Plastics
Cycolac MSL General Electric Plastics No. Value Note
1 0.3 % 24h, ASTM D570 [3]
A-2 2 0.75 % saturation, ASTM D570 [3]
ABS, Carbon reinforced A-2
Synonyms: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer. Acryloni-
trile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer. Poly(2-propenenitrile-co-1,3-
Mechanical Properties:
Mechanical Properties General: Has high impact resistance over a
butadiene-co-ethenylbenzene)
wide temp. range, with very good rigidity and toughness. Its
Related Polymers: ABS
tensile and flexural strength, tensile and flexural moduli are all
higher than those of unreinforced ABS. Has very low notched
Material class: Composites, Copolymers, Thermoplastic
Izod impact strength compared to that of unreinforced ABS
Polymer Type: ABS
grades. Elongation at break 1 2% (ASTM D638). [3]
CAS Number:
CAS Reg. No. Tensile (Young’s) Modulus:
9003-56-9 No. Value Note

1 12409 13788 MPa 1800 2000 kpsi, ASTM D638 [4]
Molecular Formula: [(C8H8)(C4H6)(C3H3N)]n

Flexural Modulus:
Fragments: C8H8 C4H6 C3H3N
Additives: 15% Carbon fibre
General Information: An amorph. thermoplastic that combines No. Value Note
high performance with design versatility and easy processability 1 6000 MPa ASTM D790 [3]
Volumetric & Calorimetric Properties:
Density: Tensile Strength Yield:
No. Value Note No. Value Note

1 d 1.12 g/cm3 ASTM D792 1 80 MPa ASTM D638 [3]
Thermal Expansion Coefficient: Flexural Strength Yield:
No. Value Note Type No. Value Note

1 3.610-5 K-1 ASTM D696 [3] L 1 100 MPa ASTM D790 [3]
Melting Temperature: Compressive Strength:

1 210 2608C [4] 1 75 117 MPa ASTM D695 [3]
Glass-Transition Temperature: Impact Strength: Izod 60 J m-1 (notched, ASTM D256) [3],
280 J m-1 (unnotched, ASTM D256) [3]
No. Value Note Hardness: Rockwell M90 (ASTM D785) [3]
Fracture Mechanical Properties: Shear strength 45 MPa (ASTM
1 100 1108C [4] D732) [3]. Coefficient of friction 0.2 (static) (LNP SOP) 0.15,
(dynamic) (LNP SOP) [3]
Friction Abrasion and Resistance: Coefficient of friction 0.2 (static,
(LNP SOP), 0.15 (dynamic, LNP SOP) [3]
1
ABS, Extrusion, Unfilled A-3 A-3
Izod Notch: Bibliographic References

[1] Kirk-Othmer Encycl. Chem. Technol., Vol. 1, 4th edn., (ed. J.I.
No. Value Notch Note Kroschwitz), Wiley Interscience, 1991, 391
[2] Encycl. Polym. Sci. Eng., Vol. 1, 2nd edn., (ed. J.I. Kroschwitz), John
1 60 J/m Y ASTM D256 Wiley & Sons, 1985, 388
[3] LNP Engineering Plastics, Product Data Book, LNP Engineering
2 280 J/m N ASTM D256 [3] Plastics, (technical datasheet)
[4] Guide to Plastics, Property and Specification Charts, (ed. W.A.
Kaplan), McGraw-Hill, 1994, 70, 12
Electrical Properties: [5] Harper, C.A., Handb. Plast. Elastomers, (ed. C.A. Harper), McGraw-
Electrical Properties General: Is electrically conductive. Surface Hill, 1975
[6] Hayes, R.A. and Futamara, S., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 1981,
resistivity 103 106 V cm (ASTM D257) [3]; Volume resistivity 19, 985
104 106 V cm (ASTM D257) [3] [7] Brydon, A., Burnett, G.M. and Cameron, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., Polym.
Chem. Ed., 1974, 12, 1011
Polymer Stability: [8] Allen, P.W., Ayrey, G. and Moore, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., 1959, 36, 55
Thermal Stability General: Has a relatively flat stress-temp. [9] Odian, G., Principles of Polymerization, McGraw-Hill, 1970
response due to its amorph. character. Retains its props. at low [10] Casale, A. and Salvatore, O., Polym. Eng. Sci., 1975, 15, 286
temps. [2,5] A-3
Upper Use Temperature:
ABS, Extrusion, Unfilled A-3
No. Value Note Synonyms: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer. Acryloni-
1 608C [3]
2 608C UL 746B [3] Related Polymers: ABS
Material class: Thermoplastic, Copolymers
Flammability: Flammability rating HB (3.2 mm, UL94) [3] Polymer Type: ABS
Environmental Stress: Has poor weather and uv resistance unless CAS Number:
protected. Undergoes stress cracking in contact with certain
chemicals. The rubber phase in ABS oxidises more rapidly than
CAS Reg. No.
the rigid component. Oxidation of polybutadiene results in
embrittlement of the rubber [2,5] 9003-56-9
Chemical Stability: Resistant to hydrocarbon solvents, mineral
and vegetable oils, waxes and related household and commercial
materials. Has high resistance to staining agents in household
applications. Attacked by conc. nitric and sulfuric acids. Molecular Formula: [(C8H8)(C4H6)(C3H3N)]n
Unaffected by weak acids at room temp. and alkalis below 658. Fragments: C8H8 C4H6 C3H3N
Has poor resistance to most organic solvents [1,2,5] General Information: An amorph. thermoplastic grade which has
Recyclability: Scrap and reject material can be reworked at an good heat resistance, very good processability, chemical resistance
80:20 (virgin:regrind) ratio if kept clean and segregated by colour and toughness. It is highly suitable for thermoforming
and grade [4]
Stability Miscellaneous: Processing conditions can influence Volumetric & Calorimetric Properties:
resultant props. by chemical and physical means. Degradation of Density:
the rubber and matrix phases occurs under very severe conditions.
Evidence of morphological changes is shown by agglomeration of No. Value Note
dispersed rubber particles during injection-moulding at higher 1 d 1.06 g/cm3 ISO 1183 [3]
temps. Physical effects such as orientation and moulded-in stress
can affect mechanical props. [10]
Thermal Expansion Coefficient:
Applications/Commercial Products:
Processing & Manufacturing Routes: Prod. by grafting styrene and No. Value Note Type
acrylonitrile directly on to the polybutadiene latex in a batch or
continuous emulsion polymerisation process. The degree of 1 910-5 0.0001 K-1 23 558, ASTM E831 [3] L
grafting is a function of the 1,2-vinyl content of the polybuta-
diene, the monomer concentration, the extent of conversion, temp.
Thermal Conductivity:
and mercaptan concentration. The emulsion polymerisation
process involves two steps; (i) production of a rubber latex;
(ii) subsequent polymerisation of styrene and acrylonitrile in the No. Value Note
presence of the rubber latex to produce an ABS latex. This latex is 1 0.17 W/mK DIN 52612 [4]
then processed to isolate the ABS resin. The polymerisation
ingredients include the monomers, an emulsifier, a polymerisation
initiator and usually a chain transfer agent for MW control. Melting Temperature:
[1,6,7,8,9] Processed on standard reciprocating-screw injection
moulding machines at 210 2168. [4] Should be dried before melt No. Value Note
processing.
1 230 2508C [3,4]
Applications: Uses where high strength and stiffness are required
Trade name Supplier Glass-Transition Temperature:

AS-15CF/000 Compounding Technology
No. Value Note
RTP 682 FR RTP Company
1 88 1208C [8]
Stat-Kon AC-1003 LNP Engineering
Styvex Ferro Corporation
Thermocomp (AC-1003) LNP Engineering
2
ABS, Extrusion, Unfilled A-3 A-3
Deflection Temperature: Tensile Strength Yield:

1 94 978C 808, 1.8 MPa, 4h, ISO 75 1 35 45 MPa 50 mm min-1, ISO 527 [3]
2 98 1028C 808, 0.45 MPa, 4h, ISO 75
Flexural Strength Yield:
Vicat Softening Point:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note 1 52 85 MPa 5 mm min-1, ISO 178 [3,4]
1 92 1018C 50 K h-1, 50 N, ISO 306 [3]
Compressive Strength:
Surface Properties & Solubility: No. Value Note

Solvents/Non-solvents: Sol. polar solvents, esters, ketones, some
chlorinated hydrocarbons [5] 1 36 70 MPa ASTM D695 [5]
Transport Properties General: ABS exhibits viscoelastic behaviour Miscellaneous Moduli:
in both the melt state and the solid state. Like other
thermoplastics, it may be described as exhibiting non-Newtonian No. Value Note Type
behaviour; viscosity decreases due to increasing shear rate [2]. 1 1250 1400 MPa 50.5% elongation, tensile creep
Melt Flow Index: 1000h, ISO/IEC 899 [4] modulus
No. Value Note

Viscoelastic Behaviour: Stress-strain behaviour, creep, stress and
1 1 8 g/10 min 2208, 10 kg, ISO 1133 [3,4] relaxation and fatigue have been reported [7]
Hardness: Ball indentation (H358/30) 75 110 MPa (ISO 2039) [4].
Polymer Melts: Storage shear modulus and loss shear modulus as Rockwell R75 R115 (ASTM D785) [5]
a function of angular frequency, and shear stress as a function of Friction Abrasion and Resistance: Has good abrasion resistance [3]
shear rate depend strongly on grafting degree in the long-time Izod Area:
region associated with particle-particle interactions. As the
grafting degree increases, the viscoelastic functions first decrease No. Value Notch Note
and then increase. The minima in the functions occurs at the 1 2
19 42 kJ/m Notched 238, ISO 180/1A [3,4]
grafting degree of about 0.45 for ABS having a rubber particle size
of 170 nm [6] 2 10 25 kJ/m2 Notched -308, ISO 180/1A [3,4]
Water Absorption:
No. Value Note Electrical Properties:

Electrical Properties General: Electrical props. are fairly constant
1 0.4 % 238, 24h, DIN 53495 [4] over a wide range of frequencies and are unaffected by temp. or
humidity [2]
Surface/Volume Resistance:
Mechanical Properties:
Mechanical Properties General: Has high impact resistance over a No. Value Note Type
wide temp. range down to -408, with very good rigidity and
15
toughness and a high yield strength. Elongation at break 15 25% 1 0.01 110 V.cm IEC 93 [3,4] S
(5 mm min-1, ISO 527) [3]
Dielectric Permittivity (constant):
Tensile (Young’s) Modulus:
No. Value Frequency Note
No. Value Note
1 3 3.4 100 Hz
1 1600 2700 MPa 1 mm min-1, ISO 527 [3,4]
2 2.9 3 1 MHz IEC 250 [3,4]
Flexural Modulus:
Dielectric Strength:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note
1 1800 2400 MPa 2 mm min-1, ISO 178 [3]
1 34 85 kV.mm-1 IEC 243-1 [3,4]
Compressive Modulus:
Arc Resistance:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note
1 1030 2690 MPa ASTM D695 [5]
1 50 90s [2]
Elastic Modulus:
No. Value Note

1 850 900 MPa ISO 537 [4]
3
ABS Flame retardant A-4 A-4
Dissipation (Power) Factor:

Trade name Details Supplier
ABS John Gibson (Plastics) Ltd.
1 0.009 100 Hz
Cycolac General Electric Plastics
2 0.007 0.01 1 MHz IEC 250 [3,4]
Lucky ABS various grades Standard Polymers
Lustran Bayer Inc.
Optical Properties: Magnum Dow
Transmission and Spectra: Transmittance 33.3% (ASTM D1003)
[5] Novodur various grades Bayer Inc.
Volume Properties/Surface Properties: Haze 100% [5]. Gloss 75 Sinkral Enichem America
86% (measuring angle 208) [3]. An extensive range of colours is
available [3]. Inherent colour opaque [3] Terluran BASF
Polymer Stability:
Polymer Stability General: Has very good dimensional stability
and chemical resistance. Undergoes autooxidation resulting in Bibliographic References
embrittlement of the rubber, and is liable to photooxidative [1] Kirk-Othmer Encycl. Chem. Technol., Vol. 1, (eds. J.I. Kroschwitz and
degradation [2,5] M. Howe-Grant ), Wiley Interscience, 1993, 391
Thermal Stability General: The polymer has a relatively flat stress- [2] Encycl. Polym. Sci. Eng., Vol. 1, 2nd edn., (ed. J.I. Kroschwitz), John
temp. response due to its amorph. character. The change in Wiley & Sons, 1985, 388
tensile, compressive and flexural props. is small below 80%. [3] Lustran ABS, Novadur ABS, Application Technology Information,
Retains its props. at low temps. [2,5] Bayer, 1997, (technical datasheet)
[4] Terluran, BASF Plastics, (technical datasheet)
Upper Use Temperature:
[5] Harper, C.A., Handb. Plast. Elastomers, (ed. C.A. Harper), McGraw-
Hill, 1975
No. Value Note [6] Aoki, Y., Macromolecules, 1987, 20, 2208, (dynamic viscoelastic and
steady flow props)
1 60 908C [5] [7] Pillichody, C.T. and Kelley, P.D., Handbook of Plastic Materials and
Technology, (ed. I.I. Rubin), Wiley Interscience, 1990, (stress-strain
behaviour, creep, stress relaxation, fatigue)
Flammability: Flammability rating HB (1.6 mm thick, UL 94) [4] [8] Guide to Plastics, Property and Specification Charts, (ed. W.A.
Environmental Stress: Has poor weather and uv resistance unless Kaplan), McGraw-Hill, 1994, 70
protected. The rubber phase in ABS oxidises more rapidly than [9] Hayes, R.A., Futamura, S., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 1981, 19,
the rigid component. Oxidation of polybutadiene results in 985
embrittlement of the rubber. [2] May yellow slightly in sunlight [10] Brydon, A., Burnett, G.M. and Cameron, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., Polym.
[2,5] Chem. Ed., 1974, 12, 1011
Chemical Stability: Is resistant to hydrocarbon solvents, mineral [11] Allen, P.W., Ayrey, G. and Moore, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., 1959, 36, 55
and vegetable oils, waxes and related household and commercial [12] Odian, G., Principles of Polymerization, McGraw-Hill, 1970
materials. Is highly resistant to staining agents in household A-4
applications. It is attacked by conc. nitric and sulfuric acids but is
unaffected by weak acids at room temp., or alkalis (up to 658).
ABS Flame retardant A-4
Attacked by organic solvents (C6H6, toluene, xylene, ethers, esters, Synonyms: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer. Acryloni-
chlorinated aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, amines, ketones trile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer. Poly(2-propenenitrile-co-1,3-
and hot alcohols. Certain chemicals cause stress cracking [1,2,5] butadiene-co-ethenylbenzene)
Hydrolytic Stability: Stable to neutral salt solns. [1,5] Related Polymers: ABS
Biological Stability: Is biologically inert Monomers: Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene, Styrene
Recyclability: Scrap and reject material can be reworked at an Material class: Thermoplastic, Copolymers
80:20 (virgin:regrind) ratio if kept clean and segregated by colour Polymer Type: ABS
and grade [8] CAS Number:
Applications/Commercial Products: CAS Reg. No.

Processing & Manufacturing Routes: Prod. by grafting styrene and
acrylonitrile directly onto the polybutadiene latex in a batch or 9003-56-9
continuous emulsion polymerisation process. The degree of
diene, the monomer concentration, the extent of conversion, temp.
and mercaptan concentration. The emulsion polymerisation Molecular Formula: [(C8H8)(C4H6)(C3H3N)]n
process involves two steps; (i) production of a rubber latex; (ii) Fragments: C6H8 C4H6C C3H3N
subsequent polymerisation of styrene and acrylonitrile in the Additives: Flame retardants such as halogenated additives.
presence of the rubber latex to produce an ABS latex. This latex is Additive can be brominated, chlorinated or both
then processed to isol. the ABS resin. The polymerisation General Information: Thermoplastic, amorph. polymer that
ingredients include the monomers, an emulsifier, a polymerisation combines high performance with design versatility and easy
initiator and, usually, a chain transfer agent for MW control processability. Has better fire resistance than standard grades of
[1,9,10,11,12]. Processed on conventional single or twin-screw ABS. Good resistance to abrasion, chemicals and stress ensures a
extruders into pipe, sheet, blow moulded shapes or profiles. long lasting attractive surface finish. Has excellent flow props. [3,
Extruded sheet can be thermoformed 4]
Applications: Uses in automotive exterior applications including Volumetric & Calorimetric Properties:
extruded/thermoformed fascias for large trucks; in refrigerator Density:
doors, luggage and as tank liners. Other uses in large structural
components in transportation and pipes. Industrial uses include No. Value Note
protective covers
1 d 1.2 g/cm3 ISO 1183 [6]
4
Thermal Expansion Coefficient: Tensile (Young’s) Modulus:

1 910-5 0.0001 K-1 DIN 53732, 23 558, L 1 2050 2600 MPa 1 mm (min)-1, ISO 527 [4, 5]
ASTM E831 [4, 6]
Flexural Modulus:
Thermal Conductivity:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note
1 1950 2400 MPa 2 mm (min)-1, ISO 178 [5, 6]
1 0.19 W/mK DIN 52612 [4]
Tensile Strength Break:
Melting Temperature:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note
1 6 9 MPa ISO 527 [4,7]
1 200 2308C [4, 5]
Glass-Transition Temperature:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note
1 896 1448 MPa ASTM D695 [8]
1 110 1258C [3]
Tensile Strength Yield:
Deflection Temperature:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note
1 37 46 MPa 50 mm (min)-1, ISO 527 [5,6]
1 71 928C 1.8 MPa, 808, 4h, ISO 75 [4, 5, 6]
2 908C 0.45 MPa, 808, 4h, ISO 75 [4, 5, 6] Flexural Strength Yield:
Vicat Softening Point: No. Value Note

1 55 68 MPa 5 mm (min)-1, ISO 178 [5,6]
No. Value Note
1 84 968C 50N, 508 h-1, ISO 306B [4, 5] Compressive Strength:
No. Value Note

Surface Properties & Solubility: 1 45 52 MPa ASTM D695 [8]
Solvents/Non-solvents: Sol. polar solvents, esters, ketones, chlori-
nated hydrocarbons [8]
Viscoelastic Behaviour: Stress-strain behaviour, creep, stress
Transport Properties: relaxation and fatigue in ABS materials have been reported [10]
Transport Properties General: ABS exhibits viscoelastic behaviour Hardness: Ball indentation hardness 110 N mm-2 (ISO 2039-1) [6].
in the melt solid state. Exhibits non-Newtonian behaviour, by the Rockwell R90-R107 (ASTM D785) [8]
decrease in viscosity resulting from an increase in shear rate [2] Friction Abrasion and Resistance: Has good abrasion resistance [4]
Melt Flow Index: Izod Area:
No. Value Note No. Value Notch Note
1 15 48 g/10 min 2208, 10 kg, ISO 1133 [4, 6] 1 2
7 15 kJ/m Notched 238, ISO 180-1A [4]
2 5 8 kJ/m2 Notched -308, ISO 180-1A [4,6]
Polymer Melts: Viscoelastic functions, in terms of storage shear
modulus and loss shear modulus as a function of angular
frequency and shear stress as a function of shear rate, depend
strongly on grafting degree in the long-time region accociated with Electrical Properties:
particle-particle interactions. As the grafting degree increases, the Electrical Properties General: Electrical props. are fairly constant
viscoelastic functions first decrease and then increase. The minima over a wide range of frequencies and are unaffected by temp. or
in the functions occurs at the grafting degree of about 0.45 for humidity [2]
ABS having rubber particle size of 170 nm [9] Surface/Volume Resistance:
Water Absorption:
No. Value Note Type
No. Value Note 15
1 110 V.cm min., IEC 93 [4] S
1 0.2 0.4 % 24h, 238, DIN 53495 [4, 7]
Dielectric Permittivity (constant):
Mechanical Properties: No. Value Frequency Note

Mechanical Properties General: High impact resistance over a
wide temp. range down to -408 1 2.8 3.2 50 Hz IEC 250 [4, 5]
2 2.7 3.1 1 MHz IEC 250 [4, 5]
5
Dielectric Strength: Applications/Commercial Products:

Processing & Manufacturing Routes: Produced by grafting styrene
No. Value Note and acrylonitrile directly upon the polybutadiene latex in a batch
or continuous emulsion polymerisation process. The degree of
1 24 25 kV.mm-1 IEC 243-1 [4, 6]
diene, monomer concentration, extent of conversion, temp. and
Arc Resistance: mercaptan concentration. The emulsion polymerisation process
involves two steps; production of a rubber latex and subsequent
No. Value Note polymerisation of styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of the
rubber latex to produce an ABS latex. This latex is then processed
1 50 90s [2] to isolate the ABS resin. The polymerisation ingredients include
the monomers, an emulsifier, a polymerisation initiator and,
Dissipation (Power) Factor: usually, a chain transfer agent for MW control. [1,11,12,13,14].
Processed on standard reciprocating-screw injection moulding
machines. Processing characteristics are short cycle time and low
energy consumption giving an excellent price/performance ratio.
1 0.005 50 Hz IEC 250 [4, 5] Processing temps. must be minimised when moulding with flame-
retardant grades due to the nature of the self-extinguishing
2 0.004 0.011 1 MHz IEC 250 [4, 5] mechanism. This is based on the thermal decomposition of
additives. As they decompose, these additives release large
volumes of flame-suppressant gases. A high processing temp.,
Optical Properties: which may trigger the gas release, must be avoided. Melt temp.
Volume Properties/Surface Properties: Supplied in either standard must never exceed 2508. Drying at 80 858 (2 4h) is required prior
or custom colours, or as natural pellet for colouring [4]. An to use in moulding machines [4, 5]. Recommended melt temp.
extensive range of colours is available [6] 200 2308 [4, 6]. Recommended mould temp. 40 708
[4, 6]. Injection velocity 240 mm s-1 (ISO 294) [6]
Polymer Stability: Mould Shrinkage (%):
Polymer Stability General: Offers very good dimensional stability
and chemical resistance. Undergoes autooxidation resulting in
embrittlement of the rubber. Liable to photooxidative degradation No. Value Note
[2, 8] 1 0.4 0.7% ASTM D955 [5]
Thermal Stability General: Has a relatively flat stress-temp.
response due to its amorph. character. The change in tensile,
compressive and flexural props. is small up to 808. Props. retained Applications: Transformer housings, switches, personal computer
at low temps. [2, 8] housings, television cabinets, oven doors, electric tool housings,
Upper Use Temperature: institutional furniture and shelving, air conditioner housings,
carpet cleaner housings, smoke detectors [6, 7]
No. Value Note
Trade name Details Supplier
1 708C [7]
Ashlene Ashley Polymers
2 50 808C [7, 8]
Comalloy ABS ComAlloy International
Decomposition Details: Thermal decomposition of the fire Cycolac CKM1, CKM2 General Electric Plastics
retardant additives can occur at temps. in excess of 2408 or during Cycolac K25, KJL General Electric Plastics
long residence times. In addition to the constituent monomers,
antimony compounds, brominated hydrocarbons and hydrogen GPC Delta D-1000 H Simex International
bromide might also be released [4] Lastilac LATI Industria
Flammability: Flammability rating V0 (1.57 3.2 mm thick, Thermoplastics S.p.A.
UL 94) [4, 6]; 5VA (2.5 3.2 mm thick, UL 94) [4, 6]. Glow wire
test, wire applied during 30 seconds, extinguishing time 5 5 s Lustran Bayer Inc.
(1.5 3.2 mm, 9608, IEC 695-2-1/1) [4]. Limiting oxygen index 27 Lustran ABS 911, 914HM Monsanto Chemical
30% (ASTM D2863, ISO4589 IV) [4, 6]
Environmental Stress: Resistance to weathering and Uv is poor Magnum Dow
unless protected. Undergoes stress cracking when in contact with Novodur L3FR, M3FR Bayer Inc.
certain chemical agents under stress. ABS polymeric components
differ in oxidative stability. The rubber phase in ABS oxidises Novodur Bayer Inc.
more rapidly than the rigid component. Oxidation of polybuta- RESIN RX1-550FR Resin Exchange
diene results in embrittlement of the rubber [2]. May discolour in
sunlight [2, 8] RXI-500 Resin Exchange
Chemical Stability: Undergoes stress cracking when in contact Ronfalin DSM
with certain chemical agents. Resistant to mineral and vegetable
oils, waxes and related household and commercial materials. High Sinkral PDFRI-UV Enichem America
resistance to staining agents in household applications. Attacked Starflam ABS Ferro Corporation
by conc. nitric acid, sulfuric acid. Unaffected by weak acids, weak
and strong bases up to 658. Poor resistance to most organic Terluran BASF
solvents [2,8]
Thermofil ABS Thermofil
Biological Stability: Is biologically inert [4]
Recyclability: Can be recycled. The scrap should be clean, Toyolac Toray
uncontaminated, and free from degradation. Normally the
VP II Diamond Polymers
content of the reground material should not exceed 20 25 % [4]
Stability Miscellaneous: Sufficiently stable during processing
provided that processing temp. is kept as low as conveniently
possible and residence times are kept to an absolute minimum [4]
6
ABS General purpose A-5 A-5
Bibliographic References Melting Temperature:

[1] Kirk-Othmer Encycl. Chem. Technol., Vol. 1, 4th edn., (eds. J.I.
Kroschwitz and M. Howe-Grant), Wiley Interscience, 1993, 391 No. Value Note
[2] Encycl. Polym. Sci. Eng., Vol. 1, 2nd. edn., (ed. J.I. Kroschwitz), John
Wiley and Sons, 1985, 388 1 220 2608C [5, 6]
[3] Guide to Plastics, Property and Specification Charts, McGraw-Hill,
1994, 70, 12
[4] DSM Polymers, Edition 01/95, (technical datasheet) Glass-Transition Temperature:
[5] Cycolac ABS Resins, GE Plastics, (technical datasheet)
[6] Lustran ABS, Novadur ABS, Application Technology Information,
No. Value Note
Bayer, 1997, (technical datasheets)
[7] The Plastics Compendium, Key Properties and Sources, Vol. 1, (ed. R. 1 1008C [7]
Dolbey), RAPRA, 1995, 1
[8] Handb. Plast. Elastomers, (ed. C.A. Harper), McGraw-Hill, 1975
[9] Aoki, Y., Macromolecules, 1987, 20, 2208, (dynamic viscoelastic props) Deflection Temperature:
[10] Pillichody, C.T. and Kelley, P.D., Handb. Plast. Elastomers, (ed. I.I.
Rubin), John Wiley and Sons, 1990, (stress-strain behaviour, creep,
stress relaxation and fatigue)
No. Value Note
[11] Hayes, R.A. and Futamura, S., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 1981, 1 89 958C 1.8 MPa, 808, 4 h, ISO 75
19, 985
[12] Brydon, A., Burnett, G.M. and Cameron, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. 2 94 968C 0.45 MPa, 808, 4 h, ISO 75 [4, 6]
Chem. Ed., 1974, 12, 1011
[13] Allen, P.W., Ayrey, G. and Moore, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., 1959, 36, 55 3 95 1008C [7]
[14] Odian, G., Principles of Polymerization, McGraw-Hill, 1970
A-5 Vicat Softening Point:
ABS General purpose A-5
Synonyms: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer. Acryloni- No. Value Note
trile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer. Poly(2-propenenitrile-co-1,3- 1 93 1008C 49 N, 508 h-1, ISO 306/B50 [4]
Related Polymers: ABS
Monomers: Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene, Styrene Surface Properties & Solubility:
Material class: Thermoplastic, Copolymers Solvents/Non-solvents: Sol. polar solvents, esters, ketones, chlori-
Polymer Type: ABS nated hydrocarbons [8]
CAS Number:
CAS Reg. No. Transport Properties General: ABS Exhibits viscoelastic behaviour
in the melt and solid state. Exhibits non-Newtonian behaviour, by
9003-56-9 the decrease in viscosity resulting from an increase in shear rate [2]
Melt Flow Index:
No. Value Note

Molecular Formula: [(C8H8)(C4H6)(C3H3N)]n
Fragments: C8H8 C4H6 C3H3N 1 9 45 g/10 min 2208, 10 kg, ISO 1133 [5, 6]
General Information: Thermoplastic amorph. polymer that
combines high performance with design versatility and easy
Polymer Melts: Viscoelastic functions, in terms of storage shear
processability. Offers a combination of good mechanical props.
modulus and loss shear modulus as a function of angular
and heat resistance. Excellent stiffness, flow characteristics and
frequency and shear stress as a function of shear rate, depend
dimensional stability enable the production of consistent mould-
strongly on grafting degree in the long-time region associated with
ings. Good resistance to abrasion, chemicals and stress ensure a
particle-particle interactions. As the grafting degree increases the
long-lasting attractive surface finish
viscoelastic functions first decrease and then increase. The minima
Volumetric & Calorimetric Properties: in the functions occurs at the grafting degree of about 0.45 for
Density: ABS having rubber particle size of 170 nm [15]
Permeability and Diffusion General: Permeability decreases with
No. Value Note increasing acrylonitrile content
Water Absorption:
1 d 1.05 g/cm3 ISO 1183 [5, 6]
No. Value Note
Thermal Expansion Coefficient: 1 0.2 0.45 % 1.8" thick, 24h, ASTM D570 [8]
No. Value Note Type

Gas Permeability:
-5 -5 -1
1 8.410 9.610 K DIN 53752 [4, 6] L
No. Gas Value
Thermal Conductivity: 1 O2 79 102 cm3 mm/(m2 day atm)
No. Value Note 2 N2 9.8 13.8 cm3 mm/(m2 day atm)
1 0.2 W/mK DIN 52612 [4] 3 CO2 3.54 4.72 cm3 mm/(m2 day atm)
Specific Heat Capacity: Mechanical Properties:

Mechanical Properties General: High impact resistance over a
wide temp. range down to -408. Excellent toughness and rigidity.
No. Value Note Type
Deforms in a ductile manner over a broad temp. range and at high
1 1.3 kJ/kg.C [7] P strain rates. [2, 4] Elongation at break 13 26 % (50 mm min-1,
ISO 527) [4]
7
ABS General purpose A-5 A-5
Tensile (Young’s) Modulus: Surface/Volume Resistance:
No. Value Note No. Value Note Type

1 2000 2700 MPa 1 mm min-1, ISO 527 [4, 6] 1 11015 V.cm min., IEC 93 [4] S
Flexural Modulus: Dielectric Permittivity (constant):
No. Value Note No. Value Frequency Note

1 2400 2600 MPa ISO 178 [5, 6] 1 3 50 Hz IEC 250 [4, 6]
2 2.9 3 1 MHz IEC 250 [4, 6]
Dielectric Strength:
No. Value Note
1 13 26 MPa 50 mm min-1, ISO 527 [4] No. Value Note
-1
1 25 33 kV.mm IEC 243-1 [4, 6]
Arc Resistance:
No. Value Note
1 830 1380 MPa ASTM D695 [8] No. Value Note
1 50 90s [2]
No. Value Note
-1
1 44 50 MPa 50 mm min , ISO 527 [4, 5] No. Value Frequency Note
1 0.004 50 Hz IEC 250 [4, 6]
Flexural Strength Yield: 2 0.007 0.008 1 MHz IEC 250 [4, 6]
No. Value Note
1 68 81 MPa ISO 178 [5, 6] Optical Properties:
Transmission and Spectra: Poor Uv resistance unless protected by
the use of stabilizing additives, pigments and proctective coatings
Compressive Strength: and film. Continued exposure to strong Uv causes embrittlement
[2]
No. Value Note Volume Properties/Surface Properties: Gloss, untextured, 90
1 35 76 MPa ASTM D695 [8] (608, ASTM D523) [5]. Supplied in either standard or custom
colours or as a natural pellet for colouring. Available in most
colours [4]. Haze 100 % (ASTM D1003) [8]
Impact Strength: Impact strength is dependent on grafted rubber
content. The ability of the rubber domains to promote craze Polymer Stability:
formation and shear yielding accounts for improved impact props. Polymer Stability General: Offers very good dimensional stability
[1, 2] and chemical resistance. Undergoes autoxidation resulting in
Viscoelastic Behaviour: Stress-strain behaviour, creep, stress embrittlement of the rubber. Liable to photooxidative degradation
relaxation and fatigue have been reported [9] Thermal Stability General: Has a relatively flat stress-temp.
Hardness: Rockwell R110 (ISO 2039/2) [5]. Ball indentation response due to its amorph. character. The change in tensile,
hardness 105 120 N mm-2 (ISO 2039-1) [6] compressive and flexural props. is small up to 808 [2]
Fracture Mechanical Properties: Shear strength 28 MPa [7] Upper Use Temperature:
Friction Abrasion and Resistance: Exhibits good abrasion resis-
tance. Coefficient of friction 0.30-0.35 No. Value Note
Izod Area:
1 75 858C [7]
No. Value Notch Note
Flammability: Flammability rating HB (1.6 mm thick, UL94) [4].
1 10 28 kJ/m2 Notched 238, ISO 180/1A, samples dry as Limiting oxygen index 18% (ISO 4589, IV) [4]. Glow wire test,
moulded/accelerated conditioning wire applied during 30 seconds extinguishing time 5 s (max., 2 mm
according to ISO 1110, 708, thick, 6508, IES 695-2-1/1) [4]
63% humidity [4,6] Environmental Stress: Has poor Uv resistance unless protected by
2 4 20 kJ/m2 Notched -308, ISO 180/1A samples dry as the use of stabilising additives, pigments and protective coatings
moulded/accelerated conditioning and film. Continued exposure to strong uv radiation causes
according to ISO 1110, 708, embrittlement. [2] Poor weather resistance unless protected. ABS
63% humidity[4,6] polymeric components differ in oxidative stability. The rubber
phase in ABS oxidises more rapidly than the rigid component.
Oxidation of polybutadiene results in embrittlement of the rubber
Electrical Properties: [2]. May show slight yellow discoloration in sunlight [2, 8]
Electrical Properties General: Exhibits electrical props. that are Chemical Stability: Undergoes stress cracking when in contact
fairly constant over a wide range of frequencies and are unaffected with certain chemical agents. Resistant to mineral and vegetable
by temp. or humidity [2] oils, waxes and related household and commercial materials. High
resistance to staining agents in household applications. Attacked
8
ABS, Glass fibre reinforced ABS, Heat Resistant A-6 A-7
by concentrated nitric acid, sulfuric acid; unaffected by weak Bibliographic References

acids, weak and strong bases. Poor resistance to most organic [1] Kirk-Othmer Encycl. Chem. Technol., 4th edn. (eds. J.I. Kroschwitz and
solvents. Commercial grades may contain Uv absorbers [2, 8] M. Howe-Grant), Wiley Interscience, 1993, 391
Biological Stability: Is biologically inert [4] [2] Encycl. Polym. Sci. Eng., 2nd edn., (ed. J.I. Kroschwitz), John Wiley
Recyclability: Can be recycled. The scrap should be clean, and Sons, 1985, 388
uncontaminated and free from degradation. Normally the content [3] Ulrich, H., Introduction to Industrial Polymers, Hanser, 1982
[4] DSM Polymers, Edition 01/95, (technical datasheet)
of the reground material should not exceed 20 to 25% [9] [5] Cycolac ABS Resins, GE Plastics, (technical datasheet)
Stability Miscellaneous: Processing conditions can influence [6] Lustran ABS, Novadur ABS, Application Technology Information,
resultant props. by chemical and physical means. Degradation of Bayer, 1997, (technical datasheet)
the rubber and matrix phases occurs under very severe conditions. [7] Daniels, C.A., Polymers: Structure and Properties, Technomic, 1989
Morphological changes can be evident during injection moulding [8] Handb. Plast. Elastomers, (ed. C.A. Harper), McGraw-Hill, 1975
(at higher temps.) as agglomeration of dispersed rubber particles. [9] Pillachody, C.T. and Kelly, P.D., Handbook of Plastic Materials and
Physical effects such as orientation and moulded-in stress affect Technology, (ed. I.I. Rubin), John Wiley and Sons, 1990, C3, (stress-
mech. props. [10] strain behaviour, creep, stress relaxation, fatigue)
[10] Casale, A. and Salvatore, O., Polym. Eng. Sci., 1975, 15, 286
Applications/Commercial Products: [11] Hayes, R.A. and Futamura, S., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 1981,
Processing & Manufacturing Routes: Made by grafting styrene and 19, 985
[12] Brydon, A., Burnett, G.M. and Cameron, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., Polym.
acrylonitrile directly on to the polybutadiene latex in a batch or Chem. Ed., 1974, 12, 1011
continuous emulsion polymerisation process. Grafting is achieved [13] Allen, P.W., Ayrey, G. and Moore, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., 1959, 36, 55
by the free-radical copolymerisation of styrene and acrylonitrile [14] Odian, G., Principles of Polymerization, McGraw-Hill, 1970
monomers in the presence of polybutadiene. The degree of [15] Aoki, Y., Macromolecules, 1987, 20, 2208, (dynamic viscoelastic
grafting is a function of the 1,2-vinyl content of the polybuta- steady-flow props)
diene, monomer concentration, extent of conversion, temp. and A-6
mercaptan concentration. The emulsion polymerisation process
involves two steps; production of a rubber latex and subsequent ABS, Glass fibre reinforced A-6
polymerisation of styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of the Synonyms: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, Glass fibre reinforced
rubber latex to produce an ABS latex. This latex is then processed Related Polymers: ABS
to isolate the ABS resin. The polymerisation ingredients include Monomers: Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene, Styrene
the monomers, an emulsifier, a polymerisation initiator and, Material class: Thermoplastic, Copolymers
usually, a chain transfer agent for MW control [1,11,12,13,14]. Polymer Type: ABS
Processed on standard reciprocating-screw injection moulding
machines. ABS is slightly hygroscopic and requires drying prior to Applications/Commercial Products:
use in moulding machines. Drying temp./time 80 958 (2 4h) [4,5].
Recommended melt temp. 220 2608 [4,5,6]. Recommended Trade name Supplier
mould temp. 40 708 [4,5,6,]. Injection velocity 240 mm s-1 (ISO ABS-G1FG-2 Washington Penn
294) [6] The superior flow props. of ABS mean that large products
can be moulded with thinner walls - giving savings in product AS-10GF Compounding Technology
weight and shorter cycle times. Low energy consumption and Novodor PTGV Bayer Inc.
short cycle times give an excellent price/performance ratio [4]
Applications: Housings for electrical domestic appliances, tele- RTP 601 RTP Company
communications equipment, audio and video equipment and Styvex Ferro Corporation
business machines. Automotive interior and exterior components
such as instrument panels, consoles, radiator grilles and headlight Thermocomp AF LNP Engineering
housings. Electrical powered tools and garden equipment. Other
uses in furniture, toys, leisure articles
A-7
Trade name Details Supplier ABS, Heat Resistant A-7
ABS Diamond Polymers Synonyms: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer. Acryloni-
ABS 101 John Gibson (Plastics) Ltd. butadiene-co-ethenylbenzene)
Abson A.B.S. 230, 300, 500 BF Goodrich Chemical Related Polymers: ABS
Monomers: Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene, Styrene, a-Methylstyrene
Cyclolac various grades General Electric Plastics Material class: Thermoplastic, Copolymers
JSR-21 Japan Synthetic Polymer Type: ABS
CAS Number:
Lubricomp A Filled and unfilled LNP Engineering
grades CAS Reg. No.
Lucky ABS HF-350, HF-380 Standard Polymers 9003-56-9
Lustran ABS 248, 448, PG-298, Monsanto Chemical
PG-299
Magnum Dow Molecular Formula: [(C8H8)(C4H6)(C3H3N)(C9H10)]n
Magnum 541 graft Dow Fragments: C8H8 C4H6 C3H3N C9H10
Additives: a-Methylstyrene
Novodur Bayer Inc. General Information: An amorph. thermoplastic that combines
Ronfalin various grades DSM (UK) Ltd. high performance with design versatility and easy processability.
Addition of a-methylstyrene gives a heat distortion temp. higher
Sinkral A112, A123, B133P, Enichem America than that of conventional grades of ABS. Good resistance to
B423 abrasion, chemicals and stress ensures a long lasting attractive
Thermocomp LNP Engineering surface finish. [2,3,4,5]
A-1000
Urtal Montedison
9
ABS, Heat Resistant A-7 A-7
Volumetric & Calorimetric Properties: region associated with particle-particle interactions. As the
Density: grafting degree increases the viscoelastic functions first decrease
and then increase. The minima in the functions occurs at the
No. Value Note grafting degree of about 0.45 for ABS having rubber particles of
3
170 nm [16]
1 d 1.06 g/cm ISO 1183 [5] Water Absorption:
Thermal Expansion Coefficient: No. Value Note

1 0.2 0.45 % 238, 24h, DIN 53495 [4,8]
No. Value Note Type
-5 -5 -1
1 7.810 9.110 K DIN 53752, L
ASTM E831 [4,5] Mechanical Properties:
Mechanical Properties General: Has high impact resistance over a
wide temp. range down to -408. Has good toughness and rigidity
Thermal Conductivity: and high yield strength. Can deform in a ductile manner over a
broad temp. range and at high strain rates [2,5]. Its creep
No. Value Note resistance is higher than that of other grades of ABS. Little change
1 0.2 W/mK DIN 52612 [4] in tensile, compressive and flexural props. below 808 [2,7]

Specific Heat Capacity:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note Type
1 2400 3000 MPa 1 mm min-1, ISO 527 [4,5]
1 1.3 1.7 kJ/kg.C [7] P
Flexural Modulus:
Melting Temperature:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note
1 2500 2800 MPa 2 mm min-1, ISO 178 [5]
1 2408C [4,5]

No. Value Note Elongation
No. Value Note -1
1 15 23 MPa 5 mm min , Elongation at break
1 110 1258C [15] ISO 527 [4,5]
Deflection Temperature: Compressive Modulus:

1 94 1028C 808, 1.8 MPa, 4h, ISO 75 1 1310 1650 MPa ASTM D695 [7]
2 105 1088C 808, 0.45 MPa, 4h, ISO 75 [4,5]
Elastic Modulus:
Vicat Softening Point:
No. Value Note
No. Value Note 1 950 MPa ISO 537 [8]
1 100 1158C 50 K h-1, 50N, ISO 306 [4,5]
Surface Properties & Solubility: No. Value Elongation

Solvents/Non-solvents: Sol. polar solvents, esters, ketones and
some chlorinated hydrocarbons [7] 1 44 48 MPa 50 mm min-1, ISO 527 [4]
Transport Properties General: Exhibits viscoelastic behaviour in Flexural Strength Yield:
both the melt and solid states. Like other thermoplastics, it may be
described as exhibiting non-Newtonian behaviour; viscosity No. Value Note
decreases due to increasing shear rate 1 75 85 MPa 5 mm min-1, ISO 178 [5]
Melt Flow Index:
No. Value Note Compressive Strength:

1 2 18 g/10 min 2208, 10 kg, ISO 1133 [5]
No. Value Note
1 50 69 MPa ASTM D695 [7]
Polymer Melts: Storage shear modulus and loss shear modulus as
a function of angular frequency, and shear stress as a function of
shear rate depend strongly on grafting degree in the long-time
10
ABS, Heat Resistant A-7 A-7
Miscellaneous Moduli: Upper Use Temperature:

1 2400 2500 MPa 1h, ISO 899-1 tensile creep 1 80 1108C [7]
modulus
2 1900 MPa 1000h, ISO 899-1 [5] Flammability: Flammability rating HB (1.6 mm, UL94) [4].
Oxygen index 18% (ISO 4589, specimen IV) [4]. Glow wire test,
extinguishing time 55 (min), extinguishing temp. 6508 (30s
Viscoelastic Behaviour: Stress-strain behaviour, creep, stress
application, 2 mm thick, IES 695-2-1/1) [4]
relaxation and fatigue have been reported [14]
Environmental Stress: Has poor weather and uv resistance unless
Hardness: Ball indentation 110-120 N mm-2 (ISO 2039-1) [5].
protected. Undergoes stress cracking in contact with certain
Rockwell R100 R115 (ASTM D785) [7]
chemicals. The rubber phase in ABS oxidises more rapidly than
Friction Abrasion and Resistance: Has good abrasion resistance [4]
the rigid component. Oxidation of polybutadiene results in
Izod Area:
embrittlement of the rubber. Yellows slightly in sunlight [2,4]
Chemical Stability: Is resistant to hydrocarbon solvents, mineral
No. Value Notch Note and vegetable oils, waxes and related household and commercial
1 12 23 kJ/m2 Notched 238, ISO 180-1A materials. Has high resistance to staining agents in household
applications. Attacked by conc. nitric acid and sulfuric acids.
2 3 10 kJ/m2 Notched -308, ISO 180-1A [4,5] Unaffected by weak acid at room temp. and alkalis below 658.
Poor resistance to most organic solvents [2,7]
Hydrolytic Stability: Stable to solns. of acid, alkaline and neutral
Electrical Properties: salts
Electrical Properties General: Electrical props. are fairly constant Biological Stability: Is biologically inert [4]
over a wide range of frequencies and are unaffected by temp. or Recyclability: Can be recycled. The scrap should be clean,
humidity [2] uncontaminated, and free from degradation. Normally the
Surface/Volume Resistance: content of the reground material should not exceed 20-25% [4]
Stability Miscellaneous: Processing conditions can influence
No. Value Note Type resultant props. by chemical and physical means. Degradation of
15 the rubber and matrix phases occurs under very severe conditions.
1 0.1 110 V.cm IEC 93 [5] S Evidence of morphological changes is shown by agglomeration of
dispersed rubber particles during injection-moulding at higher
Dielectric Permittivity (constant): temps. Physical effects such as orientation and moulded-in stress
can affect mechanical props. [9]
No. Value Frequency Note Applications/Commercial Products:
1 2.7 3 100 Hz Processing & Manufacturing Routes: Prod. by grafting styrene and
acrylonitrile directly on to the polybutadiene latex in a batch or
2 2.7 3.1 1 MHz IEC 250 [5] continuous emulsion polymerisation process. The degree of
Dielectric Strength: diene, the monomer concentration, the extent of conversion, temp.
and mercaptan concentration. The emulsion polymerisation
process involves two steps; (i) production of a rubber latex; (ii)
No. Value Note
subsequent polymerisation of styrene and acrylonitrile in the
1 25 33 kV.mm-1 IEC 243-1 [4,5] presence of the rubber latex to produce an ABS latex. This latex is
then processed to isolate the ABS resin. The polymerisation
ingredients include the monomers, an emulsifier, a polymerisation
Arc Resistance: initiator and usually a chain transfer agent for MW control
[1,10,11,12,13]. a-Methylstyrene is added during the polymerisa-
No. Value Note tion step [15]. Processed on standard reciprocating-screw injec-
1 50 90s [2] tion-moulding machines. Drying is required prior to use in
moulding machines
Mould Shrinkage (%):
No. Value Note
1 0.4 0.7% ISO 2577 [4,5]
1 0.005 0.009 100 Hz
2 0.005 0.008 1 MHz IEC 250 [5] Applications: Used in automotive components (radiator grilles,
airvents and interior trim); in business machine housings; in
domestic appliances (e.g., electric iron handles); in optical
Optical Properties: equipment and in instrument panel sections
Transmission and Spectra: Transmittance 33.3% (ASTM D1003)
[7]. Commercial grades may contain uv absorber Trade name Supplier
Volume Properties/Surface Properties: Haze 100% [7]. Gloss 76
ABS 700 John Gibson (Plastics) Ltd.
87% (measuring angle 208) [5]. May be supplied in either standard
or custom colours or as natural pellet for colouring [4] Ashlene Ashley Polymers
Polymer Stability: Comalloy ABS ComAlloy International
Polymer Stability General: Combines high heat resistance with
Cycolac X-15 General Electric Plastics
dimensional stability at higher temps.
Thermal Stability General: Has a relatively flat stress-temp. Dow ABS Dow
response due to its amorph. character [2,7]
Lastilac LATI Industria Thermoplastics S.p.A.
11
ABS, High impact A-8 A-8
Lucky ABS HR-420 Standard Polymers Thermal Conductivity:

Lustran Bayer Inc.
No. Value Note
Novodur Bayer Inc.
1 0.2 W/mK DIN 52612 [3]
Sinkral Enichem
Terluran BASF Melting Temperature:
Thermofil ABS Thermofil
No. Value Note
Toyolac Toray Industries
1 230 2708C [3,5]
Bibliographic References
[1] Kirk-Othmer Encycl. Chem. Technol., Vol. 1, 4th edn., (ed.
J.I.Kroschwitz), Wiley Interscience, 1991, 391 No. Value Note
[2] Encycl. Polym. Sci. Eng., Vol. 1, 2nd edn. (ed. J.I. Kroschwitz), John 1 91 1108C [14]
Wiley & Sons, 1985, 388
[3] Brydson, J.A., Plast. Mater., 5th edn., Butterworths, 1988
[4] DSM Polymers, DSM, 1995, (technical datasheet) Deflection Temperature:
[5] Lustran ABS, Novadur ABS, Application Technology Information,
Bayer, 1997, (technical datasheet)
[6] The Plastics Compendium, Key Properties and Sources, (ed. R. No. Value Note
Dolbey), Rapra Technology Ltd., 1995, 1 1 89 1018C 120 K h-1, 1.8 MPa, ISO 75/A [3,4]
[7] Harper, C.A., Handb. Plast. Elastomers, (ed. C.A. Harper), McGraw-
Hill, 1975 2 988C 0.45 MPa [5]
[8] Terluran, BASF Plastics, (technical datasheet)
[9] Casale, A. and Salvatore, O., Polym. Eng. Sci., 1975, 15, 286
[10] Hayes, R.A. and Futamura, S., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 1981, Vicat Softening Point:
19, 985
[11] Brydon, A., Burnett, G.M. and Cameron, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. No. Value Note
Chem. Ed., 1974, 12, 1011
[12] Allen, P.W., Ayrey, G. and Moore, C.G., J. Polym. Sci., 1959, 36, 55 1 91 1008C 50 K h-1, 50 N, ISO 306B [3,4]
[13] Odian, G., Principles of Polymerization, McGraw-Hill, 1970
[14] Pillichody, C.T. and Kelley, P.D., Handbook of Plastic Materials and
Technology, (ed. I.I.Rubin), Wiley Interscience, 1990, (stress-strain
behaviour, creep, stress relaxation, fatigue) Surface Properties & Solubility:
[15] Guide to Plastics, Property and Specification Charts, (ed W.A. Kaplan) Solvents/Non-solvents: Sol. polar solvents, esters, ketones and
McGraw-Hill, 1991, 68, 11 some chlorinated hydrocarbons [6]
[16] Aoki, Y., Macromolecules, 1987, 20, 2208, (dynamic viscoelastic and
steady-flow props) Transport Properties:
Transport Properties General: Exhibits viscoelastic behaviour in
A-8 both the melt state and the solid state. Like other thermoplastics,
ABS, High impact A-8 it may be described as exhibiting non-Newtonian behaviour;
Synonyms: Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer. Acryloni- viscosity decreases due to increasing shear rate [2]
trile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer. Poly(2-propenenitrile-co-1,3- Melt Flow Index:
Related Polymers: ABS No. Value Note
Monomers: Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene, Styrene 1 4.5 17 g/10 min 2208, 10 kg, ISO 1133 [3,4]
Material class: Thermoplastic, Copolymers
Polymer Type: ABS
CAS Number: Polymer Melts: Storage shear modulus and loss shear modulus as
a function of angular frequency, and shear stress as a function of
CAS Reg. No. shear rate depend strongly on grafting degree in the long-time
region associated with particle-particle interactions. As the
9003-56-9 grafting degree increases, the viscoelastic functions first decrease
and then increase. The minima in these functions occurs at the
Molecular Formula: [(C8H8)(C4H6)(C3H3N)]n grafting degree of about 0.45 for ABS having a rubber particle size
Fragments: C8H8 C4H6 C3H3N of 170 nm [8]
General Information: An amorph. thermoplastic that combines Water Absorption:
high performance with design versatility and easy processability
No. Value Note
Volumetric & Calorimetric Properties:
Density: 1 0.2 0.3 % 238, 24h, DIN 53495 [3,5]
No. Value Note Mechanical Properties:

1 d 1.03 g/cm3 ISO 1183 [3] Mechanical Properties General: Has high impact resistance over a
wide temp. range down to -408. Has very good rigidity, high yield
strength and a higher notched Izod impact strength than other
Thermal Expansion Coefficient: types of ABS [3,5]. The change in tensile, compressive and flexural
props. is small below 808
No. Value Note Type
1 9.510-5 0.00011 K-1 ASTM D696, L
DIN 53732 [1,3] No. Value Note
1 1900 2250 MPa 1mm min-1, ISO 527 [4,7]
12
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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eTextbook 978-0849339400 Polymers: A

Property Database, Second Edition

Structural Formulae Elastic Modulus

A. IMPORTANCE OF POLYMER PROPERTIES

API American Petroleum Institute

*Global federation of national standards bodies representing 100 countries

American Polymer Standards Corp. USA

Table 3. Basic polymer information

Property measured Remarks

CAS registration number

Table 4. Colligative polymer properties

Property measured Remarks

Freezing point depression MW dependent

Table 5. Volumetric properties

Property measured Remarks

Specific volume (reciprocal of specific density) Depends on polymer state

Property measured Remarks

Table 7. Cohesive properties and solubilities

Property measured Remarks

Table 8. Dilute solution properties

Property measured Remarks

Table 9. Transport properties

Property measured Remarks

Melt viscosity Depends on molecular weight and chain entanglement

Property measured Remarks

Table 11. Electrical and magnetic properties

Property measured Remarks

Table 12. Optical properties

Property measured Remarks

Property measured Remarks

Accelerated aging studies

POLYMERS: A PROPERTY DATABASE ON THE WEB

CAS Reg. No. Tensile (Young’s) Modulus:

9003-56-9 No. Value Note

Molecular Formula: [(C8H8)(C4H6)(C3H3N)]n

No. Value Note No. Value Note

Thermal Expansion Coefficient: Flexural Strength Yield:

No. Value Note Type No. Value Note

Melting Temperature: Compressive Strength:

No. Value Note No. Value Note

Izod Notch: Bibliographic References

Trade name Supplier Glass-Transition Temperature:

Deflection Temperature: Tensile Strength Yield:

No. Value Note No. Value Note

Surface Properties & Solubility: No. Value Note

No. Value Note

No. Value Note Electrical Properties:

No. Value Note

Dissipation (Power) Factor:

Applications/Commercial Products: CAS Reg. No.

Thermal Expansion Coefficient: Tensile (Young’s) Modulus:

No. Value Note Type No. Value Note

Vicat Softening Point: No. Value Note

No. Value Note

Mechanical Properties: No. Value Frequency Note

Dielectric Strength: Applications/Commercial Products:

Bibliographic References Melting Temperature:

No. Value Note

No. Value Note Type

No. Value Note 2 N2 9.8 13.8 cm3 mm/(m2 day atm)

Specific Heat Capacity: Mechanical Properties:

Tensile (Young’s) Modulus: Surface/Volume Resistance: