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ESSENTIALS OF KUMAR & CLARK’S CLINICAL MEDICINE
ESSENTIALS
SERIES EDITORS
Edited by
NICOLA ZAMMITT
MBChB, BSc(Med Sci), MD, FRCP(Edin)
Consultant Physician and Honorary Clinical Senior Lecturer,
Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
ALASTAIR O’BRIEN
MBBS, BSc, PhD, FRCP
Reader in Experimental Hepatology, University College
London Consultant Hepatologist, UCLH &
The Royal Free Hospital NHS Trusts, London, UK
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information
about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the
Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.
com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
ISBN 9780702066030
Int’l ISBN 9780702066054
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the
most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each
product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration
of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own
experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best
treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or
ideas contained in the material herein.
Printed in China
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface vii
Contributors ix
Medical emergencies xi
Abbreviations xv
Significant websites xxix
Nicola Zammitt
Contributors
Jennifer C. Crane MRCP DTM&H
Consultant Acute Medicine and Infectious Diseases
Western General Hospital
Edinburgh, UK
2. Infectious diseases
Euan A. Sandilands MD FRCP(Edin) PGCert (MedEd)
Consultant Physician in Clinical Toxicology and Acute Medicine. National Poisons
Information Service (Edinburgh), Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, UK
13. Clinical pharmacology and toxicology
Katharine F. Strachan MA, FRCP
Consultant Physician, Acute & General Medicine
Clinical Lead for Medical Ethics Education
Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, UK
1. Ethics and communication
Medical emergencies
SYMPTOM BASED
Acute chest pain 409
Acute breathlessness 507
Coma 741–745
Delirium (toxic confusional state) 799–800
Fever in the returned traveller 22–24
Headache 717–719
Shock 578b
SYSTEM BASED
Infectious diseases and tropical medicine
Septicaemia 14–16
Fever in the returned traveller 22–24
Malaria 24–29
Gastroenterology and nutrition
Oesophageal perforation 80–81
Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding 91b
Lower gastrointestinal bleeding 93–94
Intestinal ischaemia 100
Acute severe colitis 107b
The acute abdomen 119–121
Liver, biliary tract and pancreatic disease
Acute hepatic failure 160–164
Bleeding oesophageal varices 168–170
Acute cholecystitis 187
Acute cholangitis 188
Acute pancreatitis 189–193
Diseases of the blood and haematological malignancies
Fever in the neutropenic patient 208b
Sickle cell crisis 217
Warfarin excess 249
Malignant disease
Superior vena cava syndrome 257
Acute tumour lysis syndrome 257–258
Spinal cord compression 782–785
Fever in the neutropenic patient 208b
Hypercalcaemia 653–656
xii Medical emergencies
Rheumatology
Septic arthritis 300–301
Acute monoarthritis 301b
Giant cell arteritis 781–782
Water and electrolytes
Hyponatraemia 339
Hypernatraemia 340–341
Hypokalaemia 341–342
Hyperkalaemia 345b
Hypomagnesaemia 344–346
Hypermagnesaemia 346
Disorders of acid–base balance 346–347
Renal disease
Renal colic 382–384
Kidney injury 386–390
Cardiovascular disease
Acute chest pain 409
Cardiac arrhythmias 421–422
Cardiac arrest 434b–435b
Acute heart failure 445b
Acute coronary syndrome 452b
ST elevation myocardial infarction 456b
Pulmonary embolism 475b
Pericardial tamponade 480–482
Severe hypertension 487
Ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm 487–488
Aortic dissection 487–488
Deep venous thrombosis 488
Respiratory disease
Acute breathlessness 507
Massive haemoptysis 507
Inhaled foreign body 515
Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive airways disease 520–522
Acute severe asthma 533b
Pneumonia 538
Pneumothorax 563
Intensive care medicine
Shock 578b
Anaphylaxis 576b
Medical emergencies xiii
Sepsis 577
Respiratory failure 582–586
Poisoning, drug and alcohol abuse
Drug overdose 598b, 592–595
Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome 162–163
Alcohol withdrawal 163b
Delirium tremens 163
Endocrinology
Myxoedema coma 623b
Thyroid crisis 626–627
Addisonian crisis 639
Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion 651–653
Hypercalcaemia 656b
Hypocalcaemia 656–658
Hypophosphataemia 659–660
Hypothermia 661b
Hyperthermia 662
Diabetes mellitus and other disorders of metabolism
Hypoglycaemia 675–677
Diabetic ketoacidosis 679b
Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state 680–681
The special senses
Epistaxis 706–707
Stridor 707–708
The red eye 708–709
Sudden loss of vision 715b
Neurology
Headache 715–719
Coma 741–745
Transient ischaemic attack 747–748
Stroke 751b–752b
Intracranial haemorrhage 753–756
Status epilepticus 759b
Meningitis 771b
Encephalitis 771–772
Giant cell arteritis (temporal arteritis) 781–782
Spinal cord compression 782–785
Guillain–Barre syndrome 793–794
Delirium (toxic confusional state) 799–800
xiv Medical emergencies
Dermatology
Necrotizing fasciitis 809
Gas gangrene 809
Angio-oedema 813–814
Bullous disease 819–820
Abbreviations
AAT α1-antitrypsin
ABPM ambulatory blood pressure monitoring
ABV alcohol by volume
ABVD chemotherapy involving doxorubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine,
dacarbazine
ACBT active cycle of breathing technique
ACE angiotensin-converting enzyme
ACEI angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor
ACR urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio
ACSs acute coronary syndromes
ACT artemisinin combination therapy
ACTH adrenocorticotrophic hormone
ADA American Diabetes Association
ADC AIDS–dementia complex
ADH antidiuretic hormone
ADP adenosine diphosphate
ADPKD autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease
AED automated external defibrillator
AEDs antiepileptic drugs
AF atrial fibrillation
AFP α-fetoprotein
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AIH autoimmune hepatitis
AKI acute kidney injury
AKIN Acute Kidney Injury Network
ALL acute lymphoblastic leukaemia
ALP alkaline phosphatase
ALS advanced life support
ALT alanine aminotransferase
AMAs antimitochondrial antibodies
AML acute myeloid leukaemia
AMP adenosine monophosphate
ANA antinuclear antibodies
ANCA antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies
ANF antinuclear factor
xvi Abbreviations
MDR multidrug-resistant
MDRD modification of diet in renal disease
MDS myelodysplastic syndrome
MDT multidisciplinary team
ME myalgic encephalomyelitis
MEN multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes
MERS-CoV Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus
MEWS Modified Early Warning Score
MG myasthenia gravis
MHRA Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency
MI myocardial infarction
mIBG meta-[131I]-iodobenzylguanidine
MMR measles, mumps and rubella
MMSE Mini Mental State Examination
MODS multiple organ dysfunction syndrome
MPTP methylphenyltetrahydropyridine
MR magnetic resonance
MRCP magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
MRSA meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
MS multiple sclerosis
MSU mid-stream urine
M–W tear Mallory–Weiss tear
N neuraminidase
Na+ concentration of sodium ions
NAC N-acetylcysteine
NAFLD non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
NAPQI N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine
NBT-PABA N-benzoyl-L-tryosyl-p-amino benzoic acid
nd notifiable disease
NDI nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
NERD non-erosive reflux disease
NG nasogastric
NHL non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
NHS National Health Service
NICE National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
NIPPV non-invasive positive-pressure ventilation
NK natural killer (cell)
NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate
NOACs novel oral anticoagulants
xxiv Abbreviations
Ph Philadelphia
PHN post-herpetic neuralgia
PIPJs proximal interphalangeal joints
PM polymyositis
PMF progressive massive fibrosis
PML progressive multi-focal leucoencephalopathy
PML-RARa fusion protein involving promyelocytic leukaemia gene and
retinoic acid receptor alpha
PMR polymyalgia
POEM per oral endoscopic myotomy
PPAR-γ peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma
PPI proton pump inhibitor
PPMS primary progressive multiple sclerosis
PPS phosphoribosyl-pyrophosphate synthetase
PR per rectum (rectal instillation)
PSA prostate-specific antigen
PSC primary sclerosing cholangitis
PSE portosystemic encephalopathy
PT prothrombin time
PTC percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography
PTCA percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
PTH parathyroid hormone
PTTK partial thromboplastin time with kaolin
PU peptic ulcer, peptic ulceration
PUO pyrexia (or fever) of unknown origin
PUVA ultraviolet A radiation in conjunction with a photosensitizing
agent, oral or topical psoralen
PVS persistent vegetative state
PWP pulmonary wedge pressure
RA rheumatoid arthritis
RANK receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB
RANKL RANK ligand
RAPD relative afferent pupillary defect
RAS renal artery stenosis
RAST radioallergosorbent test
RBBB right bundle branch block
RCC red cell count
RDW red blood cell distribution width
RFA radiofrequency ablation
Rh rhesus
RhF rheumatoid factor
xxvi Abbreviations
RIA radioimmunoassay
RIF right iliac fossa
RIFLE Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, End-stage renal disease
criteria
RNA ribonucleic acid
RNP ribonucleoprotein
r-PA reteplase
RR respiratory rate
RRMS relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis
RSR0 secondary R wave
RT-PCR reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction
RUQ right upper quadrant
RV right ventricle
RV residual volume
RVSD right ventricular systolic dysfunction
SA node sinus node
SAH subarachnoid haemorrhage
SALT Speech and Language Therapy
SaO2 arterial oxygen saturation
SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome
SBAR Situation-Background-Assessment-Recommendations
SBE subacute (bacterial) endocarditis
SBFT small bowel follow-through
SBP spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
SBP systolic blood pressure
s.c. subcutaneous
SCC squamous cell carcinoma
SCr serum creatinine
ScvO2 central venous oxyhaemoglobin saturation
SDH subdural haematoma
SDs standard deviations
SERMs selective oestrogen receptor modulators
SGLT2 sodium/glucose transporter 2
SIADH syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion
SIRS systemic inflammatory response syndrome
SLE systemic lupus erythematosus
SP standardized patient
SPECT single photon emission computed tomography
SR slow-release
SRH stigmata of recent haemorrhage
SS Sj€ogren’s syndrome
Abbreviations xxvii
General websites
Medical dictionaries
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/
http://www.online-medical-dictionary.org/
http://www.bma.org
British Medical Association. A library, excellent ethics section and healthcare
information. More sections for members
Medical calculators
http://www.mdcalc.com/
http://medicineworld.org/online-medical-calculators.html
Clinical calculators and formulas for many conditions, e.g. sodium correction
rate in hyponatraemia, APACHE II score and anion gap
Others
http://www.medilexicon.com/icd9codes.php
Search for the definitions of ICD9/ICD-9-CM codes
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed
PubMed: Medline on the Web
http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk
http://www.patient.co.uk
Information for patients on diseases, operations and investigations
http://www.medicalert.org.uk
Charity providing a life-saving identification system for individuals with hidden
medical conditions and allergies
Chapter-specific websites
1 Ethics and communication
http://www.bma.org.uk/ethics
British Medical Association ethics site
http://www.ethics-network.org.uk
UK Clinical Ethics Network
http://www.gmc-uk.org/
General Medical Council
Significant websites xxxi
https://www.bioethics.nih.gov/home/index.shtml
National Institutes of Health website – bioethics pages
www.each.eu
European Association for Communication in Healthcare
https://www.wma.net/policy/
World Medical Association policy
2 Infectious diseases
http://www.cdc.gov
US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC). The CDC has a major role in public health efforts to prevent
and control infectious and chronic diseases, injuries, workplace hazards,
disabilities and environmental health threats
https://www.gov.uk/government/groups/expert-advisory-group-on-
aids#announcements-and-publications
Department of Health Expert Advisory Group on AIDS: information about post-
exposure prophylaxis, guidelines for pre-test discussion on HIV testing and risks
of transmission
http://www.hivatis.org/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: HIV/AIDS treatment/information
service
http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/Pages/home.aspx
European Centre for Disease Control
http://www.nfid.org
National Foundation for Infectious Disease, USA
http://www.hpa.org.uk
Health Protection Agency website. Provides up-to-date information for medical
practitioners on some infectious diseases and their prevention, particularly those
that are new or where an epidemic is expected
http://www.phls.co.uk/
UK Public Health Laboratory Service: UK regional information on infections
http://www.who.int/en
The World Health Organization is the United Nations specialized agency for
health. The website provides information and fact sheets on many infectious
diseases, and much more
http://www.gastro.org/practice/medical-position-statements
American Gastroenterology Association medical position statements provide
preferred approaches to specific medical problems or issues
5 Haematological disease
http://www.bcshguidelines.com
The British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines for medical
practitioners on diagnosis and treatment of haematological diseases
http://www.hematology.org
American Society of Haematology. Clinical guidelines, self-assessment
programme, teaching cases and video library
6 Malignant disease
http://www.cancer.gov
US National Cancer Institute provides cancer statistics, patient information and
clinical trials
http://www.endoflifecare-intelligence.org.uk/home
NHS National End of Life Care Programme
7 Rheumatology
http://www.rheumatology.org.uk
The British Society for Rheumatology. Clinical guidelines for medical
practitioners
http://www.arthritisresearchuk.org
Arthritis Research UK. Publications on musculoskeletal conditions
http://www.nos.org.uk
National Osteoporosis Society. Guidance on investigation and management of
osteoporosis
http://www.rheumatology.org/Practice-Quality/Clinical-Support/Clinical-
Practice-Guidelines
American College of Rheumatology clinical practice guidelines
http://www.kidney.org/professionals/kdoqi/guidelines.cfm
National Kidney Foundation clinical practice guidelines
http://www.renal.org
The Renal Association guidelines
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg174/chapter/1-recommendations
NICE guideline (CG174): Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital (published
December 2013)
10 Cardiovascular disease
http://www.erc.edu
European Resuscitation Council (ERC). Latest guidelines on resuscitation, as
well as a full overview of the ERC educational tools such as manuals, posters and
slides
http://www.resus.org.uk
Resuscitation Council (UK). Resuscitation guidelines
http://www.escardio.org
European Society of Cardiology clinical practice guidelines
http://www.cardiosource.org
American College of Cardiology
http://www.ecglibrary.com
ECG tracings library to help improve ECG skills
11 Respiratory disease
http://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk
British Thoracic Society. Clinical practice guidelines and clinical information
http://www.goldcopd.org
The WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Clinical
guidelines on diagnosis, treatment and prevention of COPD
http://www.thoracic.org
American Thoracic Society, clinical practice guidelines
http://www.asthma.org.uk – Asthma UK
http://www.goldcopd.org – The WHO Global Initiative for COPD
http://www.thoracic.org – American Thoracic Society
http://www.quitsmoking.com – The Quit Smoking Company
http://www.quitsmokinguk.com – NHS Quit Smoking Service
14 Endocrine disease
http://endocrine.niddk.nih.gov
US National Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service
http://www.endocrinology.org
Society for Endocrinology. Clinical updates, clinical cases and publications
related to endocrinology
http://www.british-thyroid-association.org
British Thyroid Association
17 Neurology
http://www.theabn.org
Documents relating to evidence-based neurology
18 Dermatology
http://www.dermatlas.net/
A collection of 11 750 images in dermatology and skin disease
http://www.bad.org.uk
British Association of Dermatologists clinical guidelines and other professional
information.
Therapeutics
http://bnf.org – British National Formulary. Authoritative and practical
information on the selection and clinical use of drugs
http://www.dtb.org.uk/idtb – Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin. Independent
reviews of medical treatment.
Registration is necessary for these websites.
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1 Ethics and
communication
Ethical and legal issues are integrally involved with patient care. A doctor with
clinical responsibility for a patient has three corresponding duties of care:
• Protect life and health. Clinicians should practise medicine to a high
standard and not cause unnecessary suffering or harm. Treatment
should only be given when it is thought to be beneficial to that patient.
Competent patients have the right to refuse treatment, including life-
sustaining treatment. Such decisions should be informed by a clear
explanation about the consequences of refusal.
• Respect the right to autonomy. Clinicians must protect the patient’s right
to respect for autonomy and self-determination, and support patients in
reasoning, planning and making choices about their future. Wherever
possible, patients should remain responsible for themselves. Informed
consent gives meaning to autonomy and, alongside the duty to respect
patient confidentiality and human dignity, represents a fundamental feature
of good medical practice.
• Protect life and health, and respect autonomy with fairness and justice.
All patients have the right to be treated equally and without prejudice
or favouritism, regardless of race, fitness, gender, sexuality or social class.
Various regulatory bodies, common law and the Human Rights Act 1998 reg-
ulate medical practice and ensure that doctors take their duties of care
seriously. The ethical standards expected of healthcare professionals by their
regulatory bodies (for example in the UK, the General Medical Council (GMC),
the Royal College of Physicians and British Medical Association) may at times
be higher than the minimum required by law.
• Sufficiently informed
• Continuing, i.e. patients can change their mind at any time.
Capacity
Patients must have capacity in order to make choices about their health or
treatment. Patients over the age of 16 are presumed to have capacity to con-
sent to treatment unless it can be shown otherwise, and judgements about
capacity must not be assumed by specific diagnoses or impairments. Capacity
to consent to treatment requires that the patient must be able to comprehend
and retain information given about the proposed treatment, use this information
in the decision-making process and be able to communicate their decision.
Capacity is not an ‘all-or-nothing’ concept; patients may have the capacity
for some choices but not others, and capacity can fluctuate. Hence, assess-
ments of capacity are decision specific and should be reviewed regularly.
Doctors should be aware of factors which can enhance or diminish a patient’s
capacity. A competent patient’s decision about their care or treatment must be
respected regardless of whether doctors agree with it or not.
Information disclosure
The amount of information doctors provide to each patient will vary according to
factors such as the nature and severity of the condition, the complexity of the
treatment, the risks associated with the treatment or procedure and the
patient’s own wishes.
In the consent process, enough information must be provided to inform the
patient’s decisions. Any discussion with the patient should be supplemented by
written information where relevant. The amount of information that doctors
share with patients will vary depending upon what the individual patient will
want or need to know. For a patient who does not speak the native language
this must be done with the aid of a health advocate. The type of information
provided should include:
• Details and uncertainties of the diagnosis
• The purpose of the investigation or treatment
• Options for treatment including the option not to treat
• The likely benefits and probabilities of success for each option
• Known possible side effects or risks of treatment: decide what information
about risks a ‘reasonable person’ in the position of the patient would want to
know before agreeing to treatment. Doctors should be alert to the particular
concerns or priorities of the individual patient and risks which may be
significant for that patient must be discussed, even if the likelihood of
occurrence is small.
• The name of the doctor who will have overall responsibility
• A reminder that the patient can change his or her mind at any time.
Legally valid consent 3
Obtaining consent
The clinician providing the treatment or investigation is responsible for ensuring
that the patient has given valid consent before treatment begins. Consent may be
verbal (e.g. for venepuncture) or written (e.g. always for a surgical procedure).
However, it should be remembered that a signed consent form is not legal or
professional proof that proper informed consent has been obtained. The person
obtaining consent should be the surgeon/physician who is doing the procedure or
an assistant who is fully competent to carry out the procedure and therefore
understands the potential complications. It is not acceptable for a junior doctor
who does not perform and fully understand the procedure to obtain consent.
Special circumstances
Adults who lack capacity to consent
In an emergency situation, doctors treating an adult patient who lacks capacity
to consent to treatment can legally give treatment if it is necessary to save their
life, or to prevent them from incurring serious and permanent injury.
The treatment of adults who lack capacity is governed by the Mental Capacity
Act (MCA) 2005 in England and Wales and the Adults with Incapacity (Scotland)
Act 2000 in Scotland. Doctors treating patients who lack capacity to consent to
treatment must decide if the proposed treatment is in the overall best interests of
the patient. This assessment goes beyond the patient’s medical interests and
should take account of their wishes or preferences if these can be ascertained.
The proposed treatment should be discussed with the relatives (if appropriate) in
order to obtain an indication of what the patient’s wishes or preferences would
be, but family should not be asked to provide consent. However, patients may
appoint a proxy decision maker (e.g. lasting power of attorney) with the legal
authority to express consent or refuse treatment on their behalf in the event
of incapacity. Any treatment(s) provided in the patient’s best interests should
be proportionate i.e offer a reasonable chance of benefit without being overly
burdensome and should be the least restrictive option available.
Advance decisions
Competent adults acting free from pressure and who understand the implica-
tions of their choice(s) can make an advance decision (sometimes known as a
living will) about how they wish to be treated should they lose capacity. The
advance decision should be a clear oral or written instruction refusing one
or more medical procedures, or a statement that specifies a degree of irrevers-
ible deterioration after which no life-sustaining treatment should be given
(advance decisions to refuse life-sustaining treatment must be written and wit-
nessed). An advance decision cannot be used to demand treatment or refuse
basic care. Advance statements are binding provided that the patient criteria
4 Ethics and communication
outlined above are fulfilled, the statement is specific and clearly applicable to
the current circumstances and there is no reason to believe that the patient has
changed their mind. Where ambiguity exists about the validity of an advance
decision, the presumption should be to save life. Advance decisions have dif-
ferent legal force within the UK and doctors should familiarize themselves with
the relevant legislation in the jurisdiction in which they work.
Children
In the UK, the legal age of presumed competence to consent to treatment is
16 years. Below this age, those with parental responsibility are the legal proxies
for their children and usually consent to treatment on their behalf. In the
absence of someone with parental responsibility, e.g. in an emergency where
urgent treatment is required, doctors can proceed on the basis of the child’s
best interests. Some children under 16 years may be able to legally give effec-
tive consent to medical treatment provided they have sufficient understanding
and intelligence (so called Gillick competence). At any age, an attempt should
be made to explain fully the procedures and potential outcomes to the child,
even if the child is too young to be fully legally competent.
Teaching
It is necessary to obtain a patient’s consent for a student or observer to sit in
during a consultation. The patient has the right to refuse without affecting the
subsequent consultation. Consent must also be obtained if any additional pro-
cedure or examination is to be carried out on an anaesthetized patient solely for
the purposes of teaching. Consent must also be obtained if a video or audio
recording is to be made of a procedure or consultation and subsequently used
for teaching purposes.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Decisions about cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be made in consul-
tation with the patient (or their representatives if they lack capacity), unless
discussing this would cause significant harm. Harm must constitute more than
the patient getting upset. A ‘do not attempt CPR’ (DNACPR) order is appropriate
when a patient refuses CPR or when it offers no realistic chance of success. If CPR
might be successful it may still be inappropriate due to the likelihood of adverse
outcomes based on the patient’s current circumstances. If it is not practical to
discuss CPR with the patient or their representative and a decision is needed,
the decision should be discussed at the earliest, practicable opportunity. Discus-
sions about CPR should form part of a wider discussion about goals of care and the
type of treatment(s) patients wish to receive in the event of deteriorating health.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Confidentiality is an essential prerequisite for a therapeutic relationship. Med-
ical information belongs to the patient and should not be disclosed to other
parties, including relatives, without the informed consent of the patient. Doctors
who breach confidentiality may face legal and professional sanctions. However,
the duty of confidence may be breached if disclosure is required by law or is
justified in the public interest. In the UK, guidance on such circumstances is
available from the GMC. In this event, doctors should seek patient consent
for disclosure. Where a breach of confidence is justified, patients should be
informed (where appropriate) about the doctor’s intention to breach and disclo-
sure should be proportionate and limited to those who need to know. Doctors
should be able to justify their decision to breach confidentiality.
COMMUNICATION
Patient-centred communication improves health outcomes and symptom res-
olution, increases patient adherence to therapies, increases patient and clini-
cian satisfaction, reduces litigation and enhances patient safety. A relationship
based on trust and mutual respect allows information to be exchanged to reach
6 Ethics and communication
a shared understanding between the patient and his/her doctor about the
illness and/or its treatment. Most complaints against doctors are not based
on failures of biomedical practice but on poor communication. Patients identify
the following features of a good consultation:
• Explanation of the process to the patient
• Asking the patient relevant questions to formulate a diagnosis
• Asking patients to express their opinion
• Use of active listening and avoidance of inappropriate interruptions
• Tailored explanations followed by a check of the patient’s understanding
• Sufficient time allowed for the interview.
1. Building a relationship
Good first impressions are vital. This will be helped by well-organized arrange-
ments. The doctor should come out of the room to greet the patient, establish
eye contact and shake hands if appropriate. Clinicians should tell patients their
name, status and responsibility to the patient. The clinician should sit beside the
patient and not on the far side of a desk to convey interest and engagement.
3. Gathering information
The components of a complete medical interview are: the nature of the key
problems, timing of symptom onset, development over time, precipitating fac-
tors, help given to date, impact on the patient’s life and availability of support.
The clinician should use non-verbal cues to encourage the patient to tell the
whole story in their own words. Start with open questions (‘Tell me about
the pain you have been having’ rather than ‘Where is your chest pain?’). Then
move on to screening (‘Is there anything else?’). Leading questions (‘You have
given up drinking alcohol, haven’t you?’) should be avoided.
5. Sharing information
Patients generally want to know whether their problem is serious, how will it
affect them, what is causing it and what can be done. Verbal information can be
supported by leaflets, patient support groups and reputable websites. Verbal
information is best provided in assimilable chunks in a logical sequence, using
simple language and avoiding medical terminology. It is helpful to check that
the patient has understood what has been said before moving on to the next
section of the information.
7. Providing closing
Closing the interview may start with a brief summary of the patient’s agenda
and then that of the clinician. The patient should be told the arrangements for
follow-up and the commitment to informing other healthcare professionals
involved with the patient’s care. It is important to record what the patient
has been told in their notes. It can be helpful if the patient knows how to contact
an appropriate team member as a safety net before the next interview. The
interview is closed with an appropriate farewell.
P – Perception. Begin by finding out how much the patient knows and if
anything new has developed since the last encounter.
I – Invitation. Indicate to the patient that you have the results, and ask
if they would like you to explain them. A few patients will want to know very
little information, and they will indicate that they would prefer for you to
talk to a relative or friend.
K – Knowledge. The clinician should give the patient a warning if the news
is bad (‘I am afraid it looks more serious than we had hoped’) before giving
the details. At this point, pause to allow the patient to think this over and only
continue when the patient gives some lead to follow. The clinician should
give small chunks of information and ensure that the patient understands
before moving on. Pauses allow the patient to think and ask questions. The
patient should be provided with some positive information and hope
tempered with realism, for instance, emphasize which problems are
reversible and which are not. The importance of maintaining a good quality of
life should be stressed. It is often impossible to give an accurate time frame
for a terminal disease, but survival rates should be discussed if the patient
wants to know these.
E – Empathy. The clinician will need to respond appropriately to a range of
emotions that the patient may express (denial, despair, anger, bargaining,
depression and acceptance). These must be acknowledged and where
necessary, the clinician should wait for them to settle before moving on.
Sometimes the interview will need to be stopped and resumed later.
S – Strategy and summary. The clinician must ensure that the patient has
understood what has been discussed. Written information may be helpful.
The interview should close with a further interview date set (preferably
soon) and the patient provided with a contact name before the next interview
and details regarding further sources of information. The clinician should
offer the patient the opportunity to meet their relatives if they could not be
there at this time. A written summary should be recorded in the patient’s
notes detailing accurately what was said and to whom.
Neunzehntes Kapitel.
Die Karawane des Herzogs.
Mittlerweie hatte sich auf den zwei engen Höfen, die unsern Troß
beherbergten, das malerisch bunte Durcheinander einer
Karawanserei entwickelt. Unser wertvollstes Gepäck war in einem
stockfinstern Loch geborgen, vor dem Schölvincks Diener Gustav
Wache hielt, während die Ordonnanz des Herzogs und sein
afrikanischer Diener Schmitt unter Konsul Schünemanns
Oberaufsicht die Kutscher und Burschen befehligten. Der schwarze
Koch aus Togo wirtschaftete eifrig an seinen Töpfen, während sich
sein Landsmann mit Gläsern und Tellern, Messern und Gabeln
zwischen arabischen Stallknechten und Hufschmieden
hindurchschlängelte, die unsere Pferde fütterten oder beschlugen.
Auf der Terrasse an der einen Hofseite saßen etliche Perser,
Filzmützen auf dem Kopfe und gewundene Locken an den Ohren,
um einen glühenden Mangal herum und stopften mit einer
Feuerzange Holzkohlen in den Samowar, aus dem unsere Teegläser
gefüllt wurden. Ein Tekriter Bäcker kam mit einem Sack voll Brot
hereingestürmt, und Frauen brachten in Holzkummen Milch und
Joghurt. Die Flammen unserer Tischlampe und des Lagerfeuers, an
dem für uns und die Mannschaft das Abendessen bereitet wurde,
warfen unruhige Schatten in das so schon lebendige Bild, und wir
freuten uns, beizeiten auf dem Stalldach, wo unsere Betten standen,
dem Lärm dieses Feldlagerlebens entrückt zu sein.
Phot.: Schölvinck.
Ein schwieriger Abhang.
Um 3 Uhr morgens, als das Dunkel der Nacht noch auf der
Steppe lag, erwachte die Unruhe des Abends bereits wieder.
Deutsche und Türken, Araber und Tataren drängten sich
durcheinander, um die Karawane zum zeitigen Aufbruch fertig zu
machen. Deichseln knarrten, Geschirre rasselten, Pferde und
Maulesel wieherten in der frischen Morgenluft. Während wir
frühstückten, wurden die Packwagen beladen, Kisten und Kasten mit
Riemen festgemacht, und sowie ein Wagen fertig war, fuhr er auf die
Straße hinaus. Dort ordnete sich die Kolonne.
Diesmal nahm ich im Automobil des Herzogs Platz. Am Steuer
saß derselbe Chauffeur Laube, der uns bei meinem Besuch an der
Westfront von Bapaume nach Metz begleitet hatte. Die Straße —
wie meist in Asien eine Menge parallel laufender Fußwege — war so
glatt, daß man bequem 40 Kilometer in der Stunde fahren konnte.
Schwierigkeiten machten nur hin und wieder einige höchstens 10
Meter tiefe Wadis durch die Steilheit ihrer Abhänge. Die Landschaft
war ziemlich die gleiche wie am Tage vorher. Nur war die Steppe
dichter mit einem Rasen bedeckt, den die Heuschrecken
verschmähen; diese fanden sich daher nur bei Tierkadavern. Um so
häufiger waren die Steppenhühner, die dicht vor unserm
heransausenden Auto in Wolken aufstiegen, mit ihren kurzen
pfeifenden Flügelschlägen uns umschwirrten und sich bald wieder
niederfallen ließen. Wenn wir anhielten, hörten wir das Gackern der
Hennen, die um ihre Küchlein bangten. Mit sicherer Hand erlegte der
Herzog neunzehn Hühner, die eine willkommene Abwechslung
unserer Speisenkarte waren, uns aber auch in den Verdacht der
Straßenräuberei brachten. Denn eben als der Herzog schoß, kam
eine unbeladene Kamelkarawane des Weges; sogleich begannen
auch deren Leute zu schießen, um uns zu zeigen, daß sie nicht
unbewaffnet seien. Als sie dann sahen, daß wir friedliche Europäer
waren, kamen sie herangeritten und grüßten „Marhabba“. Auch
graue Antilopen mit weißem Bug zeigten sich in kleinen Herden;
aber ihnen war nicht beizukommen; ehe man sich zum Schuß fertig
machen konnte, waren sie verschwunden.
Phot.: Schölvinck.
Das alte und das neue Transportmittel: Kamel und Automobil.
Hier wie in Tibet bestimmen Weide, Wasser und Jahreszeiten die
Wanderungen der Nomaden. Jetzt trieb die große Hitze die Albu
Segar-Araber nordwärts; im Herbst wanderten sie wieder den Tigris
hinunter. Wo sich ergiebige Weide fand, machten sie einen oder
mehrere Tage Rast oder unternahmen wohl auch einen Abstecher
westlich in die Steppe hinein.
Ein prächtiges Bild, wie die Herrscher der Wüste durch ihr
angestammtes Reich zogen, das sie nur mit wilden Tieren teilten und
in dem sie jede Quelle und jeden Weideplatz seit den Tagen ihrer
Urväter kannten. Kamele, Pferde und Esel trugen ihre bewegliche
Habe, Männer und Knaben, teils beritten, trieben die Lasttiere an.
Auf hohen gelben oder weißen Dromedaren ritten die vornehmen
Frauen; sie saßen tiefverschleiert in einer Art Vogelbauer, das durch
Vorhänge geschlossen werden konnte, jetzt aber geöffnet war;
einige hatten ihre kleinen Kinder bei sich. Andere Frauen ritten nach
Männerart auf Pferden. Die armen Leute mußten zu Fuß gehen.
Gewaltige Schafherden überschwemmten in mehreren Abteilungen
die Steppe.
Bald war der Vortrupp an einer salzhaltigen Quelle angelangt.
Nun wurden schwarzbraune Zeltbahnen auf dem Boden
ausgebreitet, Stangen darunter aufgerichtet, die Zeltbahnen durch
Seile gespannt und diese an Pflöcken befestigt. Wände aus
Schilfmatten trennten die Räume für Frauen und Küche ab. Die
Räume der Männer wurden schnell mit Teppichen und abgenutzten
Kissen ausgestattet.
Araber vom Albu Segar-Stamm.
Wir hatten für uns und das Automobil um Unterschlupf während
der heißen Tagesstunden gebeten. Der Wagen verschwand unter
dem äußersten rechten Flügel eines großen Zeltes, und wir
verbrachten hier den ganzen Tag. Wir beobachteten die Araber, und
sie nicht minder neugierig uns. Europäer und Autos waren ihnen
nichts Neues, aber beide zusammen in einem Zelt als Gäste hatten
sie noch nicht erlebt. Erst waren sie scheu und zurückhaltend,
allmählich aber brach das Eis. Einige besonders schöne Gestalten
mit blitzenden Augen, aristokratisch geschwungenen Nasen und
schwarzen Bärten in der kleidsamen Tracht ihrer weißen Tücher
(Keffije), deren Zipfel über Schultern und Rücken herabhingen und
auf dem Scheitel durch zwei dicke, runde Ringe aus schwarzer oder
brauner Ziegenwolle (Aggal) festgehalten wurden, versetzten
sogleich meinen Zeichenstift in Unruhe. Es war aber schwer, sie zum
Modellstehen zu bewegen, und erst als ich unsern Gendarm vor
ihren Augen porträtiert hatte, ohne daß dieser dabei einen Schaden
erlitt, und jedem einen halben Medschidije versprach, ließen sie sich
dazu herbei. Bald lockte der Klang des Silbers auch Leute aus den
Nachbarzelten heran, und alle Furcht vor den moralischen Folgen
der Prozedur schien gewichen. Die großen, starken Menschen
waren wie die Kinder und schämten sich weder ihres Geizes noch
ihres Mangels an Mut. Eine der Frauen zu zeichnen, war dagegen
unmöglich. Nicht als ob diese sich geweigert hätten, aber die
Männer duldeten das nicht. Der Häuptling des Zeltes erklärte mir,
auch für unser ganzes Gold und Silder werde keine Frau des
Stammes der Schande des Porträtiertwerdens preisgegeben.
Phot.: Schölvinck.
Ein Rad ist los.
Die Karawane hatte einen neuen Unfall erlebt: einer unserer
Perser war, jedenfalls im Schlaf, von einem Wagen gestürzt und
überfahren worden. Jetzt lag er in einer Droschke, und ein Kamerad
pflegte ihn. Gebrochen hatte er nichts, wie sich bei näherer
Untersuchung zeigte, aber das Erlebnis hatte ihn doch mächtig
angegriffen.
Nach kurzer Nachtruhe waren wir früh um 4 Uhr wieder auf den
Beinen. Heute mußten der Herzog, Schölvinck, Busse und ich zu
vieren mit dem Auto vorlieb nehmen, da der Weg nach Assur für die
Gepäckwagen sehr beschwerlich war, und alle Pferde gebraucht
wurden. Er führte über die an sich unbedeutenden Hügel, die den
Dschebel Hamrin mit dem Dschebel Makhul verbinden; aber sie sind
von Wasser und Wind zu verfitzten Labyrinthen verarbeitet. Bald
boten tiefe Rinnen mit steilen Rändern lästige Hindernisse, bald war
die Straße so schmal, daß das Auto kaum vorwärts kam, bald lag sie
voller Blöcke oder war durch Erdrücken gesperrt. Unser tapferes
Auto überwand aber alle Schwierigkeiten und konnte schließlich
über ebenerem Gelände in beschleunigter Fahrt dem Tigrisstrom
und der alten Königstadt Assur zueilen.
Unsere Reisegenossen aber kamen nicht so glücklich durch. Als
wir nach Besichtigung der Ruinen von Assur ausruhten, langte des
Herzogs Ordonnanz Gustav mit der Nachricht an, ein Jaile sei auf
dem schwierigen Wege umgestürzt und zerbrochen und habe dem
Kutscher, einem alten Manne aus Bagdad, den Oberschenkel
zerschmettert. Sofort schickten wir das Auto, um den Verunglückten
zu holen. Konsul Schünemann und Wachtmeister Schmitt hatten ihn
so gut wie möglich geschient, und wir ließen ihm alle Pflege
angedeihen. Der Alte weinte über sein Mißgeschick, war aber mit
einigen Zigaretten schnell getröstet. Als dann am Abend unter
Gepolter und Hallo die übrige Kolonne mit ihren schwitzenden
Gäulen und schwer bepackten Wagen, die auch noch die Last des
verunglückten Jaile hatten übernehmen müssen, angekommen war,
übergaben wir unsere beiden Patienten dem Bahnhofsvorsteher und
ließen einen von der Mannschaft bei ihnen, um sie nach einigen
Ruhetagen auf einem Kelek nach Bagdad zu bringen.
Diese kleinen Mißgeschicke waren aber nur ein Vorspiel dessen,
was auf dem Wege von Assur nach Mosul unser wartete.
Phot.: Schölvinck.
Assur.
Zwanzigstes Kapitel.
Die Königsstadt Assur.
I n Assur ging es uns nicht so gut wie in Babylon, wo uns der beste
aller Führer zur Seite war. Hier mußten wir uns damit begnügen,
aufs Geratewohl über Schutthügel und Fundamente von
Palastmauern zu wandern, in der glühenden Sonnenhitze die tiefen
Suchgräben und Schächte zu durchklettern, die das Ruinenfeld
rechtwinklig durchqueren, und hier und da im Schatten einer
Marmorplatte oder eines unterirdischen Gewölbes auszuruhen. Wir
fanden auch den großen, zerschlagenen Steinsarkophag, den die
deutschen Archäologen mit unendlicher Geduld wieder
zusammengefügt haben. Die Ausgrabungen begannen mit Erlaubnis
der türkischen Regierung und unter Leitung der Deutschen Orient-
Gesellschaft im September 1903 und wurden bis zum Ausbruch des
Weltkriegs fortgesetzt. Ihre Ergebnisse gliedern sich in fünf Gruppen:
A) Baudenkmäler aus assyrischer Zeit; B) Einzelfunde aus
assyrischer Zeit; C) Denkmäler aus parthischer Zeit; D)
Verschiedenes; E) Die Inschriften von Assur. Bisher sind vier
Foliobände der Gruppe A erschienen; daraus kann man sich eine
Vorstellung von dem Umfang eines Werkes machen, das nur die
Schilderung einer einzigen Stadt enthält. Aber diese Schilderung
muß in Zukunft die Ruinen ersetzen, denn diese sind, wie mir
Professor Andrae schon in Bagdad sagte, durch die Ausgrabungen
zerstört worden. Ohne letztere hätte jedoch die wissenschaftliche
Forschung niemals die Stadt erobern können, die dem assyrischen
Reich seinen Namen gegeben hat.
Nach meiner Heimkehr versuchte ich, in die Folianten von
Professor Andraes grundlegendem Werk „Der Anu-Adad-Tempel in
Assur“ (Leipzig, 1909) einzudringen. Assyrische Tempelbauten
waren vordem wenig bekannt, und man ersehnte seit langem die
Gelegenheit, über die sargonischen, also jungassyrischen Tempel in
Chorsabad (etwa 720 v. Chr.) hinaus ältere Denkmäler dieser Art zu
erforschen, um Material zum Vergleich mit den besser bekannten
babylonischen und den umstrittenen salomonischen Tempelbauten
zu gewinnen. Der Anu-Adad-Tempel am Nordtor der Stadt Assur
zwischen dem Palast Assurnasirpals im Osten und dem „neuen
Palast“ Tukulti-Ninibs im Westen erfüllte diesen Wunsch.
Anu und Adad sind zwei Götter, Anu der Himmelsgott und
Gottvater, Adad „sein tapferer Sohn“, der Gott des Blitzes und des
Wetters. Die Ruinen ihres Tempels zeigen zwei typisch assyrische
Heiligtümer; das ältere wurde Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts von
Assurrisisi begonnen und von Tiglat-Pileser I. vollendet; das jüngere
baute Salmanassar auf den geschleiften Mauern des alten in der
zweiten Hälfte des 9. Jahrhunderts.
Beide Tempel bezeichnen zwei verschiedene Bauperioden, die in
Einzelheiten sehr voneinander abwichen, im Hauptplan aber
miteinander übereinstimmten: die eigentlichen Tempelräume lagen
jedesmal zwischen zwei mächtigen Türmen (Zikkuraten)
nebeneinander, ihre Tore gingen nach Südosten, und davor war ein
Hof, den allerhand Seitengebäude umgaben.
Von dem älteren Tempel ist nur der Unterbau erhalten, bis zu fünf
Meter hohe, dicke Mauerteile aus steinharten Ziegeln von gelbem
Lehm. Sie stehen auf felsigem Grund, der durch Erdfüllung geebnet
worden ist. Die Reste genügen, um den Grundriß mit größter
Sicherheit zu bestimmen. Rätselhaft ist nur der Überbau mit den
Toren und Türen. Auch Inschriften des Erbauers fand man an Ort
und Stelle; eine von ihnen lautet: „Assurrisisi, Priester des Gottes
Assur, Sohn des Mutakkilnusku, des Priesters des Gottes von Assur,
des Sohnes von Assurdan, dem Priester des Gottes Assur, Erbauer
des Tempels Adads und des Gottes Anu“.
Der Hof ist 50,5 Meter breit und 28 Meter tief. Seine Mitte nahm
ein Brunnen ein. Die geringfügigen Reste der umliegenden Gebäude
mit ihren Zimmern und Gängen geben viele Rätsel auf. Wer Assurs
jetzige Schuttlabyrinthe gesehen hat, muß aufs Höchste den
Scharfsinn bewundern, der diese Tempel und Mauern rekonstruiert
und sogar Detailzeichnungen von ihnen entworfen hat.
Der Grundriß der beiden Türme ist quadratisch, ihre Seitenlänge
36 Meter. Aber wie sahen sie selbst aus? Konnte man sie besteigen
und wie? Ein Vorbild aus assyrischer Zeit bietet der Tempelturm von
Chorsabad, um den sich eine einfache Rampe zur Spitze
emporwindet. Wahrscheinlich waren auch die beiden Türme des
Anu-Adad-Tempels massiv wie alle bekannten Zikkurate. Andrae
vermutet, daß ihre Höhe etwa 50 Meter betrug, und daß ein fünf
Meter breiter, langsam ansteigender Weg vom Hof aus hinaufführte.
Baudokumente auf Ziegeln und Terrakottaprismen nennen Tiglat-
Pileser I. als Vollender dieses Tempelbaues. Die im Jahre 1852 von
Rassam und Layard gefundenen, heute im Britischen Museum
befindlichen berühmten Prismen, deren achthundert Textzeilen die
Regierungstaten Tiglat-Pilesers verewigen, verschweigen, daß sein