Precalculus (6th Edition ) 6th Edition

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 Contents v

5 Analytic
Trigonometry 649 8 Matrices
and Determinants 881
5.1 Verifying Trigonometric Identities 650 8.1 Matrix Solutions to Linear Systems 882
5.2 Sum and Difference Formulas 661 8.2 Inconsistent and Dependent Systems
5.3 Double-Angle, Power-Reducing, and Their Applications 896
and Half-Angle Formulas 672 8.3 Matrix Operations and Their Applications 905
Mid-Chapter Check Point 683 Mid-Chapter Check Point 920
5.4 Product-to-Sum and Sum-to-Product Formulas 684 8.4 Multiplicative Inverses of Matrices
5.5 Trigonometric Equations 693 and Matrix Equations 921

Summary, Review, and Test 706 8.5 Determinants and Cramer’s Rule 935

Review Exercises 707 Summary, Review, and Test 948

Chapter 5 Test 709 Review Exercises 949

Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–5) 709 Chapter 8 Test 951

Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–8) 952

6 Additional Topics
in Trigonometry 711
6.1 The Law of Sines 712
6.2 The Law of Cosines 724
6.3 Polar Coordinates 733
6.4 Graphs of Polar Equations 745
Mid-Chapter Check Point 756
6.5 Complex Numbers in Polar Form;
DeMoivre’s Theorem 757
6.6 Vectors 770
6.7 The Dot Product 785
Summary, Review, and Test 795
Review Exercises 798
Chapter 6 Test 800
Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–6) 801

7 Systems of Equations
and Inequalities 803
7.1 Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables 804
7.2 Systems of Linear Equations in Three Variables 824
7.3 Partial Fractions 832
7.4 Systems of Nonlinear Equations in Two Variables 843
Mid-Chapter Check Point 853
7.5 Systems of Inequalities 854
7.6 Linear Programming 866
Summary, Review, and Test 874
Review Exercises 876
Chapter 7 Test 879
Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–7) 879
vi Contents

9 Conic Sections Mid-Chapter Check Point 1077

and Analytic Geometry 953 10.4 Mathematical Induction 1078

10.5 The Binomial Theorem 1087
9.1 The Ellipse 954
10.6 Counting Principles, Permutations,
9.2 The Hyperbola 969
and Combinations 1095
9.3 The Parabola 985
10.7 Probability 1106
Mid-Chapter Check Point 999
Summary, Review, and Test 1121
9.4 Rotation of Axes 1001
Review Exercises 1124
9.5 Parametric Equations 1012
Chapter 10 Test 1126
9.6 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 1022
Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–10) 1127
Summary, Review, and Test 1032

11
Review Exercises 1035 Introduction to
Chapter 9 Test 1037 Calculus 1129
Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–9) 1038
11.1 Finding Limits Using Tables and Graphs 1130

10
11.2 Finding Limits Using Properties of Limits 1142
Sequences, Induction,
11.3 Limits and Continuity 1156
and Probability 1039
Mid-Chapter Check Point 1163
10.1 Sequences and Summation Notation 1040
11.4 Introduction to Derivatives 1164
10.2 Arithmetic Sequences 1051
Summary, Review, and Test 1177
10.3 Geometric Sequences and Series 1062
Review Exercises 1178
Chapter 11 Test 1180
Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters P–11) 1180

Appendix A: Where Did That Come From?

Selected Proofs 1183

Appendix B: The Transition from Precalculus to Calculus 1189

Answers to Selected Exercises AA1
Subject Index I1
Credits C1

I’ve written Precalculus, Sixth Edition, to help diverse
students, with different backgrounds and future goals, to
succeed. The book has three fundamental goals:
1. To help students acquire a solid foundation in algebra
and trigonometry, preparing them for other courses such
as calculus, business calculus, and finite mathematics.
2. To show students how algebra and trigonometry can
model and solve authentic real-world problems.
3. To enable students to develop problem-solving skills, while
fostering critical thinking, within an interesting setting.
One major obstacle in the way of achieving these goals
is the fact that very few students actually read their
textbook. This has been a regular source of frustration
for me and for my colleagues in the classroom. Anecdotal
evidence gathered over years highlights two basic reasons
that students do not take advantage of their textbook:
• “I’ll never use this information.”
• “I can’t follow the explanations.”
I’ve written every page of the Sixth Edition with the
intent of eliminating these two objections. The ideas and
tools I’ve used to do so are described for the student in
“A Brief Guide to Getting the Most from This Book,”
which appears at the front of the book.
How Does Precalculus Differ from
Algebra and Trigonometry?
Precalculus is not simply a condensed version of my
Algebra and Trigonometry book. Precalculus students are
different from algebra and trigonometry students, and this
text reflects those differences. Here are a few examples:
• Algebra and Trigonometry devotes an entire chapter to
linear equations, rational equations, quadratic equations,
radical equations, linear inequalities, and developing
models involving these equations and inequalities.
Precalculus reviews these topics in three sections of the
prerequisites chapter (P.7: Equations; P.8: Modeling with
Equations; P.9: Linear Inequalities and Absolute
Value Inequalities). Functions, the core of any
precalculus course, are then introduced in
Chapter 1.
• Precalculus contains a section on
constructing functions from verbal
descriptions and formulas
(1.10: Modeling with Functions)
that is not included in Algebra and
Trigonometry. Modeling skills are
applied to situations that students
are likely to see in calculus when
solving applied problems involving
maximum or minimum values.
PREFACE
• Precalculus develops trigonometry from the perspective
of the unit circle (4.2: Trigonometric Functions: The Unit
Circle). In Algebra and Trigonometry, trigonometry is
developed using right triangles.
• Precalculus contains a chapter (Chapter 11:
Introduction to Calculus) that takes the student into
calculus with discussions of limits, continuity, and
derivatives. This chapter is not included in Algebra and
Trigonometry.
• Many of the liberal arts applications in Algebra and
Trigonometry are replaced by more scientific or higher
level applications in Precalculus. Some examples:
• Black Holes in Space (P.2: Exponents and Scientific
Notation)
• Average Velocity (1.5: More on Slope)
• Newton’s Law of Cooling (3.5: Exponential Growth
and Decay; Modeling Data)
What’s New in the Sixth Edition?
• New Applications and Real-World Data. The Sixth
Edition contains 63 worked-out examples and exercises
based on new data sets, and 36 examples and exercises
based on data updated from the Fifth Edition. Many of
the new applications involve topics relevant to college
students, including student-loan debt (Chapter P,
Mid-Chapter Check Point, Exercise 42), grade
inflation (Exercise Set P.7, Exercises 137–138),
median earnings, by final degree earned (Exercise
Set P.8, Exercises 3–4), excuses for not meeting
deadlines (Chapter P Summary, Exercise 141),
political orientation of college freshmen (Chapter 1
Summary, Exercise 67), sleep hours of college students
(Exercise Set 7.1, Exercise 86), and the number of
hours college students study per week, by major
(Exercise Set 7.2, Exercises 33–34).
• Brief Reviews. Beginning with Chapter 1, the Brief
Review boxes that appear throughout the book
summarize mathematical skills, many of which are
course prerequisites, that students have learned, but
which many students need to review. This feature
appears whenever a particular skill is first needed and
eliminates the need for you to reteach that skill. For
more detail, students are referred to the appropriate
section and objective in a previous chapter where the
topic is fully developed.
• Achieving Success. The Achieving Success boxes,
appearing at the end of many sections in Chapters P
through 6, offer strategies for persistence and success in
college mathematics courses.
vii
viii Preface
• Retaining the Concepts. Beginning with Chapter 1,
Section 1.2, each Exercise Set contains three or four
review exercises under the header “Retaining the
Concepts.” These exercises are intended for students to
review previously covered objectives in order to improve
their understanding of the topics and to help maintain
their mastery of the material. If students are not certain
how to solve a review exercise, they can turn to the
section and worked example given in parentheses at the
end of each exercise. The Sixth Edition contains 216 new
exercises in the “Retaining the Concepts” category.
• New Blitzer Bonus Videos with Assessment. Many of
the Blitzer Bonus features throughout the textbook
have been turned into animated videos that are
built into the MyMathLab course. These videos help
students make visual connections to algebra and
trigonometry and the world around them. Assignable
exercises have been created within the MyMathLab
course to assess conceptual understanding and mastery.
These videos and exercises can be turned into a media
assignment within the Blitzer MyMathLab course.
• Updated Learning Guide. Organized by the textbook’s
learning objectives, this updated Learning Guide helps
students make the most of their textbook for test
preparation. Projects are now included to give students
an opportunity to discover and reinforce the concepts
in an active learning environment and are ideal for
group work in class.
• Updated Graphing Calculator Screens. All screens
have been updated using the TI-84 Plus C.
What Content and Organizational
Changes Have Been Made to the
Sixth Edition?
• Section P.1 (Algebraic Expressions, Mathematical
Models, and Real Numbers) follows an example on
the cost of attending college (Example 2) with a new
Blitzer Bonus, “Is College Worthwhile?”
• Section P.6 (Rational Expressions) uses the least
common denominator to combine rational expressions
with different denominators, including expressions
having no common factors in their denominators.
• Section P.8 (Modeling with Equations) has new
examples on modelling options for a toll (Example 3)
and dual investments (Example 5).
• Section 1.1 (Graphing and Graphing Utilities)
contains a new example of a graph with more than one
x-intercept (Example 5(d)).
• Section 1.3 (More on Functions and Their Graphs)
contains a new discussion on graphs with three forms
of symmetry (Examples 2 and 3) before presenting
even and odd functions. A new example (Example 4)
addresses identifying even or odd functions from graphs.
• Section 1.4 (Linear Functions and Slope) includes a
new Blitzer Bonus, “Slope and Applauding Together.”
• Section 1.8 (Inverse Functions) replaces an example on
5
finding the inverse of f(x) = + 4 with an example
x
x + 2
on finding the inverse of f(x) = (Example 4),
x - 3
a function with two occurrences of x.
• Section 2.6 (Rational Functions and Their Graphs)
opens with a discussion of college students and video
games. This is revisited in a new example (Example 9,
“Putting the Video-Game Player Inside the Game”)
involving the Oculus Rift, a virtual reality headset that
enables users to experience video games as immersive
three-dimensional environments.
• Section 4.1 (Angles and Radian Measure) has new
examples involving radians expressed in decimal
form, including converting 2.3 radians to degrees
(Example 3(d)) and finding a coterminal angle for a
-10.3 angle (Example 7(d)). Additional Great
Question! features provide hints for locating terminal
sides of angles in standard position.
• Section 4.2 (Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle)
has a new Discovery feature on the use of parentheses
when evaluating trigonometric functions with a
graphing calculator, supported by new calculator screens
throughout the section.
• Chapter 5 opens with a new discussion on trigonometric
functions and music.
• Section 8.1 (Matrix Solutions to Linear Systems) has a
new opening example (Example 1) showing the details
on how to write an augmented matrix.
• Section 9.1 (The Ellipse) includes a new example
(Example 5) showing the details on graphing an ellipse
centered at (h, k) by completing the square.
• Section 9.3 (The Parabola) adds a new objective, moved
from Section 10.4 (Rotation of Axes), on identifying
conics of the form Ax 2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
without completing the square, supported by an example
(Example 7).
• Section 10.2 (Arithmetic Sequences) contains a new
example (Example 3) on writing the general term of an
arithmetic sequence.
• Section 10.7 (Probability) uses the popular lottery games
Powerball (Example 5) and Mega Millions (Exercises
27–30) as applications of probability and combinations.
What Familiar Features Have Been
Retained in the Sixth Edition?
• Learning Objectives. Learning objectives, framed in
the context of a student question (What am I supposed
to learn?), are clearly stated at the beginning of each
section. These objectives help students recognize
and focus on the section’s most important ideas. The
objectives are restated in the margin at their point of use.
• Chapter-Opening and Section-Opening Scenarios.
Every chapter and every section open with a scenario

presenting a unique application of mathematics in
students’ lives outside the classroom. These scenarios
are revisited in the course of the chapter or section in
an example, discussion, or exercise.
• Innovative Applications. A wide variety of interesting
applications, supported by up-to-date, real-world data,
are included in every section.
• Detailed Worked-Out Examples. Each example is titled,
making the purpose of the example clear. Examples
are clearly written and provide students with detailed
step-by-step solutions. No steps are omitted and each step
is thoroughly explained to the right of the mathematics.
• Explanatory Voice Balloons. Voice balloons are
used in a variety of ways to demystify mathematics.
They translate algebraic and trigonometric ideas
into everyday English, help clarify problem-solving
procedures, present alternative ways of understanding
concepts, and connect problem solving to concepts
students have already learned.
• Check Point Examples. Each example is followed
by a similar matched problem, called a Check Point,
offering students the opportunity to test their
understanding of the example by working a similar
exercise. The answers to the Check Points are provided
in the answer section.
• Concept and Vocabulary Checks. This feature offers
short-answer exercises, mainly fill-in-the-blank and
true/false items, that assess students’ understanding
of the definitions and concepts presented in each
section. The Concept and Vocabulary Checks appear as
separate features preceding the Exercise Sets.
• Extensive and Varied Exercise Sets. An abundant
collection of exercises is included in an Exercise Set
at the end of each section. Exercises are organized
within nine category types: Practice Exercises, Practice
Plus Exercises, Application Exercises, Explaining the
Concepts, Technology Exercises, Critical Thinking
Exercises, Group Exercises, Retaining the Concepts,
and Preview Exercises. This format makes it easy to
create well-rounded homework assignments. The order
of the Practice Exercises is exactly the same as the
order of the section’s worked examples. This parallel
order enables students to refer to the titled examples
and their detailed explanations to achieve success
working the Practice Exercises.
• Practice Plus Problems. This category of exercises
contains more challenging practice problems that often
require students to combine several skills or concepts.
With an average of ten Practice Plus problems per
Exercise Set, instructors are provided with the option
of creating assignments that take Practice Exercises to
a more challenging level.
• Mid-Chapter Check Points. At approximately the
midway point in each chapter, an integrated set of
Review Exercises allows students to review and
Preface ix
assimilate the skills and concepts they learned
separately over several sections.
• Graphing and Functions. Graphing and functions are
introduced in Chapter 1, with an integrated graphing
functional approach emphasized throughout the book.
Graphs and functions that model data appear in nearly
every section and Exercise Set. Examples and exercises
use graphs of functions to explore relationships
between data and to provide ways of visualizing a
problem’s solution. Because functions are the core
of this course, students are repeatedly shown how
functions relate to equations and graphs.
• Integration of Technology Using Graphic and
Numerical Approaches to Problems. Side-by-side
features in the technology boxes connect algebraic
and trigonometric solutions to graphic and numerical
approaches to problems. Although the use of graphing
utilities is optional, students can use the explanatory voice
balloons to understand different approaches to problems
even if they are not using a graphing utility in the course.
• Great Question! This feature presents a variety
of study tips in the context of students’ questions.
Answers to questions offer suggestions for problem
solving, point out common errors to avoid, and provide
informal hints and suggestions. As a secondary benefit,
this feature should help students not to feel anxious or
threatened when asking questions in class.
• Chapter Summaries. Each chapter contains a review
chart that summarizes the definitions and concepts in
every section of the chapter. Examples that illustrate
these key concepts are also referenced in the chart.
• End-of-Chapter Materials. A comprehensive collection
of Review Exercises for each of the chapter’s sections
follows the Summary. This is followed by a Chapter Test
that enables students to test their understanding of
the material covered in the chapter. Beginning with
Chapter 2, each chapter concludes with a comprehensive
collection of mixed Cumulative Review Exercises.
• Blitzer Bonuses. These enrichment essays provide
historical, interdisciplinary, and otherwise interesting
connections to the algebra and trigonometry under
study, showing students that math is an interesting and
dynamic discipline.
• Discovery. Discovery boxes, found throughout the
text, encourage students to further explore algebraic
and trigonometric concepts. These explorations are
optional and their omission does not interfere with the
continuity of the topic under consideration.
I hope that my passion for teaching, as well as my respect
for the diversity of students I have taught and learned from
over the years, is apparent throughout this new edition. By
connecting algebra and trigonometry to the whole spectrum
of learning, it is my intent to show students that their world
is profoundly mathematical, and indeed, p is in the sky.
Robert Blitzer
x Preface
Acknowledgments
An enormous benefit of authoring a successful series is
the broad-based feedback I receive from the students,
dedicated users, and reviewers. Every change to this
edition is the result of their thoughtful comments and
suggestions. I would like to express my appreciation
to all the reviewers, whose collective insights form the
backbone of this revision. In particular, I would like to
thank the following people for reviewing College Algebra,
Algebra and Trigonometry, Precalculus, and Trigonometry.
Karol Albus, South Plains College
Kayoko Yates Barnhill, Clark College
Timothy Beaver, Isothermal Community College
Jaromir Becan, University of Texas-San Antonio
Imad Benjelloun, Delaware Valley College
Lloyd Best, Pacific Union College
David Bramlett, Jackson State University
Natasha Brewley-Corbin, Georgia Gwinnett College
Denise Brown, Collin College-Spring Creek Campus
David Britz, Raritan Valley Community College
Mariana Bujac-Leisz, Cameron University
Bill Burgin, Gaston College
Jennifer Cabaniss, Central Texas College
Jimmy Chang, St. Petersburg College
Teresa Chasing Hawk, University of South Dakota
Diana Colt, University of Minnesota-Duluth
Shannon Cornell, Amarillo College
Wendy Davidson, Georgia Perimeter College-Newton
Donna Densmore, Bossier Parish Community College
Disa Enegren, Rose State College
Keith A. Erickson, Georgia Gwinnett College
Nancy Fisher, University of Alabama
Donna Gerken, Miami Dade College
Cynthia Glickman, Community College of
Southern Nevada
Sudhir Kumar Goel, Valdosta State University
Donald Gordon, Manatee Community College
David L. Gross, University of Connecticut
Jason W. Groves, South Plains College
Joel K. Haack, University of Northern Iowa
Jeremy Haefner, University of Colorado
Joyce Hague, University of Wisconsin at River Falls
Mike Hall, University of Mississippi
Mahshid Hassani, Hillsborough Community College
Tom Hayes, Montana State University
Christopher N. Hay-Jahans, University of South Dakota
Angela Heiden, St. Clair Community College
Donna Helgeson, Johnson County Community College
Celeste Hernandez, Richland College
Gregory J. Herring, Cameron University
Alysmarie Hodges, Eastfield College
Amanda Hood, Copiah-Lincoln Community College
Jo Beth Horney, South Plains College
Heidi Howard, Florida State College at Jacksonville-South
Campus
Winfield A. Ihlow, SUNY College at Oswego
Nancy Raye Johnson, Manatee Community College
Daniel Kleinfelter, College of the Desert
Sarah Kovacs, Yuba College
Dennine Larue, Fairmont State University
Mary Leesburg, Manatee Community College
Christine Heinecke Lehman, Purdue University
North Central
Alexander Levichev, Boston University
Zongzhu Lin, Kansas State University
Benjamin Marlin, Northwestern Oklahoma State
University
Marilyn Massey, Collin County Community College
Yvelyne McCarthy-Germaine, University of New Orleans
David McMann, Eastfield College
Owen Mertens, Missouri State University-Springfield
James Miller, West Virginia University
Martha Nega, Georgia Perimeter College-Decatur
Priti Patel, Tarrant County College
Shahla Peterman, University of Missouri-St. Louis
Debra A. Pharo, Northwestern Michigan College
Gloria Phoenix, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical
State University
Katherine Pinzon, Georgia Gwinnett College
David Platt, Front Range Community College
Juha Pohjanpelto, Oregon State University
Brooke Quinlan, Hillsborough Community College
Janice Rech, University of Nebraska at Omaha
Gary E. Risenhoover, Tarrant County College
Joseph W. Rody, Arizona State University
Behnaz Rouhani, Georgia Perimeter College-Dunwoody
Judith Salmon, Fitchburg State University
Michael Schramm, Indian River State College

Cynthia Schultz, Illinois Valley Community College
Pat Shelton, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical
State University
Jed Soifer, Atlantic Cape Community College
Caroline Spillman, Georgia Perimeter College-Clarkston
Jonathan Stadler, Capital University
Franotis R. Stallworth, Gwinnett Technical College
John David Stark, Central Alabama Community College
Charles Sterner, College of Coastal Georgia
Chris Stump, Bethel College
Scott Sykes, University of West Georgia
Richard Townsend, North Carolina Central University
Pamela Trim, Southwest Tennessee Community College
Chris Turner, Arkansas State University
Richard E. Van Lommel, California State
University-Sacramento
Dan Van Peursem, University of South Dakota
Philip Van Veldhuizen, University of Nevada at Reno
Philip Veer, Johnson County Community College
Jeffrey Weaver, Baton Rouge Community College
Preface xi
Amanda Wheeler, Amarillo College
David White, The Victoria College
Tracy Wienckowski, University of Buffalo
Additional acknowledgments are extended to Dan Miller
and Kelly Barber for preparing the solutions manuals;
Brad Davis for preparing the answer section, serving
as accuracy checker, and writing the new learning
guide; the codeMantra formatting team for the book’s
brilliant paging; Brian Morris and Kevin Morris at
Scientific Illustrators for superbly illustrating the book;
Francesca Monaco, project manager; and Kathleen
Manley, production editor, whose collective talents kept
every aspect of this complex project moving through its
many stages.
I would like to thank my editor at Pearson, Dawn Murrin,
who, with the assistance of Joseph Colella, guided
and coordinated the book from manuscript through
production. Finally, thanks to Peggy Lucas and Claire
Kozar for their innovative marketing efforts and to
the entire Pearson sales force for their confidence and
enthusiasm about the book.
Robert Blitzer
 Get the Most Out of
MyMathLab
®

MyMathLab is the leading online homework, tutorial, and assessment program for
teaching and learning mathematics, built around Pearson’s best-selling content.
MyMathLab helps students and instructors improve results; it provides engaging
experiences and personalized learning for each student so learning can happen in any
environment. Plus, it offers flexible and time-saving course management features to
allow instructors to easily manage their classes while remaining in complete control,
regardless of course format.

Preparedness
MyMathLab course solutions offer a complete College Algebra, Algebra & Trigonometry,
or Precalculus course with integrated review of select topics from developmental
algebra. These courses help remediate students “just-in-time” and help with student
retention of important concepts, ultimately boosting student success.

• Students begin each chapter by completing a Skills Check assignment to pinpoint

which developmental topics, if any, they need to review.
• Students who demonstrate mastery of the review topics will move straight into the
Algebra & Trigonometry content.
• A personalized review homework assignment will provide extra support for the
students who need it.
• Additional review materials (worksheets, videos, and more) are available in an
Integrated Review section at the start of each chapter in MyMathLab.

MyMathLab with Integrated Review are appropriate for students who struggle with
pre-requisite skills and for co-requisite course models. These Integrated Review
MyMathLab courses are available for a variety of College Algebra, Algebra &
Trigonometry, and Precalculus programs, as well as a variety of other disciplines.

Used by more than 37 million students worldwide, MyMathLab delivers

consistent, measurable gains in student learning outcomes, retention, and
subsequent course success.

www.mymathlab.com
xii
 Get the Most Out of
MyMathLab Online Course for®
Precalculus MyMathLab
by Robert Blitzer
(access code required)

NEW! Video Program

A fresh, and all new, video program walks through
the concepts from every objective of the text. Many
videos provide an active learning environment
where students try out their newly learned skill.

NEW! Guided Visualizations

These HTML-based, interactive figures help students
visualize the concepts through directed explorations
and purposeful manipulation. They encourage active
learning, critical thinking, and conceptual learning.
They are compatible with iPad and tablet devices.
The Guided Visualizations are located in the
Multimedia Library and can be assigned as
homework with correlating assessment exercises.
Additional Exploratory Exercises are available to
help students think more conceptually about the
figures and provide an excellent framework for group
projects or lecture discussion.

NEW! Workspace Assignments

Students can now show their work like never before!
Workspace Assignments allow students to work through
an exercise step-by-step, and show their mathematical
reasoning as they progress. Students receive immediate
feedback after they complete each step, and helpful
hints and videos offer guidance when they need it. When
accessed via a mobile device, Workspace exercises use
handwriting recognition software that allows students
to naturally write out their answers. Each student’s
work is automatically graded and captured in the
MyMathLab gradebook so instructors can easily pinpoint
exactly where they need to focus their instruction.

www.mymathlab.com
xiii
 Resources for Success
Instructor Resources
Additional resources can be downloaded from
www.mymathlab.com or www.pearsonhighered.com
or hardcopy resources can be ordered from your sales
representative.
Annotated Instructor’s Edition
Shorter answers are on the page beside the
exercises. Longer answers are in the back of the text.
Instructor’s Solutions Manual
Fully worked solutions to all textbook exercises.
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides
Fully editable lecture slides that correlate to the
textbook.
Mini Lecture Notes
Additional examples and helpful teaching tips for
each section.
TestGen®
Enables instructors to build, edit, print, and
administer tests using a computerized bank of
algorithmic questions developed to cover all the
objectives of the text.
www.mymathlab.com
xiv
Student Resources
Additional resources to help student success are
available to be packaged with the Blitzer textbook
and MyMathLab access code.
Objective Level Videos
An all new video program covers every objective
of the text and is assignable in MyMathLab. Many
videos provide an active learning environment where
students try out their newly learned skill.
Chapter Test Prep Videos
Students can watch instructors work
through step-by-step solutions to
all the Chapter Test exercises from
the textbook. These are available in
MyMathLab and on YouTube.
Student Solutions Manual
Fully worked solutions to odd-numbered exercises
and available to be packaged with the textbook.
Learning Guide
The note-taking guide begins each chapter with
an engaging application, and provides additional
examples and exercises for students to work through
for a greater conceptual understanding and mastery
of topics.
New to this edition: classroom projects are included
for each chapter providing the opportunity for
collaborative work. The Learning Guide is available
in PDF and customizable Word file formats in
MyMathLab. It can also be packaged with the
textbook and MyMathLab access code.
MathTalk Videos
Engaging videos connect mathematics to
real-life events and interesting applications. These
fun, instructional videos show students that math
is relevant to their daily lives and are assignable
in MyMathLab. Assignable exercises are available in
MyMathLab for these videos to help students apply
valuable information presented in the videos.
 TO THE STUDENT
The bar graph shows some of the qualities that
students say make a great teacher. It was my goal to
incorporate each of these qualities throughout the
pages of this book.
Explains Things Clearly
I understand that your primary purpose in reading
Precalculus is to acquire a solid understanding of the
required topics in your precalculus course. In order to
achieve this goal, I’ve carefully explained each topic.
Important definitions and procedures are set off in
boxes, and worked-out examples that present solutions
in a step-by-step manner appear in every section. Each
example is followed by a similar matched problem,
called a Check Point, for you to try so that you can
actively participate in the learning process as you read
the book. (Answers to all Check Points appear in the
back of the book.)
Funny & Entertaining
Who says that a precalculus textbook can’t be entertaining? From our unusual cover to the photos in the
chapter and section openers, prepare to expect the unexpected. I hope some of the book’s enrichment essays,
called Blitzer Bonuses, will put a smile on your face from time to time.
Helpful
I designed the book’s features to help you acquire knowledge of algebra and trigonometry, as well as to show you
how algebra and trigonometry can solve authentic problems that apply to your life. These helpful features include:
• Explanatory Voice Balloons: Voice balloons are used in a variety of ways to make math less intimidating.
They translate algebraic and trigonometric language into everyday English, help clarify problem-solving
procedures, present alternative ways of understanding concepts, and connect new concepts to concepts
you have already learned.
• Great Question!: The book’s Great Question! boxes are based on questions students ask in class. The
answers to these questions give suggestions for problem solving, point out common errors to avoid, and
provide informal hints and suggestions.
• Achieving Success: The book’s Achieving Success boxes give you helpful strategies for success in
learning algebra and trigonometry, as well as suggestions that can be applied for achieving your full
academic potential in future college coursework.
• Chapter Summaries: Each chapter contains a review chart that summarizes the definitions and concepts in
every section of the chapter. Examples from the chapter that illustrate these key concepts are also referenced
in the chart. Review these summaries and you’ll know the most important material in the chapter!
Passionate about the Subject
I passionately believe that no other discipline comes close to math in offering a more extensive set of tools for
application and development of your mind. I wrote the book in Point Reyes National Seashore, 40 miles north of
San Francisco. The park consists of 75,000 acres with miles of pristine surf-washed beaches, forested ridges, and
bays bordered by white cliffs. It was my hope to convey the beauty and excitement of mathematics using nature’s
unspoiled beauty as a source of inspiration and creativity. Enjoy the pages that follow as you empower yourself
with the algebra and trigonometry needed to succeed in college, your career, and your life.
Regards,

Bob
Robert Blitzer
xv
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Bob Blitzer is a native of Manhattan and received a Bachelor

of Arts degree with dual majors in mathematics and psychology
(minor: English literature) from the City College of New York.
His unusual combination of academic interests led him toward a
Master of Arts in mathematics from the University of Miami and
a doctorate in behavioral sciences from Nova University. Bob’s
love for teaching mathematics was nourished for nearly 30 years
at Miami Dade College, where he received numerous teaching
awards, including Innovator of the Year from the League for
Innovations in the Community College and an endowed chair
based on excellence in the classroom. In addition to Precalculus,
Bob has written textbooks covering developmental mathematics,
introductory algebra, intermediate algebra, college algebra,
algebra and trigonometry, trigonometry, and liberal arts
mathematics, all published by Pearson. When not secluded in his Northern California writer’s cabin, Bob can
be found hiking the beaches and trails of Point Reyes National Seashore and tending to the chores required
by his beloved entourage of horses, chickens, and irritable roosters.

xvi

A Angle(s)
Accidents, automobile
accidents per day, age of driver and, 951
probability of accident while intoxicated, 1121
Acid rain, 491
Actors, selection of, 1104, 1126
Adulthood, transition to, 919
Adult residential community costs, 1051, 1058
Advertising
online spending, 1128
sales and price and, 421–422
African Americans
percentage of cigarette smokers among, 876
percentage with high school diploma, 514
African life span, AIDS and, 831
Age(s)
arrests and drunk driving as function of, 402
body-mass index and, 865
calories needed to maintain energy by, 86
chances of surviving to various, 179
of driver, accidents per day and, 951
of driver, and rate of fatal crashes, 107–108
height as function of, 221, 224, 243, 1169
and intellectual ability, 1140
marriage and, 156–158, 302
perceived length of time period and, 425
percentage of U.S. population never married, ages
25-29, 214, 216
percent body fat in adults by, 199
preferred age in a mate, 270–271
racial prejudice and, 56–57
and sleep, 160
Aging rate, space travel and, 32, 44, 47
AIDS/HIV
African life span and, 831
cases diagnosed (U.S.), 335–337, 339
number of Americans living with, 335
T cell count and, 162, 171–172
Aircraft/airplanes
approaching runway, vector describing, 782
direction angle of, given speed, 784
distance and angle of elevation of, 611
distance flown by, 562
ground speed of, 784
height of, 578
leaving airport at same time, distance between, 723,
727–728, 798
linear speed of propeller, 644
Mach speed of, 682
runway departure lineup, 1126
true bearing of, 783–784
vector describing flight of, 782
velocity vector of, 780
weight/volume constraints, 868–870
wind direction and, 814–815
wind speed and direction angle exerted on, 783–784
Airports, distance between, 730
Alcohol use
drunk driving arrests, 402
by high school seniors, 159–160
moderate wine consumption and heart disease,
215–216
number of moderate users in U.S., 514
and risk of accident, 485–486, 491
Alligator, tail and body length of, 424
Alloys, gold, 819
Altitude
atmospheric pressure and, 513
gained by hiker climbing incline, 645
increase on inclined road of, 562
American Idol, ratings of, 333
Amusia (tone deafness), sound quality and, 661, 663
APPLICATIONS INDEX
height of ball above ground, 516
in architecture, 518 path of, 1012, 1020–1021
clock hands forming, 518, 519 pitcher’s angle of turn to throw ball, 732
of elevation, 557–559, 561–563, 578, 611, 638, 639, 645, position as function of time, 1020–1021
647, 648, 721–722 Baseball contract, 1039, 1074
Angular speed Baseball diamond, distance from pitcher’s mound to
of audio records, 531 bases on, 731
of carousel, 530 Bearings, 632–633, 647
of hard drive in computer, 530 of boat, 633, 639, 731
of propeller on wind generator, 644 distance at certain, 639, 646
Annuities to fire from two fire stations, 719, 721, 1032
compound interest on, 1068–1069, 1075 of jet from control tower, 639
value of, 1075, 1125 true, of plane, 783–784
Antenna, height on top of building, 646 between two cities, 646
Apogee/perigee of satellite’s orbit, 968 Beauty
Applause, decibel level of, 203 changes in cultural values of, 803
Arch bridge, 1035 symmetry and, 184
Archer’s arrow, path of, 326 Benefit concert lineup possibilities, 1104
Architecture Berlin Airlift, 866, 873
angles in, 518 Bias, Implicit Association Test for, 48, 56–57
conic sections in, 969, 979 Bicycles
Archway. See Semielliptical archway and truck banking angle, 424
clearance manufacturing, 179, 400, 820, 873
Area, of a football field, 116–117 Biorhythms, 517, 535, 549, 597–599
Area code possibilities, 1104 Bird species population decline, 506
Arrests, drunk driving, 402 Birth(s)
Artists, in documentary, 1099–1100 out-of-wedlock, 291
Aspirin, half-life of, 506, 984 in U.S. from 2000 through 2009, 246, 251–252
Asteroid detection, 843 Birthday, probability of sharing same, 271, 684, 1121
Atmospheric pressure and altitude, 513 Birthday cake, 48
Attitudes, of college freshmen, 112–113 Black holes, 28–29
Attractiveness, and success, 147 Blood-alcohol concentration, 15–16, 19, 485–486, 491
Audio records, angular speed and linear speed of, 531 Blood volume and body weight, 417–418
Autism cases diagnosed, 1049 Boats/ships
Automobiles bearing of, 633, 639
accidents per day, age of driver and, 951 changing, 731
computing work of pushing, 791, 793 distance traveled at certain, 639
depreciation, 179 to sail into harbor, 639
drunk driving arrests as function of age, 402 direction angle of, 800
fatal crashes, age of driver and, 107–108 distance from lighthouse, 646, 723
leaving city at same time, distance between, 798 distance from pier, 731
possible race finishes, 1104 ground speed, 800
prices of, and average age, 122–123 leaving harbor at same time, distance between after
probability of accident while intoxicated, 1121 three hours, 730
purchase options, 1104 location between two radio towers, 1035
rentals, 126, 129–130, 135–136, 402, 744 on tilted ramp, vector components of force on,
required stopping distance, 403, 413–414 789, 793
stopping distances, 403, 413–414 velocity of, 800
value over time, 1050 velocity vector of, 780
Average cost function, 395–396, 400 Body fat in adults by age and gender, percent, 199
Average rate of change, 221–222, 243 Body-mass index, 424, 865
Body temperature, variation in, 645
B Books
Ball arranging on shelf, 1099
angle of elevation and throwing distance of, 709 selections, 1104, 1127
location of thrown, 1012 Bottled water consumption, soda consumption vs., 822
maximum height and throwing distance of, 832 Bouquet, mixture of flowers in, 853
thrown upward and outward, 331 Box dimensions, 364
Ball (attached to spring) Brain
finding amplitude and period of motion of, 670 exercising your, 175
simple harmonic motion of, 633–634, 705, 709 growth of the human, 501
Ball (height above ground), 830, 832, 894, 1128 modeling brain activity, 611
baseball, 516 Break-even analysis, 648, 815–816, 819, 853. See also
bounce height, 424 Cost and revenue functions/break-even points
football, 17, 324–325, 894 Breathing cycle, 578
maximum height, 801, 832 modeling, 592–593
when thrown from rooftop, 413 velocity of air flow in, 705
when thrown from top of Leaning Tower of Pisa, 411 Bribery (Corruption Perceptions Index), 178
Ballots, 1104 Bridge
Banking angle and turning radius of bicycle, 424 arch, 1035
Baseball George Washington Bridge, 1036
angle of elevation and throwing distance of, 705 suspension, parabolas formed by, 1036
xvii
xviii Applications Index
Bridge coupon book/toll passes, 260, 612
Budgeting, groceries vs. health care, 226
Building
height of, 557–558, 638, 639, 646, 647, 723
shadow cast by, 705
Business ventures, 820
Butterflies, symmetry of, 733
C Comedy act schedule, 1104
Cable car, distance covered by, 722–723
Cable service, 1038
Cable television deals, 1038
Call of Duty video game, retail sales of, 492
Calorie-nutrient information, 877
Calories
needed by age groups and activity levels, 919
needed to maintain energy balance, 86
Camera
price reductions, 114–115, 1121
viewing angle for, 627
Canoe manufacturing, 820
Car(s). See Automobiles
Carbon-14 dating, 496, 505, 506
Carbon dioxide, atmospheric global warming and, 149,
210–212, 599, 612
Cardboard, length/width for box, 852
Cards. See Deck of 52 cards, probability and
Carousel, linear speed and angular speed of animals
on, 530, 534
Cave paintings, prehistoric, 506
CD selection for vacation trip, 1126
Celebrity earnings, 162–165
Cell phones, 180, 821, 905
Celsius/Fahrenheit temperature interconversions, 17
Centrifugal force, 422–423
Chaos, patterns of, 711, 757
Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident, 449
Chess moves, 1096
Child mortality, literacy and, 201, 215
Children, modeling height of, 459, 465, 466, 487
Cholesterol
and dietary restrictions, 864
intake, 864, 879
Cigarette consumption. See Smoking
Cigarette tax, 1049
Circle, finding length of arc on, 646, 691
Class structure of the United States, 949–950
Cliff, distance of ship from base of, 638
Clock(s)
angles formed by hands of, 518, 519
degrees moved by minute hand on, 533
distance between tip of hour hand and ceiling, 597
distance between tips of hands at 10:00, 732
minute hand movement in terms of p, 533
Club officers, choosing, 1104, 1126
Coding, 921, 930–931, 933, 934
Coffee consumption, sleep and, 516
Coin tosses, 1109, 1116–1117, 1119, 1120
College(s)
attendance, 1126
average dormitory changes at, 1060
percentage of U.S. high school seniors applying to
more than three, 450
College education
cost of, 2, 4–5, 19
and success, 121
women vs. men, 146
College graduates
among people ages 25 and older, in U.S., 450, 1060
salaries of, in first job after college, 300
College students
excuses of, for not meeting assignment
deadlines, 144
freshmen
attitudes of, 112–113
claiming no religious affiliation, 163–164, 166
political orientation, 302
grade inflation among, 107
hours of study per week, by major, 830–831
interactive online games played by, 822
loan debt, 71
procrastination and symptoms of physical illness
among, 804, 821
sleep and, 822
study abroad destinations, 984
College tuition, and student loan debt, 71
Collinear points, 946
Comedians, net worth of, 466
Comets
Halley’s Comet, 964, 979, 1031
intersection of planet paths and, 851, 979
Committee formation, 1100, 1102, 1104
Commuters, toll discount passes, 260, 612
Compound interest, 445–449, 451, 486, 489–491, 1050,
1075, 1125
on annuity, 1068–1069, 1075
continuously compounded, 477, 486, 490, 514, 515,
709, 880
investments, 512, 640
Computer(s)
angular speed of hard drive in, 530
computer-generated animation, 229
discounts, 252–253, 260
PC vs. tablet sales, 513
price before reduction, 509
prices, 262
ratio of students to computers in U.S. public
schools, 339
sale price, 69
Computer graphics, 881, 905, 914, 915
Concentration of mixture. See Mixture problems
Cone volume, 423
Conference attendees, choosing, 1102, 1104
Constraints, 867–872, 878
Continuously compounded interest, 477, 486, 490, 514,
515, 709, 880
Cookies, supply and demand for, 820
Coronary heart disease, 507
Corporation officers, choosing, 1099, 1104
Corruption Perceptions Index, 178
Cost(s). See also Manufacturing costs
of college education, 2, 4–5, 19
minimizing, 873
of raising child born in U.S., 1044–1045
of text messaging plans, 283–285
truck rental, 1038
of yacht, 120–121
Cost and revenue functions/break-even points,
815–816, 819, 853, 879
average, 395–396, 400
bike manufacturing, 400
break-even points, 819, 879
customers and revenue, 285–286
for PDA manufacturing, 853
radio manufacturing, 259
running shoe manufacturing, 400, 833
virtual reality headset manufacturing, 395–396
wheelchair manufacturing, 396
Course schedule, options in planning, 1096
Cove, distance across, 731
Crane lifting boulder, computing work of, 793
Crate, computing work of dragging, 800
Crime
decrease in violent, 216
mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenders,
821
violent crime rate and imprisonment, 852
Cryptograms, 930–931, 934. See also Coding
Cycles, 564
Cycloid, 1021
D Drunk driving
Daylight, number of hours of, 535, 549, 595, 597, 611,
705
Dead Sea Scrolls, carbon-14 dating of, 496
Death penalty, sentences rendered by U.S. juries, 352
Death rate, hours of sleep and, 824, 828
Deaths
in the 20th century, 877
from 2000 through 2009, 246, 251–252
by snakes, mosquitoes, and snails, 180
Debt
national, 20, 27–28, 31, 32, 142
student loan, 71
Decay model for carbon-14, 505, 506
Decibels. See Sound intensity
Deck of 52 cards, probability and, 1110–1111,
1113–1114, 1119, 1126, 1127
Decoding a word or message, 931, 933, 934
Defense budget, 121
Deforestation, Amazon, 430
Degree-days, 1062
Delicate Arch, angle of elevation to determine height
of, 563
Depreciation, 179
Depression, exercise and, 229
Desk manufacturing, 894
Die rolling outcomes, 1109–1110, 1119, 1120, 1126
Digital camera, price reduction for, 114–115, 1121
Digital photography, 905, 914–915, 918, 919, 950
Dinosaur bones and potassium-40 dating, 506
Dinosaur footprints, pace angle and stride indicated
by, 724, 730
Direction, 770–771
Distance
across cove, 731
across lake, 558, 561, 645, 730, 731
from base to top of Leaning Tower of Pisa, 721
braking, 830
between cars leaving city at same time, 798
of forest ranger from fire, 639
between houses at closest point, 983
of island from coast, 638
of marching band from person filming it, 611
of oil platform from ends of beach, 721
between pairs of cities, 281
of rotating beam of light from point, 610, 611
safe, expressway speed and, 142
of ship from base of cliff, 638
of ship from base of Statue of Liberty, 638
of ship from lighthouse, 646
of ship from radio towers on coast, 983
of stolen car from point directly below helicopter,
638
that skydiver falls in given time, 1077
traveled by plane, 562
between two points on Earth, 533
between two points on opposite banks of river, 721
between two trains leaving station at same time, 756
Distance traveled, combined walking and bus travel, 19
Diver’s height above water, 413
Diversity index, 142
Diving board motion, modeling, 611
Divorce, marriage age and probability of, 156–158
DNA, structure of, 550
Doctor, visits to, 200
Domed ceiling, light reflectance and parabolic surface
of, 1000
“Don’t ask, don’t tell” policy, 226–227
Drinks, order possibilities for, 1104
Drivers, age of. See under Age(s)
Driving accidents. See Accidents, automobile
Driving rate and time for trip, 419
Drug concentration, 223, 400
Drug dosage, child vs. adult, 709
Drug experiment volunteer selection, 1104
Drug offenders, mandatory minimum sentences
for, 821
Drug tests, mandatory, probability of accurate
results, 1120
Drug use among teenagers, 508
age as function of arrests, 402
probability of accidents, 1121
Dual investments, 19, 115–116, 200, 880
E
Eagle, height and time in flight, 302
Earnings. See Salary(-ies)
 Applications Index xix

Earth time-temperature scenario, 181–182 parabolic surface of, 1036, 1037

age of, 24 vaccine mixture, 179, 812–814 unit design, 1036, 1037
angular velocity of point on, 534 Focal length, 93 Headset manufacturing costs, 382, 395–396
distance between two points on, 533 Food cost per item, 226, 831 Health care
finding radius of, 640 Football budgeting for, 226
motion of Moon relative to, 550 area of field, 116–117 gross domestic product (GDP) spent on, 490
Earthquake height above ground, 17, 324–325, 894 savings needed for expenses during retirement, 507
epicenter, 281 maximum height of, 1036 Heart beats over lifetime, 32
intensity, 512 position as function of time, 1036 Heart disease
intensity of, 452, 460 vector describing thrown, 782 coronary, 507
relief from, 866–870 Force(s) moderate wine consumption and, 215–216
simple harmonic motion from, 636 on body leaning against wall, 770, 773 smoking and, 402
Eating, lifetime hours spent, 122 in equilibrium, 783 Heart rate
Economic impact of factory on town, 1076, 1125 pulling cart up incline, 770 exercise and, 3, 18
Education. See also College education resultant, 783, 799, 800 of mammals, and life span, 433
level of, and earnings, 110–111, 122 FoxTrot comic strip, 46 before and during panic attack, 351
level of, U.S. population, 1119 Freedom 7 spacecraft flight, 272 Heat generated by stove, 425
percentage of U.S. adults completing high Free-falling object’s position, 410–411, 413 Heat loss of a glass window, 425
school, 514 Frequency, length of violin string and, 421 Height
Election ballots, 1104 Freshmen. See under College students of antenna on top of building, 646
Electrical resistance, 86, 425, 1128 Friendship 7, distance from Earth’s center, 1031 of ball above ground (See Ball [height above
Elephant’s weight, 491 Fuel efficiency, 181 ground])
Elevation, angle of, 557–559, 561–563, 578, 611, of building, 557–558, 638, 639, 646, 647, 723
638–639, 645, 647, 648, 721–722 G child’s height modeled, 459, 465, 466, 487
Elevator capacity, 864 Galaxies, elliptical, 1087 diver’s height above water, 413
Elk population, 516 Games, online, college students and, 822 of eagle, in terms of time in flight, 302
Elliptical ceiling, 967 Garbage, daily per-pound production of, 71 on Ferris wheel while riding, 550
Elliptipool, 967 Gasoline of flagpole, 639, 709
Encoding a message, 921, 930–931, 933, 934 average U.S. price, 351 as function of age, 221, 224, 243, 1169
Endangered species, 506 gallons of premium sold, 793, 820 healthy weight region for, 803, 854, 858–859, 864
Equator, linear velocity of point on, 533 gallons of regular sold, 793 of leaning wall, finding, 722
Equilibrium, forces in, 783 Gas pressure maximum, 801, 1037, 1128
Ethnic diversity, 142 in can, 420 of Mt. Rushmore sculpture, 632
Exam grades, 919 and volume, 1181 percentage of adult height attained by girl of given
Exercise Gay marriage, U.S. public opinion on, 507, 821–822 age, 465, 487
depression and, 229 Gay service members discharged from military, of plane, 578
heart rate and, 3 226–227 of tower, finding, 630, 638, 769
target heart rate ranges for, 18 Gender of tree, finding, 756
of your brain, 175 bachelor’s degrees awarded and, 146 weight and height recommendations/calculations,
Explosions, location of calories needed to maintain energy by, 86 424
arrival of sound, 984 and careers, 882 Higher education costs, 1061
when recorded by two microphones, 979–980, educational level and earnings by, 110–111 High school education, percentage of U.S. adults
983, 1000 eye color and, 1127 completing, 514
Exponential decay model, 506, 514, 516, 952 first-year U.S. college students claiming no religious High school seniors, marijuana/alcohol use by, 159–160
Exponential growth, 648 affiliation by, 163–164, 166 Hiking trails, finding bearings on, 633
Expressway speeds and safe distances, 142 housework and, 465 Hill, magnitude of force required to keep car from
Eye color and gender, 1127 jobs in U.S. labor force by, 108 sliding down, 783
life expectancy by year of birth and, 214 Hispanic Americans
F percentage of United States population never marri- percentage of cigarette smokers among, 876
Factory, economic impact on town, 1076 ed, ages 25-29 and, 214, 216 population growth, 514
Fahrenheit/Celsius temperature interconversions, 17 percent body fat in adults by, 199 HIV/AIDS
Family, independent events in, 1117, 1119, 1126 wage gap by, 179 African life span and, 831
Federal budget George Washington Bridge, height of cable between cases diagnosed (U.S.), 335–337, 339
deficit, 142 (See also National debt) towers of, 1036 number of Americans living with, 335
expenditures on human resources, 401 Global warming, 149, 210–212 T cell count and, 162, 171–172
Federal Express, aircraft purchase decisions by, 873 Gold alloys, 819 Hot-air balloon, distance traveled by ascending, 631,
Federal income tax, 180 Golden rectangles, 47 639, 671
Fencing Grade inflation, 107 Hotel room types, 822
for enclosure, 848–849 Gravitational force, 422 House sales prices, 180, 1077
maximum area inside, 328, 331–332 Gravity model, 425 House value, inflation rate and, 450
for plot of land, 879 Groceries, budgeting for, 226 Housework, 465
Ferris wheel, 281 Ground speed, 784 Human resources, federal budget expenditures on, 401
height above ground when riding, 550 Groups fitting into van, 1104 Hurricanes
linear speed of, 534 Gutter cross-sectional area, 332 barometric air pressure and, 491
Field, dimensions of, 878, 1128 Guy wire attached to pole, angle made with ground probability, 1120
Films. See Movies and, 631 Hydrogen ion concentration, 491
Fire
distance of fire station from, 1032 H I
distance of forest ranger from, 639 Half-life Ice cream flavor combinations, 1100, 1104
locating, from tower, 712, 719, 721, 756, 800, 1032 aspirin, 984 Identical twins, distinguishing between, 823
Flagpole radioactive elements, 506, 514, 952 Illumination intensity, 424, 425
height of, finding, 709 Xanax, 1022 Implicit Association Test, 48, 56–57
leaning, angle made with ground, 723 Halley’s Comet, 964, 979, 1031 Imprisonment
on top of building, height of, 639 Hamachiphobia, 507 mandatory minimum sentences for drug
Flood, probability of, 1126 Happiness offenders, 821
Floor dimensions, 851 average level of, at different times of day, 271 violent crime rate and, 852
Flu per capita income and national, 215 Income, of highest paid TV celebrities, 162–165
epidemic, 497–498 Harmonic motion, simple. See Simple harmonic Income taxes, federal, 180
inoculation costs, 86 motion Individual Retirement Account (IRA), 1068–1069,
outbreak on campus, 1076 Headlight 1075, 1076, 1125
xx Applications Index

Inflation LOTTO Music

grade, 107 numbers selection, 1104 amplitude and frequency of note’s sine wave, 688
rate of, 450 probability of winning, 1120 amusia and, 661, 663
Influenza. See Flu Loudness, 203, 425, 465, 476, 507, 515 modeling musical sounds, 635, 640
Inoculation costs for flu, 86 Love, components of, 138
Insulation, rate of heat lost through, 648 Luggage, volume of carry-on, 378–379
N
Insurance, pet, 199 Lunch menus, 873, 1104
National debt, 20, 27–28, 31, 32, 142
Intellectual ability, age and, 1140
National diversity index, 142
Intelligence quotient (IQ) and mental/chronological M Natural disaster relief, 873
age, 424 Mach speed of aircraft, 682 Nature, Fibonacci numbers found in, 1040
Interactive online games, college students and, 822 Mailing costs, 199 Navajo sand painting, 549
Interfaith marriages, 139 Mall browsing time and average amount spent, 438, Navigation, 550. See also Bearings
Investment(s) 439 Neurons, human brain vs. gorilla brain, 71
accumulated value of, 446, 449, 486 Mammals, heart rate of, 433 Newton’s Law of Cooling, 509
amounts invested per rate, 831 Mammography screening data, 1107 Nutritional content, 894, 904
choosing between, 447 Mandatory drug testing, probability of accurate results,
compound interest, 445–449, 451, 477, 486, 489–491, 1120
512, 514, 515, 640, 709, 880, 1075 Mandatory minimum sentences, 821 O
dual, 19, 115–116, 200, 880 Mandelbrot set, 757, 766, 768, 769 Oculus Rift headset manufacturing costs, 382, 395–396
in greeting cards, 820 Manufacturing and testing, hours needed for, 904 Officers for Internet marketing consulting firm,
and interest rates, 19 Manufacturing constraints, 867, 869, 870 choosing, 1098
maximizing expected returns, 874 Manufacturing costs. See also Cost and revenue One-person households. See Living alone, number of
money divided between high- and low-risk, 864 functions/breakeven points Americans
in play, 820 bicycles, 179 Online games, college students and, 822
possibility of stock changes, 1126 PDAs, 853 Orbit(s)
IQ (intelligence quotient) and mental/chronological tents, 878 of comets, 851, 964, 979, 983, 1031
age, 424 virtual reality headsets, 382, 395–396 modeling, 1022
IRA. See Individual Retirement Account wheelchair, 396 perigee/apogee of satellite’s orbit, 968
Island, distance from coast of, 638 Maps, making, 559 of planets, 851, 963, 968
Marching band, 823 Oscar-winning films, top ten, 261
J Marijuana use, by high school seniors, 159–160
Jeans, price of, 260 Marital status P
Jet ski manufacturing, 879 unmarried Americans (ages 25-29), 214, 216 Package, forces exerted on held, 779
Job applicants, filling positions with, 1127 U.S. adults (1970-2013), 820 Pads, cost of, 1128
Job offers, 1061, 1062, 1074 U.S. population, ages 15 or older (2010), 1018, Palindromic numbers, 1120
Jobs, in U.S. labor force, by gender, 108 1115–1116 Panic attack, heart rate before and during, 351
Jokes about books, 1105 Marriage age Paragraph formation, 1104
of men, 302 Parthenon at Athens, as golden rectangle, 47
preferred age in a mate, 270–271 Passwords, 1104, 1105
K and probability of divorce, 156–158 Pay. See Salary(-ies)
Kidney stone disintegration, 964, 1000 Marriage equality, U.S. public opinion on, 507, 821–822 Payroll spent in town, 1125
Kidney stones, lithotriper treatment of, 984 Marriages, interfaith, 139 PC (personal computer) sales, 513
Kinetic energy, 425 Mass attached to spring, simple harmonic motion of, PDA manufacturing costs and revenues, 853
Kite, angle made with ground of flying, 631, 1011 635–636 Pendulum swings, 1075
Mathematics department personnel, random selection Pens
L from, 1120 color choices, 1104
Labrador retrievers, color of, 55 Mathematics exam problems, 1105 cost of, 1128
Lake, distance across, 558, 561, 645, 730, 731 Maximum area, 328, 331–332, 381 Per capita income and national happiness, 215
Land Maximum height, 801, 1037, 1128 Perceived length of time period and age, 425
fencing for (See Fencing) Maximum product, 331, 381 Perigee/apogee of satellite’s orbit, 968
rectangular plot, 879 Maximum profit, 381, 870, 879 Periodic rhythms, 693
triangular plot, 732, 798 Maximum scores, 873 Personal computer (PC) sales, 513
Landscape design, 117–118 Median age. See under Age(s) Pest-eradication program, 1076
Leaning Tower of Pisa, distance from base to top of, Medication dosage, adult vs. child/infant, 709 Pets
721 Memory retention, 465, 466, 490, 513 insurance for, 199
Leaning wall, finding height of, 722 Mental illness, number of U.S. adults with, 514 spending on, 1052
Learning rate and amount learned, measuring, 801 Merry-go-round pH
Learning theory project, 498 linear speed of horse on, 578 of human mouth after eating sugar, 400
Length of violin string and frequency, 421 polar coordinates of horses on, 743 pH scale, 490–491
Lens, focal length of a, 93 Miles per gallon, 181 Phone calls between cities, 416, 425
Letter arrangements, 1104 Military, gay service members discharged from, Phonograph records, angular speed and linear speed
License plates, 1097 226–227 of, 531
Life expectancy, 214, 433 Minimum product, 327 Photography. See Digital photography
Light intensity of sunlight beneath ocean’s surface, 489 Miscarriages, by age, 507 Physician visits, 200
Light reflectance and parabolic surface, 1000, 1036, Mixture problems, 179, 834–836, 879, 905 Piano keyboard, Fibonacci numbers on, 1040
1037 Modernistic painting consisting of geometric figures, Pier, finding length of, 722
Light waves, modeling, 645 832 Planes. See Aircraft/airplanes
Linear speed, 534 Moiré patterns, 983 Planets
of airplane propeller, 644 Moon, weight of person on, 424 elliptical orbits, 963, 968
of animals on carousel, 530, 534 Moth eggs, and abdominal width, 353, 364 modeling motion of, 1029, 1031
of wind machine propeller, 531 Mt. Rushmore sculpture, height of, 632 Playground, dimensions of, 332
Line formation, 1105 Mountain, measuring height of, 550, 559, 722–723 Playing cards. See Deck of 52 cards, probability and
Literacy, child mortality and, 201, 215 Movies Play production, break-even analysis of, 648
Lithotriper, 984 ranking, 1104 Poker hands, 1102
Little League baseball team batting order, 1097–1098 ticket prices, 144 Pole, angle made by rope anchoring circus tent
Living alone, number of Americans, 217, 220–221, 306 top ten Oscar-winning, 261 and, 647
Lottery Movie theater, finding best viewing angle in, 613, 627, Police officers, average salary of, 28
numbers selection, 1104, 1111–1112 628 Political affiliation, academic major and, 1120
probability of winning, 1095, 1111–1112, 1119, 1120, Multiple-choice test, 1096–1097, 1104, 1127 Political identification
1126, 1127 Multiplier effect, 1072 college freshmen, 302
 Applications Index xxi

Implicit Association Test scores, 57 R in sixth year, 1125

Pollution Racial diversity, 142 total, 1061, 1075, 1125, 1127
air, 949 Racial prejudice, Implicit Association Test for, 48, total weekly earnings, 873
removal costs, 72 56–57 wage gap in, by gender, 179
Pool table, elliptical, 1035 Radiation intensity and distance of radiation for women, 882
Population machine, 424 Sale prices, 69. See also Price reductions
Africa, 495 Radio(s), production/sales of, 819 Salesperson’s earnings, 1128
Asia, 516 Radio show programming, 1104 Sales volume/figures
Belgium, 123 Radio stations PCs vs. tablets, 513
bird species in danger of extinction, 506 call letters of, 1104 price/advertising and, 421–422
Bulgaria, 505 locating illegal, 721 real estate, 1077
California, 489, 1074 Radio towers on coast, distance of ship from, 983 theater ticket, 831
Canada, 509 Radio waves, simple harmonic motion of, 639 video games, 492
Colombia, 505 Raffle prizes, 1104, 1105 Sand painting, 549
elk, 516 Railway crossing sign, length of arcs formed by cross Satellite, perigee/apogee of orbit, 968
Europe, 853 on, 533 Satellite dish, placement of receiver for, 1036
exponential growth modeling, 505, 506 Rain gutter cross-sectional area, 332 Savings
Florida, 866, 1125 Ramp and compound interest, 489–490
foreign-born (U.S.), 832 computing work of pulling box along, 793 geometric sequencing, 1074, 1075
geometric growth in, 1064 force and weight of box being pulled along, 783 needed for health-care expenses during
Germany, 505, 515 magnitude of force required to keep object from retirement, 507
gray wolf, 444–445 sliding down, 783 total, 1075
Greece, 123 vector components of force on boat on tilted, 789, Scattering experiments, 983
Hispanic, 514 793 Scheduling appearances, ways of, 1104, 1105
Hungary, 492 wheelchair, angle of elevation of, 639 Semielliptical archway and truck clearance, 964, 967,
India, 449, 505 Rate of travel 984, 1000, 1035
Iraq, 505 average rate and time traveled, 179 Sentencing guidelines for drug offenders, 821
Israel, 505 average rate on a round-trip commute, 86 Shaded region areas, 57, 69
Japan, 505 and time for trip, 419 Shading process, 1076
Madagascar, 505 walking speed and city population, 501 Shadow, length of, 782
Mexico, 506 Razor blades sold, 831 Shipping costs, 302. See also Mailing costs
New Zealand, 506 Real-estate sales and prices (U.S.), 1077 Ships. See Boats/ships
Nigeria, 508 Records, angular speed and linear speed of, 531 Ship tracking system, 851
Pakistan, 505 Rectangle “Shortest time” problems, 1018
Palestinian, 505 area of, 47 Shot put
Philippines, 505 dimensions of, 245, 414, 848–849, 851, 852, 877, 879, angle and height of, 331
Russia, 505 880, 947, 1077 throwing distance, 682, 722
in scientific notation, 26 dimensions of, maximizing enclosed area, 328 Shower, water used when taking, 418, 984
single, 217–218, 220–221 golden, 47 Simple harmonic motion, 801, 1128
Texas, 489, 1075 perimeter of, 47, 86 ball attached to spring, 633–634, 705, 709
tigers, worldwide, 350 Rectangular box dimensions, 364 earthquake, 636
Uganda, 509 Rectangular solid, volume of, 57 modeling, 633–636, 639, 646, 647
United States, 494–495 Redwood trees, finding height of, 722 radio waves, 639
age 65 and older, 508–509, 550 Reflections, 234 tuning fork, 639
by gender, 259 Relativity theory, space exploration and, 32, 44, 47, 1154 Skeletons, carbon-14 dating of, 506
percentage never married, ages 25-29, 214, 216 Religious affiliation, first-year U.S. college students Skydiver’s fall, 418–419, 1077
by race/ethnicity, 1055 claiming no, 163–164, 166 Sled, pulling
total tax collections and, 31 Rentals computing work of, 792
and walking speed, 501 car, 126, 129–130, 135–136, 402, 744 forces exerted, 782
world, 146, 260, 492, 502–504, 506, 507, 515, 894–895, truck, 1038 Sleep
1113 Residential community costs, adult, 1051, 1058 and age, 160
Population projections, 46–47, 505 Resistance, electrical, 86, 425, 1128 coffee consumption and, 516
Powerball, probability of winning, 1111–1112 Restaurant tables and maximum occupancy, 822 college students and, 822
Price(s) Resultant forces, 783, 784, 799, 800 death rate and hours of, 824, 828
advertising and, 421–422 Revenue functions. See Cost and revenue functions/ hours of, lifetime, 122
computer, 262, 509 break-even points hours of, on typical night, 1106
gasoline, 351 Reversibility of thought, 58 Smoking
of a house, 180, 1077 Roller coasters, 1173 among various portions of U.S. population, 876
jeans, 260 Rolling motion, 1018 deaths and disease incidence ratios, 400–401,
ticket, 144 Roof of A-frame cabin, finding length of, 798 1092–1093
Price reductions, 114–115, 262, 1121 Rotating beam of light, distance from point, 610, 611 and heart disease, 402
Prisons Roulette wheel, independent events on, 1117 Snow, water supply from melting, 432
mandatory minimum sentences for drug Royal flush (poker hand), probability of, 1104 Soda consumption
offenders, 821 Rug’s length and width, 851 bottled water consumption vs., 822
violent crime rate and imprisonment, 852 Runner, speed of, 291 modeling, 282–283
Problem solving, time for, 422 Runner’s pulse, 491 Soft drink can, surface area of, 289–290
Profit function, 819, 833–834, 853, 867 Solar energy industry, number of U.S. jobs in, 515
Profits S Sonic boom, hyperbolic shape of, 979
department store branches, 260 Sailing angle to 10-knot wind, sailing speed and, 743, Sound
maximizing, 381, 873, 878, 879 754 amplitude and frequency of, 688
maximum daily, 870, 895 Salary(-ies) locating explosion by arrival of, 984
maximum monthly, 873 anticipated earnings, 1075 from touching buttons on touch-tone phone,
on newsprint/writing paper, 878 comparing, 1060–1062 684, 690
total monthly, 873 earnings with overtime, 516 Sound intensity, 203, 425, 465, 476, 507, 515, 688
Projectiles, paths of, 316, 1020–1021, 1036. See also Ball educational level and, 110–111, 122 Sound quality, amusia and, 661, 663
(height above ground); Free-falling object’s first job after college, 300 Space flight/travel
position increases in average, 304 aging rate and, 32, 44, 47
Propeller lifetime computation, 1068, 1075 Freedom 7 spacecraft, 272
of airplane, linear speed of, 644 police officers, average, 28 relativity theory and, 32, 44, 47
on wind generator, angular speed of, 644 salesperson’s earnings/commissions, 1128 Spaceguard Survey, 983
xxii Applications Index

Speed. See also Rate of travel Television of plane, 780

angular, 530, 644 lifetime hours spent watching, 122 of wind, 779, 780, 783–784
linear, 534 manufacturing profits and constraints, 872 Video games, retail sales of, 492
of airplane propeller, 644 programming of movies, 1104 Videos rented, number of one-day and three-day, 793
of animals on carousel, 530, 534 sale prices, 69 Violent crime
of wind machine propeller, 531 screen dimensions, 851 decrease in, 216
Mach speed of aircraft, 682 Temperature imprisonment and, 852
Speed skating, winning time for, 306 average monthly, 597, 598 Violin string, length and frequency of, 421
Spinner, probability of pointer landing in specific way, body, variation in, 645 Virtual reality headset manufacturing costs, 382, 395–396
1115, 1119, 1126, 1127 of cooling cup of coffee, 512 Vitamin content, 894, 904
Spring(s) degree-days, 1062 Volume
force required to stretch, 424 and depth of water, 424 of carry-on luggage, 378–379
simple harmonic motion of object attached to, in enclosed vehicle, increase in, 461–462 of gas, 1181
633–636 Fahrenheit-Celsius interconversions, 17 of sound (See Sound intensity)
ball, 633–634, 705, 709 global warming, 149, 210–212 Voters, age and gender of, 919
distance from rest position, 637, 646 home temperature as function of time, 244
frequency of, 637 increase in an enclosed vehicle, 507 W
maximum displacement of, 637 as magnitude, 770 Wage gap, 179
phase shift of motion, 637 Newton’s Law of Cooling, 509 Wages. See Salary(-ies)
time required for one cycle, 637 time-temperature flu scenario, 181–182 Wagon, computing work of pulling, 791, 793, 800
Stadium seats, 1061 Text messaging plans, modeling costs of, 283–285 Walking speed and city population, 501
Standbys for airline seats, 1104 Theater attendance, maximizing revenue from, 873 Wardrobe selection, 1095
Statue of Liberty, distance of ship from base of, 638 Theater seats, 1061, 1124 Washington Monument, angle of elevation to top of, 562
Stomach acid, pH of, 491 Theater ticket sales, 831 Water
Stonehenge, raising stones of, 562 Throwing distance, 672, 682 pressure and depth, 416–417
Stopping distances angle of elevation of, 705, 709 temperature and depth, 424
for cars, 403, 413–414 maximum height of thrown ball, 801 used in a shower, 418, 984
for trucks, 414 shot put, 682, 722 Water pipe diameter, number of houses served and
Stress levels, 329 Ticket prices/sales, 144, 831 size of, 424
String length and frequency, 421 Tides, behavior of, 535, 544, 549 Water supply, from melting snow, 432
Strontium-90, 497 modeling cycle of, 594 Water wheel, linear speed of, 534
Student government elections, 1100 modeling water depth and, 597 Weight
Student loan debt, 71 Tigers, worldwide population, 350 blood volume and body, 417–418
Students, probability of selecting specific, 1127 Time, perceived length of, 425 of elephant, 491
Study, hours per week, 830–831 Time traveled, average rate and, 179 of great white shark, cube of its length and, 419
Success, attractiveness and, 147 Tobacco use. See Smoking healthy, for height and age, 803, 854, 858–859, 864
Sun, finding angle of elevation of, 559, 561–562, 578, Tolls, 113–114, 260, 612 and height recommendations/calculations, 424
639, 645 Touch-tone phone, sounds from touching buttons on, of person on Moon, 424
Sunlight, intensity beneath ocean’s surface, 489 684, 690 Weightlifting, 508, 785, 794
Sunscreen, exposure time without burning and, 2 Tower Wheelchair business
Supply and demand, 820 angle of elevation between point on ground and top manufacturing costs, 396
Supply-side economics, 365 of, 648, 769 profit function for, 834
Surface sunlight, intensity beneath ocean’s surface, 489 height of, finding, 630, 638, 639, 769 revenue and cost functions for, 815–816
Surveying length of two guy wires anchoring, 731 Wheelchair ramp, angle of elevation of, 639
bearings in, 632–633 Traffic control, 896, 900–905, 950 Wheel rotation, centimeters moved with, 533
to find distance between two points on opposite Trains leaving station at same time, distance between, Whispering gallery, 963, 968, 1037
banks of river, 721 756 White House, rooms, bathrooms, fireplaces and
Sushi, population who won’t try, 507 Transformations of an image, 915–916, 918, 950 elevators in, 895
Suspension bridges, parabolas formed by, 1036 Tree(s) Wind
Synthesizers, musical sounds modeled by, 629, 635 Amazon deforestation, 430 airplane speed and direction of, 814–815
annual yield of fruit/nut, 306, 332, 430 velocity vector of, 779, 780, 783–784
T finding height of, 756 Wind force, 425
Tablet sales, 513 Triangle Wind generator
Talent contest, picking winner and runner-up in, 1105 area of, 718, 728, 946 angular speed of propeller on, 644
Target, probability of hitting, 1120 dimensions of, 920, 934, 968, 1022, 1121 linear speed of propeller of, 531
Target heart rate for exercise, 18 isosceles, 823 Wind pressure, 425
Task mastery, 476, 513 oblique, 718 Wine blends, 819
Tax code, U.S., increase in number of pages in, 451 right, 842 Wine consumption, heart disease and, 215–216
Taxes Triangular piece of land Wing span of jet fighter, finding, 723
cigarette, 1049 cost of, 732, 798 Witch of Agnesi, 1021
federal tax rate schedule for tax owed, 199 length of sides of, 798 Women. See also Gender
government spending and, 31 Trucks average level of happiness at different times of day,
income, 180 clearance under semielliptical archway, 964, 967, 984, 271
rebate and multiplier effect, 1072, 1076 1000, 1035 and housework, 465
tax rate percentage and revenue, 365 rental costs, 1038 in U.S. workforce, 882
U.S. population and total tax collections, 31 stopping distances required for, 414 Work, 791–793
Teacher’s aide, hourly pay for, 872 Tugboats towing ship, resultant force of two, 783, 784 crane lifting boulder, 793
Teenage drug use, 508 Tuning fork dragging crate, 800
Telephone(s) eardrum vibrations from, 671 pulling box up ramp, 793
calls between cities, 416, 425 simple harmonic motion on, 639 pulling wagon, 791, 793, 800
land lines vs. cell phones, 821 Tutoring, hourly pay for, 872 pushing car, 791, 793
sound from touching buttons on, 684, 690 TV. See Television of weightlifter, 785, 794
Telephone numbers Writing pads, cost of, 1128
seven-digit, 1127 V
total possible, in United States, 1097 Vacation lodgings, 864 X
Telephone plans Vacation plan packages, cost of, 877 Xanax, half-life of, 506, 1022
cellular, 180, 905 Vaccine, mixture for flu, 179, 812–814
per-minute costs, 191–192, 198 Value of an annuity, 1075, 1125
Y
Telephone pole Van, groups fitting into, 1104
Yacht, dividing cost of a, 120–121
angle between guy wire and, 562 Velocity vector
tilted, finding length of, 722 of boat, 780
Prerequisites: CHAPTER
Fundamental Concepts
of Algebra P

HERE’S WHERE YOU’LL FIND

THESE APPLICATIONS:
What can algebra possibly have to tell me about College costs: Section P.1,
• the skyrocketing cost of a college education? Example 2; Exercise Set P.1,
• student-loan debt? Exercises 131–132
Student-loan debt: Mid-Chapter
• my workouts?
Check Point, Exercise 42
• the effects of alcohol? Workouts: Exercise Set P.1,
• the meaning of the national debt that is nearly $19 trillion? Exercises 129–130
• time dilation on a futuristic high-speed journey to a nearby star? The effects of alcohol: Blitzer
• racial bias? Bonus beginning on page 15
The national debt: Section P.2,
• ethnic diversity in the United States?
Example 6
• the widening imbalance between numbers of women and men on Time dilation: Blitzer Bonus on
college campuses? page 44
This chapter reviews fundamental concepts of algebra that are Racial bias: Exercise Set P.4,
prerequisites for the study of precalculus. Throughout the Exercises 91–92
chapter, you will see how the special language of algebra U.S. ethnic diversity: Chapter P
Review, Exercise 23
describes your world.
College gender imbalance:
Chapter P Test, Exercise 32.

1
2 Chapter P Prerequisites: Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Section P.1
What am I
supposed to learn?
After studying this section, you
should be able to:
❶ Evaluate algebraic
expressions.
❷ Use mathematical
models.
Find the intersection of
❸
two sets.
❹ Find the union of two sets.
❺ Recognize subsets of the
real numbers.
❻ Use inequality symbols.
Evaluate absolute value.
❼
❽ Use absolute value to
express distance.
❾ Identify properties of the
real numbers.
❿ Simplify algebraic
expressions.
Algebraic Expressions, Mathematical Models,
and Real Numbers
How would your lifestyle change if a gallon of gas cost
$9.15? Or if the price of a staple such as milk was $15?
That’s how much those products would cost if their prices
had increased at the same rate college tuition has increased
since 1980. (Source: Center for College Affordability and
Productivity) In this section, you will learn how the special
language of algebra describes your world, including the
skyrocketing cost of a college education.
Algebraic Expressions
Algebra uses letters, such as x and y, to represent numbers.
If a letter is used to represent various numbers, it is called a
variable. For example, imagine that you are basking in the sun on
the beach. We can let x represent the number of minutes that you can stay
in the sun without burning with no sunscreen. With a number 6 sunscreen,
exposure time without burning is six times as long, or 6 times x. This can be
written 6 # x, but it is usually expressed as 6x. Placing a number and a letter next to
one another indicates multiplication.
Notice that 6x combines the number 6 and the variable x using the operation
of multiplication. A combination of variables and numbers using the operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division, as well as powers or roots, is called
an algebraic expression. Here are some examples of algebraic expressions:
x
x + 6, x - 6, 6x, , 3x + 5, x 2 - 3, 1x + 7.
6
Many algebraic expressions involve exponents. For example, the algebraic
expression
4x 2 + 330x + 3310
approximates the average cost of tuition and fees at public U.S. colleges for the
school year ending x years after 2000. The expression x 2 means x # x and is read
“x to the second power” or “x squared.” The exponent, 2, indicates that the base, x,
appears as a factor two times.
Exponential Notation
If n is a counting number (1, 2, 3, and so on),
'ZRQPGPVQT2QYGT
b n = b ∙ b ∙ b ∙ … ∙ b.
$CUG b appears as a
factor n times.
bn is read “the nth power of b” or “b to the nth power.” Thus, the nth power
of b is defined as the product of n factors of b. The expression bn is called an
exponential expression. Furthermore, b1 = b.
For example,
8 2 = 8 # 8 = 64, 53 = 5 # 5 # 5 = 125, and 24 = 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 = 16.
 Section P.1 Algebraic Expressions, Mathematical Models, and Real Numbers 3

❶ Evaluate algebraic expressions. Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Evaluating an algebraic expression means to find the value of the expression for a
given value of the variable.
Many algebraic expressions involve more than one operation. Evaluating an
algebraic expression without a calculator involves carefully applying the following
order of operations agreement:

The Order of Operations Agreement

1. Perform operations within the innermost parentheses and work outward.
If the algebraic expression involves a fraction, treat the numerator and the
denominator as if they were each enclosed in parentheses.
2. Evaluate all exponential expressions.
3. Perform multiplications and divisions as they occur, working from left
to right.
4. Perform additions and subtractions as they occur, working from left to right.

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluating an Algebraic Expression

Evaluate 7 + 5(x - 4)3 for x = 6.

SOLUTION
7 + 5(x - 4)3 = 7 + 5(6 - 4)3 Replace x with 6.
= 7 + 5(2)3 First work inside parentheses: 6 - 4 = 2.
= 7 + 5(8) Evaluate the exponential expression:
23 = 2 # 2 # 2 = 8.
= 7 + 40 Multiply: 5(8) = 40.
= 47 Add.   

Check Point 1 Evaluate 8 + 6(x - 3)2 for x = 13.

❷ Use mathematical models. Formulas and Mathematical Models

An equation is formed when an equal sign is placed between two algebraic
expressions. One aim of algebra is to provide a compact, symbolic description of the
world. These descriptions involve the use of formulas. A formula is an equation that
uses variables to express a relationship between two or more quantities.
Here are two examples of formulas related to heart rate and exercise.

Couch-Potato Exercise Working It

1 9
H= (220 − a) H= 10
(220 − a)
5

*GCTVTCVGKP KU  QH VJGFKHHGTGPEGDGVYGGP *GCTVTCVGKP KU  QH VJGFKHHGTGPEGDGVYGGP

DGCVURGTOKPWVG  CPF[QWTCIG DGCVURGTOKPWVG  CPF[QWTCIG
4 Chapter P Prerequisites: Fundamental Concepts of Algebra

The process of finding formulas to describe real-world phenomena is called

mathematical modeling. Such formulas, together with the meaning assigned to the
variables, are called mathematical models. We often say that these formulas model,
or describe, the relationships among the variables.

EXAMPLE 2 Modeling the Cost of Attending a Public College

The bar graph in Figure P.1 shows the average cost of tuition and fees for public
four-year colleges, adjusted for inflation. The formula
T = 4x 2 + 330x + 3310
models the average cost of tuition and fees, T, for public U.S. colleges for the school
year ending x years after 2000.
a. Use the formula to find the average cost of tuition and fees at public
U.S. colleges for the school year ending in 2010.
b. By how much does the formula underestimate or overestimate the actual
cost shown in Figure P.1?

Average Cost of Tuition and Fees at Public Four-Year U.S. Colleges

$9500
8893
$9000
$8500
$8000 7702
$7500 7020
Tuition and Fees

$7000
$6500 6185
$6000
5491
$5500
4964
$5000
$4500
$4000 3725
$3500 3362
$3000
FIGURE P.1
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Source: The College
Ending Year in the School Year Board

SOLUTION
a. Because 2010 is 10 years after 2000, we substitute 10 for x in the given
formula. Then we use the order of operations to find T, the average cost of
tuition and fees for the school year ending in 2010.
T = 4x 2 + 330x + 3310 This is the given mathematical model.
2
T = 4(10) + 330(10) + 3310 Replace each occurrence of x with 10.
T = 4(100) + 330(10) + 3310 Evaluate the exponential expression:
102 = 10 # 10 = 100.
T = 400 + 3300 + 3310 Multiply from left to right: 4(100) = 400 and
330(10) = 3300.
T = 7010 Add.
The formula indicates that for the school year ending in 2010, the average
cost of tuition and fees at public U.S. colleges was $7010.
b. Figure P.1 shows that the average cost of tuition and fees for the school year
ending in 2010 was $7020.
The cost obtained from the formula, $7010, underestimates the actual data
value by +7020 - +7010, or by $10.   
 Section P.1 Algebraic Expressions, Mathematical Models, and Real Numbers 5

Blitzer Bonus  Is College Worthwhile?

“Questions have intensified about whether going to college is worthwhile,” says Education Pays, released by the College Board
Advocacy & Policy Center. “For the typical student, the investment pays off very well over the course of a lifetime, even considering
the expense.”
Among the findings in Education Pays:
• Mean (average) full-time earnings with a bachelor’s degree in 2014 were $62,504, which is $27,768 more than high school
graduates.
• Compared with a high school graduate, a four-year college graduate who enrolled in a public university at age 18 will break
even by age 33. The college graduate will have earned enough by then to compensate for being out of the labor force for four
years and for borrowing enough to pay tuition and fees, shown in Figure P.1.

Check Point 2
a. Use the formula T = 4x 2 + 330x + 3310, described in Example 2, to find
the average cost of tuition and fees at public U.S. colleges for the school
year ending in 2014.
b. By how much does the formula underestimate or overestimate the actual
cost shown in Figure P.1?

Sometimes a mathematical model gives an estimate that is not a good

approximation or is extended to include values of the variable that do not make
sense. In these cases, we say that model breakdown has occurred. For example, it is
not likely that the formula in Example 2 would give a good estimate of tuition and
fees in 2050 because it is too far in the future. Thus, model breakdown would occur.

GREAT QUESTION!
Can I use symbols other than
braces when writing sets using the
roster method?
No. Grouping symbols such as
parentheses, ( ), and square
brackets, [ ], are not used to
represent sets in the roster
method. Furthermore, only
commas are used to separate
the elements of a set. Separators
such as colons or semicolons are
not used.
❸ Find the intersection of two sets.
Sets
Before we describe the set of real numbers, let’s be sure you are familiar with some
basic ideas about sets. A set is a collection of objects whose contents can be clearly
determined. The objects in a set are called the elements of the set. For example, the
set of numbers used for counting can be represented by
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, c}.
The braces, { }, indicate that we are representing a set. This form of representation,
called the roster method, uses commas to separate the elements of the set. The
symbol consisting of three dots after the 5, called an ellipsis, indicates that there is no
final element and that the listing goes on forever.
A set can also be written in set-builder notation. In this notation, the elements of
the set are described but not listed. Here is an example:
{xx is a counting number less than 6}.
6JGUGVQHCNNx UWEJVJCV xKUCEQWPVKPIPWODGTNGUUVJCP
The same set written using the roster method is
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
If A and B are sets, we can form a new set consisting of all elements that are in
both A and B. This set is called the intersection of the two sets.

Definition of the Intersection of Sets

The intersection of sets A and B, written A ¨ B, is the set of elements common
to both set A and set B. This definition can be expressed in set-builder notation
as follows:
A ¨ B = {x x is an element of A AND x is an element of B}.
6 Chapter P Prerequisites: Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
A B
A∩B
FIGURE P.2 Picturing the intersection
of two sets
❹ Find the union of two sets.
A B
A∪B
FIGURE P.3 Picturing the union of
two sets
GREAT QUESTION!
How can I use the words union
and intersection to help me
distinguish between these two
operations?
Union, as in a marriage union,
suggests joining things, or uniting
them. Intersection, as in the
intersection of two crossing
streets, brings to mind the area
common to both, suggesting
things that overlap.
Figure P.2 shows a useful way of picturing the intersection of sets A and B. The
figure indicates that A ¨ B contains those elements that belong to both A and B at
the same time.
EXAMPLE 3 Finding the Intersection of Two Sets
Find the intersection: {7, 8, 9, 10, 11} ¨ {6, 8, 10, 12}.
SOLUTION
The elements common to {7, 8, 9, 10, 11} and {6, 8, 10, 12} are 8 and 10. Thus,
{7, 8, 9, 10, 11} ¨ {6, 8, 10, 12} = {8, 10}.   
Check Point 3 Find the intersection: {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} ¨ {3, 7, 8, 9}.
If a set has no elements, it is called the empty set, or the null set, and is represented
by the symbol ∅ (the Greek letter phi). Here is an example that shows how the
empty set can result when finding the intersection of two sets:
{2, 4, 6} ∩ {3, 5, 7} = ∅.
6JGUGUGVUJCXGPQ 6JGKTKPVGTUGEVKQP
EQOOQPGNGOGPVU JCUPQGNGOGPVU
CPFKUVJGGORV[UGV
Another set that we can form from sets A and B consists of elements that are in
A or B or in both sets. This set is called the union of the two sets.
Definition of the Union of Sets
The union of sets A and B, written A ∪ B, is the set of elements that are members
of set A or of set B or of both sets. This definition can be expressed in set-builder
notation as follows:
A ∪ B = {x x is an element of A OR x is an element of B}.
Figure P.3 shows a useful way of picturing the union of sets A and B. The figure
indicates that A ∪ B is formed by joining the sets together.
We can find the union of set A and set B by listing the elements of set A. Then we
include any elements of set B that have not already been listed. Enclose all elements
that are listed with braces. This shows that the union of two sets is also a set.
EXAMPLE 4 Finding the Union of Two Sets
Find the union: {7, 8, 9, 10, 11} ∪ {6, 8, 10, 12}.
SOLUTION
To find {7, 8, 9, 10, 11} ∪ {6, 8, 10, 12}, start by listing all the elements from the first
set, namely, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11. Now list all the elements from the second set that
are not in the first set, namely, 6 and 12. The union is the set consisting of all these
elements. Thus,
{7, 8, 9, 10, 11} ∪ {6, 8, 10, 12} = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}.
#NVJQWIJCPFCRRGCTKPDQVJUGVU FQPQVNKUVCPFVYKEG
   
Check Point 4 Find the union: {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} ∪ {3, 7, 8, 9}.
 Section P.1 Algebraic Expressions, Mathematical Models, and Real Numbers 7

❺ Recognize subsets of the real The Set of Real Numbers

numbers. The sets that make up the real numbers are summarized in Table P.1. We refer to
these sets as subsets of the real numbers, meaning that all elements in each subset
are also elements in the set of real numbers.

Table P.1 Important Subsets of the Real Numbers

Name/Symbol Description Examples
Natural numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, c} 2, 3, 5, 17
ℕ These are the numbers that we use for counting.
Whole numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, c } 0, 2, 3, 5, 17
𝕎 The set of whole numbers includes 0 and the natural numbers.
Integers {c, - 5, - 4, -3, - 2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, c} -17, -5, - 3, - 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 17
ℤ The set of integers includes the negatives of the natural numbers
and the whole numbers.

{ ba  a and b are integers and b ≠ 0 }

- 17 -5
-17 = 1 , -5 = 1 , - 3, - 2,
Rational numbers
0, 2, 3, 5, 17,
ℚ
6JKUOGCPUVJCVbKUPQVGSWCNVQ\GTQ 2
5 = 0.4,

The set of rational numbers is the set of all numbers that can be
-2
3 = -0.6666 c= - 0.6
expressed as a quotient of two integers, with the denominator
not 0. Rational numbers can be expressed as terminating or
repeating decimals.
Irrational numbers The set of irrational numbers is the set of all numbers whose 12 ≈ 1.414214
𝕀 decimal representations are neither terminating nor repeating.
- 13 ≈ - 1.73205
Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as a quotient of integers.
p ≈ 3.142
- p2 ≈ -1.571

Notice the use of the symbol ≈ in the examples of irrational numbers. The
symbol means “is approximately equal to.” Thus,

22 ≈ 1.414214.

TECHNOLOGY We can verify that this is only an approximation by multiplying 1.414214 by itself.
A calculator with a square root The product is very close to, but not exactly, 2:
key gives a decimal approximation
for 22, not the exact value. 1.414214 * 1.414214 = 2.000001237796.
Not all square roots are irrational. For example, 225 = 5 because
Real numbers 52 = 5 # 5 = 25. Thus, 225 is a natural number, a whole number, an integer, and a
Rational Irrational rational number 1 225 = 51 2 .
numbers numbers The set of real numbers is formed by taking the union of the sets of rational
Integers
numbers and irrational numbers. Thus, every real number is either rational or
Whole irrational, as shown in Figure P.4.
numbers
Natural
numbers
Real Numbers
FIGURE P.4 Every real number is The set of real numbers is the set of numbers that are either rational or irrational:
either rational or irrational.
{x x is rational or x is irrational}.

The symbol ℝ is used to represent the set of real numbers. Thus,

ℝ = {x x is rational} ∪ {x x is irrational}.
8 Chapter P Prerequisites: Fundamental Concepts of Algebra

EXAMPLE 5 Recognizing Subsets of the Real Numbers

Consider the following set of numbers:
3
e -7, - , 0, 0.6,25, p, 7.3, 281 f.
4
List the numbers in the set that are
a. natural numbers. b. whole numbers. c. integers.
d. rational numbers. e. irrational numbers. f. real numbers.

SOLUTION
a. Natural numbers: The natural numbers are the numbers used for counting.
The only natural number in the set 5 -7, - 34 , 0, 0.6, 15, p, 7.3, 181 6 is
181 because 181 = 9. (9 multiplied by itself, or 9 2, is 81.)
b. Whole numbers: The whole numbers consist of the natural numbers and 0.
The elements of the set 5 -7, - 34, 0, 0.6, 15, p, 7.3, 181 6 that are whole
numbers are 0 and 181.
c. Integers: The integers consist of the natural numbers, 0, and the negatives
of the natural numbers. The elements of the set 5 -7, - 34, 0, 0.6, 15, p, 7.3,
181 6 that are integers are 181, 0, and -7.
d. Rational numbers: All numbers in the set 5 -7, - 34, 0, 0.6, 15, p, 7.3, 181 6
that can be expressed as the quotient of integers are rational numbers. These
include -7 1 -7 = -17 2 , - 34, 0 1 0 = 01 2 , and 181 1 181 = 91 2 . Furthermore,
all numbers in the set that are terminating or repeating decimals are also
rational numbers. These include 0.6 and 7.3.
e. Irrational numbers: The irrational numbers in the set 5 -7, - 34, 0, 0.6, 15, p,
7.3, 181 6 are 15 1 15 ≈ 2.236 2 and p(p ≈ 3.14). Both 15 and p are
only approximately equal to 2.236 and 3.14, respectively. In decimal form,
15 and p neither terminate nor have blocks of repeating digits.
f. Real numbers: All the numbers in the given set 5 -7, - 34, 0, 0.6,
15, p, 7.3, 181 6 are real numbers.   

Check Point 5 Consider the following set of numbers:

p
e -9, -1.3, 0, 0.3, , 29 , 210 f.
2
List the numbers in the set that are
a. natural numbers b. whole numbers c. integers
d. rational numbers e. irrational numbers f. real numbers.

The Real Number Line

The real number line is a graph used to represent the set of real numbers. An arbitrary
point, called the origin, is labeled 0. Select a point to the right of 0 and label it 1. The
distance from 0 to 1 is called the unit distance. Numbers to the right of the origin are
positive and numbers to the left of the origin are negative. The real number line is
shown in Figure P.5.

Negative Positive
direction –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 direction

Negative numbers Positive numbers

FIGURE P.5 The real number line
 Section P.1 Algebraic Expressions, Mathematical Models, and Real Numbers 9

GREAT QUESTION! Real numbers are graphed on a number line by placing a dot at the correct
How did you locate !2 as a location for each number. The integers are easiest to locate. In Figure P.6, we’ve
precise point on the number line graphed six rational numbers and three irrational numbers on a real number line.
in Figure P.6?
We used a right triangle with two
legs of length 1. The remaining 4CVKQPCN
PWODGTU – –   = 


 = 
side has a length measuring 12.
!=

1 1
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
√2 +TTCVKQPCN
PWODGTU –!≈– p≈
0 1 2
!≈

! FIGURE P.6 Graphing numbers on a real number line

We’ll have lots more to say about

right triangles later in the book. Every real number corresponds to a point on the number line and every
point on the number line corresponds to a real number. We say that there is a
one-to-one correspondence between all the real numbers and all points on a real
number line.

➏ Use inequality symbols. Ordering the Real Numbers

On the real number line, the real numbers increase from left to right. The lesser of
two real numbers is the one farther to the left on a number line. The greater of two
real numbers is the one farther to the right on a number line.
Look at the number line in Figure P.7. The integers -4 and -1 are graphed.

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 FIGURE P.7

Observe that -4 is to the left of -1 on the number line. This means that -4 is less
than -1.

–KUNGUUVJCP–DGECWUG–KUVQ
–4 < –1 VJGNGHVQH–QPVJGPWODGTNKPG

In Figure P.7, we can also observe that -1 is to the right of -4 on the number line.
This means that -1 is greater than -4.

–KUITGCVGTVJCP–DGECWUG–KUVQ
–1 > –4 VJGTKIJVQH–QPVJGPWODGTNKPG

The symbols 6 and 7 are called inequality symbols. These symbols always point
to the lesser of the two real numbers when the inequality statement is true.

–KUNGUUVJCP– The symbol points to -4, the lesser

–4 < –1
number.
–KUITGCVGTVJCP– The symbol still points to -4, the
–1 > –4
lesser number.
The symbols 6 and 7 may be combined with an equal sign, as shown in the
following table:

6JKUKPGSWCNKV[KUVTWG Symbols Meaning Examples Explanation

KHGKVJGTVJG<RCTVQT
VJG=RCTVKUVTWG 2≤9 Because 2 < 9
a≤b a is less than or equal to b.
9≤9 Because 9 = 9
6JKUKPGSWCNKV[KUVTWG
9≥2 Because 9 > 2
KHGKVJGTVJG>RCTVQT b≥a b is greater than or equal to a.
VJG=RCTVKUVTWG 2≥2 Because 2 = 2
10 Chapter P Prerequisites: Fundamental Concepts of Algebra

❼ Evaluate absolute value. Absolute Value

The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by  a , is the distance from 0 to a on
the number line. This distance is always taken to be nonnegative. For example, the
real number line in Figure P.8 shows that

–3 = 3 5 = 5
 -3 = 3 and  5 = 5.
The absolute value of -3 is 3 because -3 is 3 units from 0 on the number line.
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 The absolute value of 5 is 5 because 5 is 5 units from 0 on the number line. The
FIGURE P.8 Absolute value as the absolute value of a positive real number or 0 is the number itself. The absolute value
distance from 0 of a negative real number, such as -3, is the number without the negative sign.
We can define the absolute value of the real number x without referring to a
number line. The algebraic definition of the absolute value of x is given as follows:

Definition of Absolute Value

x if x Ú 0
 x = b
-x if x 6 0

If x is nonnegative (that is, x Ú 0), the absolute value of x is the number itself. For
example,
<GTQKUVJGQPN[PWODGT
5 = 5 p = p  =
1
3
1
3
0 = 0.
YJQUGCDUQNWVGXCNWGKU

If x is a negative number (that is, x 6 0), the absolute value of x is the opposite of x.
This makes the absolute value positive. For example,
–3 = –(–3) = 3 –p = –(–p) = p  – 13  = –Q– 13 R = 13 .
6JKUOKFFNGUVGRKUWUWCNN[QOKVVGF

Observe that the absolute value of any nonzero number is always positive.

EXAMPLE 6 Evaluating Absolute Value

Rewrite each expression without absolute value bars:
|x|
a. 0 23 - 1 0 b.  2 - p c. if x 6 0.
x

SOLUTION
a. Because 23 ≈ 1.7, the number inside the absolute value bars, 23 - 1, is
positive. The absolute value of a positive number is the number itself. Thus,
0 23 - 1 0 = 23 - 1.
b. Because p ≈ 3.14, the number inside the absolute value bars, 2 - p, is
negative. The absolute value of x when x 6 0 is -x. Thus,
 2 - p = -(2 - p) = p - 2.
c. If x 6 0, then |x| = -x. Thus,
 x -x
= = -1.   
x x

Check Point 6 Rewrite each expression without absolute value bars:

 x
a. 0 1 - 22 0 b.  p - 3 c. if x 7 0.
x
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN