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Introductory
Chemistry
An Atoms First Approach
Julia Burdge
COLLEGE OF WEST ERN IDAHO
Michelle Driessen
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
www.MyEbookNiche.eCrater.com
INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY: AN ATOMS FIRST APPROACH
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by McGraw-Hill
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Burdge, Julia. | Driessen, Michelle.
Title: Introductory chemistry : an atoms first approach / Julia Burdge,
Michelle Driessen.
Description: First edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill, 2015.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015040623| ISBN 9780073402703 (alk. paper) | ISBN
0073402702 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Chemistry—Textbooks.
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To the people who will always matter the most: Katie, Beau, and Sam.
—Julia Burdge
To my family, the center of my universe and happiness, with special thanks to my husband for his
support and making me the person I am today.
—Michelle Driessen
And to Robin Reed, for her timely and hilarious memes—and for her eternal good humor.
—Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen
About the Authors
Julia Burdge holds a Ph.D. (1994) from The University of Idaho in

Moscow, Idaho; and a Master’s Degree from The University of South Florida.
Her research interests have included synthesis and characterization of cisplatin
analogues, and development of new analytical techniques and instrumentation
for measuring ultra-trace levels of atmospheric sulfur compounds.
She currently holds an adjunct faculty position at The College of Western

Idaho in Nampa, Idaho, where she teaches general chemistry using an atoms
first approach; but spent the lion’s share of her academic career at The
University of Akron in Akron, Ohio, as director of the Introductory Chemistry
program. In addition to directing the general chemistry program and supervising
the teaching activities of graduate students, Julia established a future-faculty
development program and served as a mentor for graduate students and
post doctoral associates.
Julia relocated back to the Northwest to be near family. In her free time, she
enjoys precious time with her three children, and with Erik Nelson, her partner
and best friend.
Michelle Driessen earned a Ph.D. in 1997 from the

University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa. Her research and dissertation focused on
the thermal and photochemical reactions of small molecules at the surfaces of
metal nanoparticles and high surface area oxides.
Following graduation, she held a tenure-track teaching and research position

at Southwest Missouri State University for several years. A family move took
her back to her home state of Minnesota where she held positions as adjunct
faculty at both St. Cloud State University and the University of Minnesota. It
was during these adjunct appointments that she became very interested in
chemical education. Over the past several years she has transitioned the
general chemistry laboratories at the University of Minnesota from verification
to problem-based, and has developed both online and hybrid sections of
general chemistry lecture courses. She is currently the Director of General
Chemistry at the University of Minnesota where she runs the general chemistry
laboratories, trains and supervises teaching assistants, and continues to
experiment with active learning methods in her classroom.
Michelle and her husband love the outdoors and their rural roots. They take
every opportunity to visit their family, farm, and horses in rural Minnesota.
iv
Brief Contents
1 Atoms and Elements 2
2 Electrons and the Periodic Table 30
3 Compounds and Chemical Bonds 74
4 How Chemists Use Numbers 122
5 The Mole and Chemical Formulas 162
6 Molecular Shape 192
7 Solids, Liquids, and Phase Changes 234
8 Gases 268
9 Physical Properties of Solutions 308
10 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 344
11 Using Balanced Chemical Equations 382
12 Acids and Bases 416
13 Equilibrium 454
14 Organic Chemistry 480
15 Biochemistry 506
16 Nuclear Chemistry 522
17 Electrochemistry 538
Appendix Mathematical Operations A-1
Contents
1 ATOMS AND ELEMENTS 2
1.1 The Study of Chemistry 3
• Why Learn Chemistry? 3
• The Scientific Method 3
1.2 Atoms First 5
1.3 Subatomic Particles and the
Nuclear Model of the Atom 6
1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table 10
■ Elements in the Human Body 11
■ Helium 13
1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table 14
■ Elements in Earth’s Crust 15
1.6 Isotopes 16
■ Mass Spectrometry 17
■ Iron-Fortified Cereal 19
1.7 Atomic Mass 19
2 ELECTRONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 30

2.1 The Nature of Light 31
■ Laser Pointers 33
2.2 The Bohr Atom 34
■ Fireworks 35
■ The Photoelectric Effect 37
Visualizing Chemistry – Bohr Atom 38
2.3 Atomic Orbitals 41

• s orbitals 43 • p orbitals 43
• d and f orbitals 44
2.4 Electron Configurations 46
2.5 Electron Configurations and the
Periodic Table 51
2.6 Periodic Trends 55
2.7 Ions: The Loss and Gain of Electrons 61
• Electron Configuration of Ions 61
• Lewis Dot Symbols of Ions 63
vi
3 COMPOUNDS AND CHEMICAL BONDS 74
3.1 Matter: Classification and Properties 75
• States of Matter 75 • Mixtures 76
• Properties of Matter 78
3.2 Ionic Bonding and Binary Ionic
Compounds 81
3.3 Naming Ions and Binary Ionic
Compounds 85
• Naming Atomic Cations 86
• Naming Atomic Anions 87
• Naming Binary Ionic Compounds 87
3.4 Covalent Bonding and Molecules 89
• Covalent Bonding 90 • Molecules 90
• Molecular Formulas 93
■ Fixed Nitrogen in Fertilizers 96
3.5 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds 97
3.6 Covalent Bonding in Ionic Species: Polyatomic Ions 99
■ Product Labels 100
■ Product Labels 101
■ Hydrates 104
3.7 Acids 105
3.8 Substances in Review 107
Properties of Atoms 108
• Distinguishing Elements and Compounds 110

• Determining Whether a Compound Is Ionic or Molecular 111
• Naming Compounds 111
vii
4 HOW CHEMISTS USE NUMBERS 122
4.1 Units of Measurement 123
• Base Units 123 • Mass, Length, and Time 124
• Metric Multipliers 124 • Temperature 126
■ The Fahrenheit Temperature Scale 127
4.2 Scientific Notation 130
• Very Large Numbers 131 • Very Small
Numbers 132 • Using the Scientific Notation
Function on Your Calculator 133
4.3 Significant Figures 135
• Exact Numbers 135 • Measured Numbers 135
■ Arthur Rosenfeld 139
• Calculations with Measured Numbers 140
4.4 Unit Conversion 144
• Conversion Factors 144
■ The Importance of Units 146
• Derived Units 147
■ The International Unit 149
• Dimensional Analysis 150
4.5 Success in Introductory Chemistry Class 152
5 THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS 162

5.1 Counting Atoms by Weighing 163
• The Mole (The “Chemist’s Dozen”) 163
• Molar Mass 165 • Interconverting Mass,
Moles, and Numbers of Atoms 167
5.2 Counting Molecules by Weighing 169
• Calculating the Molar Mass of a
Compound 169 • Interconverting Mass,
Moles, and Numbers of Molecules
(or Formula Units) 170 • Combining Multiple
Conversions in a Single Calculation 172
■ Redefining the Kilogram 174
5.3 Mass Percent Composition 175
■ Iodized Salt 177
5.4 Using Mass Percent Composition to
Determine Empirical Formula 178
■ Fertilizer & Mass Percents 180
5.5 Using Empirical Formula and Molar Mass to Determine
Molecular Formula 181
viii
6 MOLECULAR SHAPE 192
6.1 Drawing Simple Lewis Structures 193
• Lewis Structures of Simple Molecules 193
• Lewis Structures of Molecules with a Central
Atom 195 • Lewis Structures of Simple
Polyatomic Ions 195
6.2 Lewis Structures Continued 198
• Lewis Structures with Less Obvious Skeletal
Structures 198 • Lewis Structures with Multiple
Bonds 199 • Exceptions to the Octet Rule 200
■ Bleaching, Disinfecting, and
Decontamination 200
6.3 Resonance Structures 201
6.4 Molecular Shape 203
■ Flavor, Molecular Shape, and Line
Structures 204
• Bond Angles 208
■ Molecular Shapes Resulting from Expanded Octets 209
6.5 Electronegativity and Polarity 211
• Electronegativity 211 • Bond Polarity 213
• Molecular Polarity 215
■ How Bond Dipoles Add to Determine Molecular Polarity 217
6.6 Intermolecular Forces 218
• Dipole-Dipole Forces 218 • Hydrogen Bonding 219
• Dispersion Forces 221
■ Linus Pauling 223
• Intermolecular Forces in Review 224
7 SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND PHASE

CHANGES 234
7.1 General Properties of the Condensed
Phases 235
7.2 Types of Solids 236
• Ionic Solids 236 • Molecular Solids 236
• Atomic Solids 238 • Network Solids 239
■ A Network Solid as Hard as Diamond 240
7.3 Physical Properties of Solids 243
• Vapor Pressure 243 • Melting Point 244
ix
7.4 Physical Properties of Liquids 247
• Viscosity 247 • Surface Tension 247
■ Surface Tension and the Shape of Water Drops 248
• Vapor Pressure 249 • Boiling Point 250
■ High Altitude and High-Pressure Cooking 252
7.5 Energy and Physical Changes 253
• Temperature Changes 253 • Solid-Liquid Phase Changes: Melting
and Freezing 255 • Liquid-Gas Phase Changes: Vaporization and
Condensation 256 • Solid-Gas Phase Changes: Sublimation 257
8 GASES 268
8.1 Properties of Gases 269
• Gaseous Substances 270
• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 271
8.2 Pressure 272
• Definition and Units of Pressure 272
• Measurement of Pressure 274
■ Fritz Haber 276
8.3 The Gas Equations 277
• The Ideal Gas Equation 277
■ Pressure Exerted by a Column of Fluid 281
• The Combined Gas Equation 281
• The Molar Mass Gas Equation 282
8.4 The Gas Laws 285
• Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship 285
• Charles’s Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship 287
■ Automobile Air Bags and Charles’s Law 290
• Avogadro’s Law: The Moles-Volume Relationship 290
8.5 Gas Mixtures 292
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 292 • Mole Fractions 294
■ Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy 295
9 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 308
9.1 General Properties of Solutions 309
■ Honey – A Supersaturated Solution 310
■ Instant Hot Packs 311
9.2 Aqueous Solubility 311
9.3 Solution Concentration 312
• Percent by Mass 312
■ Trace Concentrations 313
• Molarity 315 • Molality 317
• Comparison of Concentration Units 317
9.4 Solution Composition 320
■ Robert Cade, M.D. 322
9.5 Solution Preparation 324
• Preparation of a Solution from a Solid 324 • Preparation of a
More Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution 325
Preparing a Solution from a Solid 326
■ Serial Dilution 328
9.6 Colligative Properties 330
• Freezing-Point Depression 330 • Boiling-Point Elevation 331
■ Ice Melters 332
• Osmotic Pressure 333
10 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 344
10.1 Recognizing Chemical Reactions 345
10.2 Representing Chemical Reactions with
Chemical Equations 348
• Metals 349 • Nonmetals 349
• Noble Gases 349 • Metalloids 349
10.3 Balancing Chemical Equations 350
■ The Stoichiometry of Metabolism 354
10.4 Types of Chemical Reactions 355
• Precipitation Reactions 355
• Acid-Base Reactions 360
■ Oxygen Generators 361
• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 363
■ Antoine Lavoisier 368
■ Dental Pain and Redox 370
10.5 Chemical Reactions and Energy 372
10.6 Chemical Reactions in Review 372
xi
11 USING BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 382
11.1 Mole to Mole Conversions 383
11.2 Mass to Mass Conversions 386
11.3 Limitations on Reaction Yield 387
• Limiting Reactant 388 • Percent Yield 391
■ Combustion Analysis 392
■ Alka-Seltzer 393
11.4 Aqueous Reactions 395
11.5 Gases in Chemical Reactions 400
• Predicting the Volume of a Gaseous
Product 400 • Calculating the Required
Volume of a Gaseous Reactant 401
■ Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac 403
11.6 Chemical Reactions and Heat 404
12 ACIDS AND BASES 416

12.1 Properties of Acids and Bases 417
■ James Lind 418
12.2 Definitions of Acids and Bases 419
• Arrhenius Acids and Bases 419
• Brønsted Acids and Bases 419
• Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 420
12.3 Water as an Acid; Water as a Base 422
12.4 Strong Acids and Bases 424
12.5 pH and pOH Scales 427
■ Antacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach 434
■ Lake Natron 435
12.6 Weak Acids and Bases 436
12.7 Acid-Base Titrations 440
12.8 Buffers 442
xii
13 EQUILIBRIUM 454
13.1 Reaction Rates 455
Collision Theory 458
13.2 Chemical Equilibrium 460

■ How Do We Know That the Forward and
Reverse Processes Are Ongoing in a System
at Equilibrium? 462
13.3 Equilibrium Constants 462
■ Sweet Tea 463
• Calculating Equilibrium Constants 463
• Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant 466
13.4 Factors that Affect Equilibrium 467
■ Hemoglobin Production at High Altitude 467
• Addition or Removal of a Substance 468
• Changes in Volume 470 • Changes in Temperature 471
14 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 480

14.1 Why Carbon Is Different 481
14.2 Hydrocarbons 482
• Alkanes 483 • Alkenes and Alkynes 483
• Reactions of Hydrocarbons 485
14.3 Isomers 486
■ Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils 487
■ Representing Organic Molecules with
Bond-Line Structures 489
14.4 Functional Groups 490
14.5 Alcohols and Ethers 491
14.6 Aldehydes and Ketones 493
14.7 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 495
14.8 Amines and Amides 496
14.9 Polymers 498
xiii
15 BIOCHEMISTRY 506
15.1 Biologically Important Molecules 507
• Glycerol 507 • Fatty Acids 507 • Amino
Acids 507 • Sugars 508 • Phosphates 509
• Organic Bases 509
15.2 Lipids 509
• Fats 509 • Phospholipids 510
• Steroids 511
15.3 Proteins 512
• Primary Structure 515 • Secondary
Structure 515 • Tertiary Structure 515
• Quaternary Structure 516
15.4 Carbohydrates 516
• Monosaccharides 516 • Disaccharides 516 • Polysaccharides 517
15.5 Nucleic Acids 518
16 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 522

16.1 Radioactive Decay 523
16.2 Detection of Radiation and Its Biological
Effects 526
■ Radioactivity in Tobacco 528
16.3 Dating Using Radioactive Decay 528
16.4 Medical Applications of Radioactivity 530
■ How Nuclear Chemistry Is Used to
Treat Cancer 531
16.5 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 531
Nuclear Fission and Fusion 532
xiv
17 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 538
17.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Using the Half-Reaction Method 539
17.2 Batteries 543
Construction of a Galvanic Cell 544
• Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries 547

• Lead Storage Batteries 548
• Lithium-Ion Batteries 549 • Fuel Cells 549
17.3 Corrosion 550
17.4 Electrolysis 552
• Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride 552
• Electrolysis of Water 552
Appendix: Mathematical Operations A-1

Glossary G-1
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems AP-1
Index I-1
xv
Preface
From its very origin, Introductory Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge
and Michelle Driessen has been developed and written using an atoms first approach
specific to introductory chemistry. It is not just a pared down version of a general chem-
istry text, but carefully crafted with the introductory-chemistry student in mind.
The ordering of topics facilitates the conceptual development of chemistry for the novice,
rather than the historical development that has been used traditionally. Its language
and style are student friendly and conversational; and the importance and wonder of
chemistry in everyday life are emphasized at every opportunity. Continuing in the
Burdge tradition, this text employs an outstanding art program, a consistent problem-
solving approach, interesting applications woven throughout the chapters, and a wide
range of end-of-chapter problems.
Features
∙ Logical atoms first approach, building first an understanding of atomic structure,
followed by a logical progression of atomic properties, periodic trends, and how com-
pounds arise as a consequence of atomic properties. Following that, physical and
chemical properties of compounds and chemical reactions are covered—built upon a
solid foundation of how all such properties and processes are the consequence of the
nature and behavior of atoms.
∙ Engaging real-life examples and applications. Each chapter contains relevant, inter-
esting stories in Familiar Chemistry segments that illustrate the importance of chemis-
try to other fields of study, and how the current material applies to everyday life. Many
chapters also contain brief historical profiles of some important people in chemistry
278 CHAPTER 8 Gases and other fields of scientific endeavor.
∙ Consistent problem-solving skill develop-
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.2 Using the Ideal Gas Equation to Calculate Volume ment. Fostering a consistent approach to
problem solving helps students learn how
Calculate the volume of a mole of ideal gas at room temperature (25°C) and 1.00 atm.
Strategy Convert the temperature in °C to temperature in kelvins, and use the ideal gas equation to solve for the unknown volume.
to approach, analyze, and solve problems.
Setup The data given are n = 1.00 mol, T = 298 K, and P = 1.00 atm. Because the pressure is expressed in atmospheres, we Each worked example (Sample Problem) is
use R = 0.0821 L · atm/K · mol to solve for volume in liters.
Solution Student Note: It is a very common mistake to fail to convert to
divided into logical steps: Strategy, Setup,
(1 mol)a0.0821
L · atm
K · mol
b(298 K)
absolute temperature when solving a gas problem. Most often,
temperatures are given in degrees Celsius. The ideal gas
equation only works when the temperature used is in kelvins.
Solution, and Think About It; and each is
V=
1 atm
= 24.5 L Remember: K = °C + 273.
followed by three practice problems. Prac-
tice Problem A allows the student to solve
THIN K A BO UT I T
With the pressure held constant, we should expect the volume to increase with increased temperature. Room temperature
a problem similar to the Sample Problem,
is higher than the standard temperature for gases (0°C), so the molar volume at room temperature (25°C) should be higher
than the molar volume at 0°C—and it is.
using the same strategy and steps. Wherever
possible, Practice Problem B probes under-
Practice Problem A TTEMPT What is the volume of 5.12 moles of an ideal gas at 32°C and 1.00 atm? standing of the same concept(s) as the Sam-
Practice Problem B UILD At what temperature (in °C) would 1 mole of ideal gas occupy 50.0 L (P = 1.00 atm)?
ple Problem and Practice Problem A, but is
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE The diagram on the left represents a sample of gas in a container with a movable
piston. Which of the other diagrams [(i)–(iv)] best represents the sample (a) after the absolute temperature has been doubled; sufficiently different that it requires a slightly
(b) after the volume has been decreased by half; and (c) after the external pressure has been doubled? (In each case, assume
that the only variable that has changed is the one specified.) different approach. Practice Problem C often
uses concept art or molecular models, and
probes comprehension of underlying con-
cepts. The consistent use of this approach
gives students the best chance for developing
a robust set of problem-solving skills.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
xvi
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.3 Using the Ideal Gas Equation to Calculate Pressure
Calculate the pressure of 1.44 moles of an ideal gas in a 5.00-L container at 36°C.
Strategy Rearrange the ideal gas law (Equation 8.1) to isolate pressure, P. Convert the temperature into kelvins, 36 + 273 = 309 K.
PREFACE xvii
∙ Outstanding pedagogy for student learning. The Checkpoints and Student Notes
throughout each chapter are designed to foster frequent self-assessment and to provide
timely information regarding common pitfalls, reminders of important information,
and alternative approaches. Rewind and Fast Forward Buttons help to illustrate and
reinforce connections between material in different chapters, and enable students to
find pertinent review material easily, when necessary.
∙ Key Skills pages are reviews of specific skills that the authors know will be important
to students’ understanding of later chapters. These go beyond simple reviews and actu-
ally preview the importance of the skills in later chapters. They are additional opportu-
nities for self-assessment and are meant to be revisited when the specific skills are
required later in the book.
Molecular Shape and Polarity KEY SKILLS Having determined molecular shape, we determine overall molecular polarity of each molecule by examining the individual
bond dipoles and their arrangement:
Cl
S H C C H C
Molecular polarity is tremendously important in determining the physical and chemical properties of a substance. Indeed, O O H Cl
molecular polarity is one of the most important consequences of molecular shape. To determine the shape of a molecule, H
we use a stepwise procedure:
1. Draw a correct Lewis structure [ Sections 6.1 and 6.2]. S and O have C and H have The C H bonds
2. Count electron groups on the central atom. Remember that an electron group can be a lone pair or a bond, and that electronegativity electronegativity are nonpolar. C and
a bond may be a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond. Determine whether values of 2.5 and values of 2.5 and Cl have
3. Apply the VSEPR model [ Section 6.4] to determine electron-group geometry. or not the 3.5, respectively. 2.1, respectively. electronegativity
individual bonds Therefore, the Therefore, the values of 2.5 and
4. Consider the positions of the atoms to determine the molecular shape, which may or may not be the same as the
are polar. bonds are polar. bonds are considered 3.0, respectively.
electron-group geometry. nonpolar. Therefore, the C Cl
Consider the examples of SO2, C2H2, and CH2Cl2. We determine the molecular shape of each as follows: bonds are polar.
Cl
Draw the Lewis
O S O H C C H H C Cl Only in C2H2 do the dipole-moment vectors cancel each other. C2H2 is nonpolar, SO2 and CH2Cl2 are polar.
structure
H
Even with polar bonds, a molecule may be nonpolar if it consists of equivalent bonds that are distributed symmetrically.
Molecules with equivalent bonds that are not distributed symmetrically—or with bonds that are not equivalent, even if they
3 electron groups: 2 electron groups on 4 electron groups: are distributed symmetrically—are generally polar.
Count the electron each central atom:
groups on the • 1 double bond • 1 single bond • 4 single bonds
central atom(s) • 1 single bond • 1 triple bond
• 1 lone pair
Key Skills Problems
6.1 6.3
Apply VSEPR to 3 electron groups 2 electron groups 4 electron groups Determine the molecular shape of selenium dibromide. Which of the following species is polar?
determine electron- arrange themselves arrange themselves arrange themselves a) linear a) OBr2
group geometry in a trigonal plane. linearly. in a tetrahedron. b) bent b) GeCl4
c) trigonal planar c) SiO2
Cl d) trigonal pyramidal d) BH3
S e) tetrahedral e) BeF2
H C C H C
O O H Cl
H 6.2 6.4
Determine the molecular shape of phosphorus triiodide. Which of the following species is nonpolar?
With 1 lone pair on With no lone pairs With no lone pairs a) linear a) NCl3
Consider positions the central atom, on the central atom, on the central atom, b) bent b) SeCl2
of atoms to the molecular the molecular the molecular c) trigonal planar c) SO2
determine shape is bent. shape is linear. shape is tetrahedral. d) trigonal pyramidal d) CF4
molecular shape.
e) tetrahedral e) AsBr3
229 230
bur02702_ch06_192-233.indd 229 12/17/15 9:24 PM bur02702_ch06_192-233.indd 230 12/17/15 9:24 PM
∙ Author-created online homework. All of the online homework problems were devel-
oped entirely by co-author Michelle Driessen to ensure seamless integration with the
book’s content.
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xx PREFACE
Additional Instructor and Student Resources

Instructor resources available through Connect include the following:
∙ A complete instructor’s solutions manual that includes solutions to all of the end-of-
chapter problems
∙ Lecture PowerPoint slides that facilitate classroom discussion of the concepts in
the text
∙ Textbook images for repurposing in your personalized classroom materials
∙ A comprehensive bank of assignable test questions
Students can purchase a Student Solutions Manual that contains detailed solutions and
explanations for the odd-numbered problems in the text.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank the many people who have contributed to the development of this new text. The following individuals
reviewed early drafts of the text and provided invaluable feedback.
Simon Balm, Santa Monica College Jonathan Lyon, Clayton State University
Simon Bott, University of Houston Mary Jane Patterson, Texas State University
Peter Carpico, Stark State College Jennifer Rabson, Amarillo College
Mike Cross, Northern Essex Community College Betsy Ratcliff, West Virginia University
Victoria Dougherty, University of Texas at San Antonio Ray Sadeghi, University of Texas at San Antonio
Jason Dunham, Ball State University Preet Saluja, Triton College
Douglas Engel, Seminole State College Sharadha Sambasivan, Suffolk County Community
Vicki Flaris, Bronx Community College of CUNY College
Cornelia Forrester, City Colleges of Chicago Lois Schadewald, Normandale Community College
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CHAPTER
1
Atoms and Elements
1.1 The Study of Chemistry

• Why Learn Chemistry?
• The Scientific Method
1.2 Atoms First
1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear
Model of the Atom
1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table
1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table
1.6 Isotopes
1.7 Atomic Mass
The brilliant colors of a fireworks display result from the properties of the atoms
they contain. These atoms give off specific colors when they are burned.
Credit: © Jung-Pang Wu/Getty Images
In This Chapter, You Will Learn
Some of what chemistry is and how it is studied using the scientific
method. You will learn about atomic structure and you will become
acquainted with the periodic table, how it is organized, and some
of the information it embodies.
Things To Review Before You Begin

• Basic algebra
Have you ever wondered how an automobile airbag works? Or why iron rusts when
exposed to water and air, but gold does not? Or why cookies “rise” as they bake? Or
what causes the brilliant colors of fireworks displays? These phenomena, and countless
others, can be explained by an understanding of the fundamental principles of chemistry.
Whether or not we realize it, chemistry is important in every aspect of our lives. In the
course of this book, you will come to understand the chemical principles responsible
for many familiar observations and experiences.
1.1 The Study of Chemistry

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that matter undergoes. Matter, in
turn, is anything that has mass and occupies space. Mass is one of the ways that sci-
entists measure the amount of matter.
You may already be familiar with some of the terms used in chemistry—even if
you have never taken a chemistry class. You have probably heard of molecules; and
even if you don’t know exactly what a chemical formula is, you undoubtedly know that
“H2O” is water. You may have used or at least heard the term chemical reaction; and
you are certainly familiar with many processes that are chemical reactions.
Why Learn Chemistry?

Chances are good that you are using this book for a chemistry class you are required
to take—even though you may not be a chemistry major. Chemistry is a required part
of many degree programs because of its importance in a wide variety of scientific
disciplines. It sometimes is called the “central science” because knowledge of chemis-
try supports the understanding of other scientific fields—including physics, biology,
geology, ecology, oceanography, climatology, and medicine. Whether this is the first in
a series of chemistry classes you will take or the only chemistry class you will ever
take, we hope that it will help you to appreciate the beauty of chemistry—and to
understand its importance in our daily lives.
The Scientific Method

Scientific experiments are the key to advancing our understanding of chemistry or any
science. Although different scientists may take different approaches to experimentation,
we all follow a set of guidelines known as the scientific method. This helps ensure the
quality and integrity of new findings that are added to the body of knowledge within
a given field.
3
4 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements
The scientific method starts with the collection of data from careful observations
and/or experiments. Scientists study the data and try to identify patterns. When a pat-
tern is found, an attempt is made to describe it with a scientific law. In this context,
a law is simply a concise statement of the observed pattern. Scientists may then for-
mulate a hypothesis, an attempt to explain their observations. Experiments are then
designed to test the hypothesis. If the experiments reveal that the hypothesis is incor-
rect, the scientists must go back to the drawing board and come up with a different
interpretation of their data, and formulate a new hypothesis. The new hypothesis will
then be tested by experiment. When a hypothesis stands the test of extensive experi-
mentation, it may evolve into a scientific theory or model. A theory or model is a
unifying principle that explains a body of experimental observations and the law or
laws that are based on them. Theories are used both to explain past observations and
to predict future observations. When a theory fails to predict correctly, it must be
discarded or modified to become consistent with experimental observations. Thus, by
their very nature, scientific theories must be subject to change in the face of new data
that do not support them.
One of the most compelling examples of the scientific method is the development
of the vaccine for smallpox, a viral disease responsible for an estimated half a billion
deaths during the twentieth century alone. Late in the eighteenth century, English physi-
cian Edward Jenner observed that even during smallpox outbreaks in Europe, a particu-
lar group of people, milkmaids, seemed not to contract it.
Law: Milkmaids are not vulnerable to the virus that causes smallpox.
Based on his observations, Jenner proposed that perhaps milkmaids, who often
contracted cowpox, a similar but far less deadly virus from the cows they worked with,
had developed a natural immunity to smallpox.
Hypothesis: Exposure to the cowpox virus causes the development of immunity
to the smallpox virus.
Jenner tested his hypothesis by injecting a healthy child with the cowpox virus—
and later with the smallpox virus. If his hypothesis were correct, the child would not
contract smallpox—and in fact the child did not contract smallpox.
Theory: Because the child did not develop smallpox, immunity seemed to have
resulted from exposure to cowpox.
Further experiments on many more people (mostly children and prisoners) con-
firmed that exposure to the cowpox virus imparted immunity to the smallpox virus.
The flowchart in Figure 1.1 illustrates the scientific method and how it guided
the development of the smallpox vaccine.
Hypothesis revised if Model altered if

experimental results experimental results
do not support it do not support it
Model (Theory)
Observations
Set of conceptual
Natural phenomena Experiment Further
Hypothesis assumptions that
and measured events; Procedure to test Experiment
Tentative explanation explains data from
if universally consistent, hypothesis; measures Tests predictions
that explains observations accumulated experiments;
can be stated one variable at a time based on model
predicts related
as a law
phenomena
Observation: Hypothesis: Experiment: Model: Further
Milkmaids don't Having contracted Intentionally expose Because child did not Experiment:
contract smallpox. cowpox, milkmaids a healthy child to cowpox contract smallpox, Many more humans
have a natural immunity and later to smallpox. immunity seemed to inoculated with
to smallpox. have resulted from cowpox virus, confirming
cowpox exposure. the model.
Figure 1.1 Flowchart of the scientific method and its importance to Edward Jenner’s development of the smallpox vaccine.
SECTION 1.2 Atoms First 5
1.2 Atoms First

Even if you have never studied chemistry before, you probably know already that atoms
are the extraordinarily small building blocks that make up all matter. Specifically, an Student Note: By contrast,
atom is the smallest quantity of matter that still retains the properties of matter. Further, consider a sample of salt water.
an element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any We could divide it into smaller
samples of salt water; but given
means. Common examples of elements include aluminum, which we all have in our the necessary equipment, we
kitchens in the form of foil; carbon, which exists in several different familiar forms— could also separate it into two
including diamond and graphite (pencil “lead”); and helium, which can be used to fill different substances: water and
salt. An element is different in
balloons. The element aluminum consists entirely of aluminum atoms; the element that it is not made up of other
carbon consists entirely of carbon atoms; and the element helium consists entirely of substances. Elements are the
helium atoms. Although we can separate a sample of any element into smaller samples simplest substances.
of that element, we cannot separate it into other substances.
Figure 1.2 Repeatedly dividing this collection of iPods into smaller and smaller collections eventually leaves us with a single iPod,
which we cannot divide further without destroying it.
Credit: © S K D/Alamy
Let’s consider the example of helium. If we were to divide the helium in a balloon
in half, and then divide one of the halves in half, and so on, we would eventually (after a
very large number of these hypothetical divisions) be left with a sample of helium consist-
ing of just one helium atom. This atom could not be further divided to give
two smaller samples of helium. If this is difficult to imagine, think of a col-
lection of eight identical iPods. We could divide the collection in half three
times before we were left with a single iPod. Although we could divide the
last iPod in half, neither of the resulting pieces would be an iPod! (Figure 1.2)
The notion that matter consists of tiny, indivisible pieces has been
around for a very long time, first having been proposed by the philosopher
Democritus in the fifth century b.c. But it was first formalized early in the
nineteenth century by John Dalton (Figure 1.3). Dalton devised a theory to
explain some of the most important observations made by scientists in the
eighteenth century. His theory included three statements, the first of which is:
∙ Matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms; all
atoms of a given element are identical; and atoms of one element
are different from atoms of any other element.
We will revisit this statement later in this chapter and introduce the second
and third statements to complete our understanding of Dalton’s theory in
Chapters 3 and 10.
We know now that atoms, although very small, are not indivisible. Rather,
they are made up of still smaller subatomic particles. The type, number, and Figure 1.3 John Dalton (1766–1844) was an
arrangement of subatomic particles determine the properties of atoms, which in English chemist, mathematician, and philosopher.
turn determine the properties of everything we see, touch, smell, and taste. In addition to his atomic theory, Dalton also for-
Our goal in this book will be to understand how the nature of atoms mulated several laws governing the behavior of
gives rise to the properties of everything material. To accomplish this, we gases, and gave the first detailed description of
will take a somewhat unconventional approach. Rather than beginning with a particular type of color blindness, from which
observations on the macroscopic scale and working our way backward to he suffered. This form of color blindness, where
the atomic level of matter to explain these observations, we start by examin- red and green cannot be distinguished, is
ing the structure of atoms, and the nature and arrangement of the tiny known as Daltonism.
subatomic particles that atoms contain.
Credit: © Sheila Terry/Science Source
Before we begin our study of atoms, it is important for you to understand a

bit about the behavior of electrically charged objects. We are all at least casually
familiar with the concept of electric charge. You may have brushed your hair in very
low humidity and had it stand on end; and you have certainly experienced static
shocks and seen lightning. All of these phenomena result from the interactions of
electric charges. The following list illustrates some of the important aspects of elec-
tric charge:
∙ An object that is electrically charged may have a positive (+) charge or a
negative (−) charge.
Credit: © Lourens Smak/Alamy
1 2
positive negative
∙ Objects with opposite charges (one negative and one positive) are attracted
to each other. (You’ve heard the adage “opposites attract.”)
1 2
attraction
∙ Objects with like charges (either both positive or both negative) repel each other.
Credit: © Michael ONeill/WeatherVideoHD.TV

1 1 2 2
repulsion repulsion
∙ Objects with larger charges interact more strongly than those with smaller
charges.
1 1 1 1
11 11
repulsion stronger repulsion
∙ Charged objects interact more strongly when they are closer together.
1 1 1 1
repulsion stronger repulsion
∙ Opposite charges cancel each other.
1 1 2 1 2
positive negative
no net charge
Keeping in mind how charged objects interact will greatly facilitate your understanding
of chemistry.
1.3 Subatomic Particles and the

Nuclear Model of the Atom
Experiments conducted late in the nineteenth century indicated that atoms, which had
been considered the smallest possible pieces of matter, contained even smaller particles.
The first of these experiments were done by J. J. Thomson, an English physicist. The
experiments revealed that a wide variety of different materials could all be made to
emit a stream of tiny, negatively charged particles—that we now know as electrons.
Thomson reasoned that because all atoms appeared to contain these negative particles
but were themselves electrically neutral, they must also contain something positively
SECTION 1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Model of the Atom 7
charged. This gave rise to a model of the atom as a sphere of positive 2 1

1
charge, throughout which negatively charged electrons were uniformly dis- 2
1 2
tributed (Figure 1.4). This model was known as the “plum-pudding” 2 12 1 Positively charged sphere
model—named after a then-popular English dessert. Thomson’s plum- 1 2 1 2 2
pudding model, which was generally accepted for a number of years, was 1 2 1
an early attempt to describe the internal structure of atoms. Although it
was generally accepted for a number of years, this model ultimately was Figure 1.4 Thomson’s experiments indicated
proven wrong by subsequent experiments. that atoms contained negatively charged particles,
Working with Thomson, New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford which he envisioned as uniformly distributed in a
(one of Thomson’s own students) devised an experiment to test the plum- sphere of positive charge.
pudding model of atomic structure. By that time, Rutherford had already
established the existence of another subatomic particle known as an alpha particle,
which is emitted by some radioactive substances. Alpha particles are positively charged,
and are thousands of times more massive than electrons. In his most famous experiment,
Rutherford directed a stream of alpha particles at a thin gold foil. A schematic of the
experimental setup is shown in Figure 1.5. If Thomson’s model of the atom were cor-
rect, nearly all of the alpha particles would pass directly through the foil—although a
small number would be deflected slightly by virtue of passing very close to electrons.
Rutherford surrounded the gold foil target with a detector that produced a tiny flash of
light each time an alpha particle collided with it. This allowed Rutherford to determine
the paths taken by alpha particles. Figure 1.6 illustrates the expected experimental result.
The actual experimental result was very different from what had been expected.
Although most of the alpha particles did pass directly through the gold foil, some were
deflected at much larger angles than had been anticipated. Some even bounced off the
foil back toward the source—a result that Rutherford found absolutely shocking. He
knew that alpha particles could only be deflected at such large angles, and occasionally
bounce back in the direction of their source, if they encountered something within the
gold atoms that was (1) positively charged, and (2) much larger than themselves.
Figure 1.7 illustrates the actual result of Rutherford’s experiment.
This experimental result gave rise to a new model of the internal structure of
atoms. Rutherford proposed that atoms are mostly empty space, but that each has a
tiny, dense core that contains all of its positive charge and nearly all of its mass. This
core is called the atomic nucleus.
Gold atom: sphere of

Path followed by alpha particles, uniform positive charge
α particle emitter directed at the gold foil
Gold foil
Zinc-sulfide screen
Electrons: tiny, negatively charged
particles, uniformly distributed
throughout the sphere
Figure 1.6 Rutherford’s gold foil experiment was designed to

Light flashes produced test Thomson’s plum-pudding model of the atom, which depicted
by α particles hitting screen
the atom as negatively charged electrons uniformly distributed
in a sphere of positive charge. If the model had been correct,
Figure 1.5 Rutherford’s experiment directed a stream of positively the alpha particles would have passed directly through the foil,
charged alpha particles at a gold foil. The nearly circular detector with a few being deflected slightly by interaction with electrons.
emitted a flash of light when struck by an alpha particle. (Remember that a positively charged object and a negatively
charged object are attracted to each other. A positively charged
alpha particle could be pulled slightly off course if it passed
very close to one of the negatively charged electrons.)

Path followed by alpha particles

directed at the gold foil
Gold nucleus: tiny, dense,

positively charged center
Figure 1.7 The actual result of Rutherford’s gold foil experiment. Positively charged alpha
particles were directed at a gold foil. Most passed through undeflected, but a few were deflected
at angles much greater than expected—some even bounced back toward the source. This
indicated that as they passed through the gold atoms, they encountered something positively
charged and significantly more massive than themselves.
Subsequent experiments supported Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom; and

we now know that all atomic nuclei (the plural of nucleus) contain positively charged
particles called protons. And with the exception of hydrogen, the lightest element,
atomic nuclei also contain electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Together, the
Student Note: An alpha particle
is the combination of two protons protons and neutrons in an atom account for nearly all of its mass, but only a tiny frac-
and two neutrons. tion of its volume. The nucleus is surrounded by a “cloud” of electrons—and just as
Rutherford proposed, atoms are mostly empty space. Figure 1.8 illustrates the nuclear
model of the atom.
Of the three subatomic particles in our model of the atom, the electron is the
smallest and lightest. Protons and neutrons have very similar masses, and each is nearly
2
Electrons
2 2
Nucleus containing
protons ( ) and
2 neutrons ( )
Figure 1.8 Nuclear model of the atom. Protons (blue) and neutrons (red) are contained within
the nucleus, a tiny space at the center of the atom. The rest of the volume of the atom is nearly
empty, but is occupied by the atom’s electrons. This illustration exaggerates the size of the
nucleus relative to the size of the atom. If the picture were actually done to scale, and the
nucleus were the size shown here (1 centimeter), the atom would be on the order of 100 meters
across—about the length of a football field.
SECTION 1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Model of the Atom 9
2000 times as heavy as an electron. Further, because protons are positively charged and
electrons are negatively charged, combination of equal numbers of each results in com-
plete cancellation of the charges. The number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons in a neutral atom. Because neutrons are electrically neutral, they do not con-
tribute to an atom’s overall charge.
Sample Problem 1.1 lets you practice identifying which combinations of sub-
atomic particles constitute a neutral atom.
Identifying a Neutral Atom Using Numbers

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1 of Subatomic Particles
The following table contains data sets that indicate numbers of subatomic particles. Which of the sets of data represent neutral
atoms? For those that do not represent neutral atoms, determine what the charge is—based on the numbers of subatomic particles.
neutrons protons electrons
(a) 5 10 5
(b) 11 12 12
(c) 8 9 9
(d) 20 21 20
Strategy You have learned that the charge on a proton is +1 and the charge on an electron is −1. Neutrons have no charge. The
overall charge is the sum of charges of the protons and electrons, and a neutral atom has no charge. Therefore, a set of data in
which the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons represents a neutral atom.
Setup Data sets (b) and (c) each contain equal numbers of protons and electrons. Data sets (a) and (d) do not.
Solution The data in sets (b) and (c) represent neutral atoms. Those in (a) and (d) represent charges species. The charge on the
species represented by data set (a) is +5: 10 protons (+1 each) and 5 electrons (−1 each). The charge on the species represented
by data set (d) is +1: 21 protons (+1 each) and 20 electrons (−1 each).
TH IN K A BO U T IT
By summing the charges of protons and electrons, we can determine the overall charge on a species. Note that the
number of neutrons is not a factor in determining overall charge because neutrons have no charge.
Practice Problem A TTEMPT Which of the following data sets represent neutral atoms? For those that do not represent
neutral atoms, determine the charge.
neutrons protons electrons
(a) 31 31 30
(b) 24 22 24
(c) 12 11 11
(d) 6 5 5
Practice Problem B UILD Fill in the appropriate missing numbers in the following table:
overall charge protons electrons
(a) +2 23
(b) −3 42
(c) 0 53
(d) 16 18
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE
Determine which of the following pictures represents a
neutral atom. For any that does not represent a neutral
atom, determine the overall charge. (Protons are blue,
neutrons are red, and electrons are green.)
(a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c)
CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Model of the Atom
1.3.1 Which of the following can change without changing 1.3.4 Which of the following could represent a neutral atom?
the charge on an atom? (Select all that apply.) (Select all that apply.)
a) Number of protons c) Number of electrons
b) Number of neutrons
1.3.2 Which of the following can change without changing the

elemental identity of an atom? (Select all that apply.)
a) Number of protons c) Number of electrons
b) Number of neutrons (a) (b) (c)
1.3.3 Which of the following must be equal for the combina-
tion to constitute a neutral atom?
a) Number of protons and number of neutrons
b) Number of protons and number of electrons
c) Number of neutrons and number of electrons
d) Number of protons, number of neutrons, and number
of electrons (a) (b) (c)
1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table

The identity of an element is determined by the number of protons in its nucleus. For
example, an atom with two protons in its nucleus is helium; one with six protons is carbon;
and one with 79 protons is gold. There are no helium atoms with any number other than
two protons, no carbon atoms with any number other than six protons, and no gold atoms
with any number other than 79 protons. The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is also
known as the atomic number, for which we use the symbol Z. All of the known elements
are arranged in order of increasing atomic number on the periodic table (Figure 1.9).
Figure 1.9 The modern 1A 8A
1 18
periodic table. The
1 2
elements are arranged H
Hydrogen
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
in order of increasing 2 13 14 15 16 17 Helium
atomic number, which 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F Ne
is shown above each Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
element’s symbol. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
Francium Radium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Flerovium Ununpentium Livermorium Ununseptium Ununoctium
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium
SECTION 1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table 11
Sample Problem 1.2 lets you practice identifying an element, given its atomic
number.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.2 Identifying an Element by Its Atomic Number
Identify the element given the atomic number of 16.

Strategy You have learned that the atomic number of an element represents the number of protons the element contains. The
atomic number is found above the element’s symbol on the periodic table.
Setup The element contains 16 protons.
Solution The elements on the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The symbol on the periodic
table that has a 16 above its symbol is S. This symbol represents the element sulfur.
TH IN K A BO U T IT
Remember that an element can be identified either by the number of protons in its nucleus (atomic number) or by its
symbol. Every atom with 16 protons is a sulfur atom; and every sulfur atom has 16 protons.
Practice Problem A TTEMPT Identify the

element with an atomic number of 35.
Practice Problem B UILD Determine the
atomic number for iodine.
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE
Identify the atomic number and identity of each
atom shown. (Protons are blue, neutrons are red,
and electrons are green.) (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c)
Familiar Chemistry
Elements in the Human Body
Although the human body contains trace amounts of a large variety of elements, nearly 99 percent
of our mass consists of just six of the 118 known elements:
Oxygen 65%
Nitrogen 3% Calcium 1.5%
Carbon 18% Hydrogen 10% Phosphorus 1%
All others 1.5%
Hydrogen 10%
Nitrogen 3%
Calcium 1.5%
Carbon
Phosphorus 1.0% 18% Oxygen
65%
Credit: © Bananastock/PictureQuest
The extraordinary abundance of oxygen results from our bodies containing so much water (89 percent of water’s mass is the oxygen it contains).
Depending on health and age, the water content of a human body can range from 50 percent in a dehydrated person to 75 percent in a healthy infant.
The second most abundant element in our bodies, carbon, actually has a fairly low natural abundance. Although it makes up only about 0.1 percent
of Earth’s crust, carbon is present in nearly all living systems.
The periodic table also identifies each element with a chemical symbol. A chemi-
cal symbol consists of one capital letter, or a combination of two letters, one capital
and one lowercase. The chemical symbol for helium, for example, is He, and that for
carbon is C. Most chemical symbols, including He and C, are derived from the familiar
English names of the elements.
Others are derived from an element’s Greek or Latin name and may take some
practice for you to recognize. Examples include Au (aurium) for gold, Sn (stannum)
for tin, Na (natrium) for sodium, and K (kalium) for potassium. Many of the most recent
additions to the periodic table (the highest atomic numbers) are named to honor the
scientists involved in their discovery.
Spend some time looking at the periodic table shown in Figure 1.9, or on the
inside front cover of this book. Note that each square on the table contains a chemical
symbol and a number, along with the element’s name. The number at the top of each
square is the atomic number, which is always a whole number. (Remember that the
atomic number, Z, is the number of protons.) Each element can be identified by its
atomic number, its name, or its chemical symbol—and we need only one of these pieces
of information to unambiguously specify the identity of an element. The periodic table
squares for helium, carbon, and gold are:
2 6 79
He C Au
Helium Carbon Gold
Sample Problem 1.3 lets you practice using atomic number, name, and chemical
symbol to identify an element.
Relating an Element’s Identity to Its

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.3 Chemical Symbol and Atomic Number
Complete the following table:
Element Chemical Symbol Atomic Number
(a) calcium
(b) Cu
(c) 13
Strategy You have learned that the atomic number of an element represents the number of protons the element contains and is
found above the element’s symbol on the periodic table.
Setup Using the one given piece of information in each part, the other two can be found. If the chemical name is given, the
symbol should be determined and used to find the atomic number using the periodic table. If the chemical symbol is given, it
should be used to determine the name of the element and the atomic number shown on the periodic table. If the atomic number
is given, it should be found on the periodic table to determine the chemical symbol and element name.
Solution In part (a) the chemical symbol for calcium is Ca. Using the periodic table, locate Ca and find that its atomic number
is 20. Part (b) gives the chemical symbol for copper. The chemical symbol Cu can be located on the periodic table to determine
the atomic number is 29. Part (c) gives the atomic number, which can be located on the periodic table to find that the chemical
symbol for the element is Al. This symbol represents the element aluminum.
T H I N K ABOU T IT
A strong grasp of the names and chemical symbols of the elements will allow you to use the periodic table to determine
many properties of any element in question and vice versa.
Practice Problem A TTEMPT Complete the following table:

(a) rubidium
(b) 36
SECTION 1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table 13
Practice Problem B UILD Identify the sets of data that are incorrect in the table:
(a) iron Ir 26
(b) strontium Sr 38
(c) sodium Na 23
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE Complete the following table:
Chemical Atomic Number
Element Symbol (Protons) Neutrons Electrons
(a) potassium 20
(b) Be 5
(c) 35 46
CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table
1.4.1 For which sets of information do the atomic number 1.4.2 Which pieces of information are sufficient for you to
and element symbol match? (Select all that apply.) identify an element? (Select all that apply.)
a) Z = 6, Cr d) Z = 16, O a) Atomic number only
b) Z = 8, He e) Z = 82, Pb b) Atomic number and element symbol
c) Z = 38, Sr c) Elemental symbol only
d) Element name only
e) Element name and element symbol
Familiar Chemistry
Helium
We have all seen helium balloons used as decorations and gifts; and most of us have been entertained
by the silly-sounding high-pitched voice of a person who has breathed in the helium from a balloon.
But as familiar as this may be, how much do you really know about helium? Where does it come from?
How abundant is it? Why does a balloon filled with helium float in the air? And what other uses do
we have for the element helium? Helium is actually the product of a radioactive decay process,
and although you may not understand yet what that is, you are probably aware that uranium is
“radioactive.” As it turns out, part of what makes uranium radioactive is the process that produces
helium. On Earth, helium is found in and around natural gas deposits, and although it is relatively
rare here on Earth, it is the second most abundant element in the universe. The element helium
was discovered late in the nineteenth century—and its value to society has been immense. It
is indispensable as coolant for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines; it is used in the
manufacture of computer chips, in scuba diving gas mixtures, in arc welding operations, and in a
host of military applications—including air-to-air missile guidance and surveillance operations. Helium
balloons float because helium is “lighter” than air. (Technically, helium has a lower density [ Section 4.4]
than air.) It is precisely because helium rises that we are facing a shortage here on Earth. Helium that
is released into the air will rise until it leaves the atmosphere and floats out into space. Helium is
considered a nonrenewable resource, prompting large-scale users of it (the military, the medical
industry, scientific research facilities, and the silicon-chip industry) to develop methods for capturing
and recycling the helium that they use. Credit: © ericsphotography/iStock/Getty Images

1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table

The periodic table (Figure 1.9) consists of 118 elements, arranged in vertical columns
called groups and horizontal rows called periods. You will notice that the groups are
headed by numerical designations. The top designation, comprising a number and a letter,
is the most commonly used system in which the table is divided into main-group elements
(designated A), and transition elements (designated B). The main-group elements include
Groups 1A and 2A on the left, and 3A through 8A on the right. The transition elements
are those in the sunken, middle section of the table, with B group designations. (The groups
are also numbered 1 through 18 from left to right. However, throughout this book, we will
use the A and B numbering system consistently to refer to groups of the periodic table.)
Although the periodic table is now arranged in order of increasing atomic number
(left to right, starting at the top), it was arranged originally in groups of elements with
similar properties—even before the concept of atomic number was known. Thus, the proper-
ties of elements within a group tend to be similar. Some of the groups have special names
that refer to the shared properties of the elements they contain. Group 1A, for example, is
called the alkali metals; Group 2A is called the alkaline earth metals; Group 6A is called
the chalcogens; Group 7A is called the halogens; and Group 8A is called the noble gases.
Student Note: The properties In addition to groups (columns) and periods (rows), the periodic table is divided
that distinguish metals and into metals and nonmetals by the diagonal zigzag line on the right side of the table. Most
nonmetals will be discussed in elements are metals (left of the zigzag line). Nonmetals are to the right of the zigzag line.
Chapter 2 [ Section 2.6],
however, you are undoubtedly A handful of elements have properties that are intermediate between metal and nonmetal
familiar with the term metal and and are referred to as metalloids. These are found adjacent to the zigzag line. By noting
have a good sense of what an element’s position in the periodic table, you can determine whether it is a metal, a
constitutes metallic properties.
Metals conduct electricity and nonmetal, or a metalloid.
most are shiny solids. Sample Problem 1.4 gives you some practice classifying elements by their positions
on the periodic table.
Identifying an Element as Metal, Nonmetal, or

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.4 Metalloid by Its Position on the Periodic Table
Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid:

(a) N (b) Si (c) Ca (d) Cl (e) As
Strategy Find the given chemical symbol on the periodic table.

Setup The nonmetallic elements are found in the upper right corner of the periodic table, above the zigzag line. The metallic
elements are found below the zigzag line. Note that the metalloids include the highlighted symbols next to the zigzag line. The
metalloids are neither metals nor nonmetals.
Solution Part (a) gives the symbol for nitrogen which is found in the nonmetal portion of the periodic table. Part (b) describes
silicon, which is a metalloid found along the zigzag line. Part (c) shows calcium, found in the metals area of the periodic table.
Part (d) is chlorine, a nonmetal. Part (e) describes arsenic, a metalloid.
T H I N K ABOU T IT
Most of the periodic table is composed of metals, with the elements in the upper right corner being nonmetals. A tiny
number of elements are shaded along the zigzag line and are considered metalloids.
Practice Problem A TTEMPT Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid:
(a) Se (b) Al (c) Na (d) Kr (e) Ge
Practice Problem B UILD Name an element that fits each of the following descriptions. Note that there may be more than
one element that will work.
(a) A nonmetal found in group 14 (4A). (d) A nonmetal found in group 15 (5A).
(b) A metalloid found in group 13 (3A). (e) A metal found in group 14 (4A).
(c) A metal found in group 15 (5A).
SECTION 1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table 15
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE Determine which categories each element (chemical symbol given) falls into.
Rubidium is used as an example.
Main-Group Transition Alkali Alkaline Noble

Symbol Element Element Metal Nonmetal Metalloid Metal Earth Metal Halogen Gas
Rb X X X
B
Zn
K
Familiar Chemistry
Elements in Earth’s Crust
Earth’s crust extends from the surface to an average depth of about
40 km (25 mi). Of the 118 known elements, just eight elements make
up nearly 99 percent of our planet’s crust. They are, in decreasing
order of abundance, oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), Mantle
calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). Crust
Beneath the crust is the mantle, a hot, fluid mixture of iron, carbon (C), Core
silicon, and sulfur (S); and a solid core believed to consist mostly Aluminum 8.1%
of iron. Iron 5.0%
Oxygen
Of the eight most abundant elements, oxygen and silicon alone Calcium 3.6%
47%
constitute over 70 percent of the crust. These two elements combine Sodium 2.8%
(along with small amounts of other elements) to form a huge variety Potassium 2.6%
of silicate minerals, including the two most common minerals, Silicon Magnesium 2.1%
feldspar and quartz. The feldspar and quartz families of minerals
28% Others 0.8%
include many familiar rocks and gemstones.
Feldspar minerals:
Amazonite
Feldspar minerals: Andesine Labradorite
Amazonite Andesine Labradorite
Credit: © John Cancalosi/Getty Images Credit: © Doug Sherman/Geofile Credit: © Harry Taylor/Getty Images
Quartz minerals:
Quartz minerals:
Milky quartz Smoky quartz Rose quartz
Milky quartz Smoky quartz Rose quartz
Credit: © Doug Sherman/Geofile Credit: © Dr. Parvinder Sethi Credit: © Ron Evans/Getty Images

CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table
1.5.1 Which of the following series of elemental symbols 1.5.3 The periodic table shown here has four groups
lists a nonmetal, a metal, and a metalloid? highlighted. Which of the highlighted groups
a) Ca, Cu, Si c) Br, Ba, Ge e) Ag, Cr, As contain(s) only one metal, which contain(s) only
one nonmetal, and which contain(s) only one
b) K, Mg, B d) O, Na, S metalloid?
1.5.2 Which of the following elements would you expect to a) iv, iii, and i d) iii & iv, ii, and i
have properties most similar to those of chlorine (Cl)? b) i, iv, and iii e) i, ii, and iii & iv
a) Cu c) Na e) S c) iv, ii, and iii
b) F d) Cr
1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
1.6 Isotopes
We have learned that an atom can be identified by the number of protons contained
in its nucleus—also known as its atomic number, Z. But remember that with just
one exception (hydrogen), the nuclei of atoms also contain neutrons—and most ele-
ments consist of mixtures of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. For example,
in a sample of pure chlorine, all of the atoms have 17 protons—but they do not
all have the same number of neutrons. Roughly three-quarters of the chlorine
Student Note: Note that this is
atoms will have 18 neutrons and one-quarter will have 20 neutrons. An atom with
contrary to the part of Dalton’s 17 protons and 18 neutrons and an atom with 17 protons and 20 neutrons are both
atomic theory that we have chlorine atoms. They are, however, different isotopes of chlorine. Isotopes are
encountered. Atoms of a given
element are, in fact, not identical.
atoms of the same element, and therefore have the same number of protons, but have
different numbers of neutrons.
The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons in an atom’s
nucleus. (Protons and neutrons are known, collectively, as nucleons.) Returning to
the example of chlorine, the mass number of a chlorine atom with 18 neutrons is
35 (17 protons + 18 neutrons), and the mass number of a chlorine atom with 20 neu-
trons is 37 (17 protons + 20 neutrons). The way to denote the identity of an atom is
SECTION 1.6 Isotopes 17
Thinking Outside the Box

Mass Spectrometry
How do we know the mass of an atom? An instrument called a mass
spectrometer is one very accurate method for determining the mass
of an atom. A mass spectrometer works by bombarding a gaseous
sample of a substance with a stream of electrons. When the electrons Detecting
collide with the gaseous atoms, they dislodge an electron and create Accelerating screen
plates
a positively charged ion (with a certain charge-to-mass, e/m ratio). Electron
beam
The positive ions are accelerated between two plates of opposite
charges. The beam of ions then passes through a magnetic field,
which separates the ions on the basis of the e/m ratio. The smaller the Magnet
e/m ratio, the more the magnetic field deflects the ion. The magnitude Ion beam
of deflection is used to determine the mass of the ion and therefore Sample
gas Filament
the mass of the parent atom.
Diagram of one type of mass spectrometer.
with its elemental symbol (shown here as X) with the superscript mass number (A)
and the subscript atomic number (Z).
Mass number
(number of protons + neutrons)
Student Note: Because these
A
ZX
Element symbol symbols designate isotopes by
Atomic number specifying numbers of nucleons,
(number of protons) they are sometimes referred to
as nuclear symbols.
There are three isotopes of hydrogen, called hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium. Hydro-
gen has one proton and no neutrons in its nucleus, deuterium has one proton and one
neutron, and tritium has one proton and two neutrons. Thus, to represent the isotopes
of hydrogen, we write
1 2 3
1 H 1 H 1 H
protium deuterium tritium
Similarly, the two common isotopes of uranium (Z = 92), which have mass numbers
of 235 and 238, respectively, can be represented as follows:
235 238
92U 92U
The first isotope, with 235 − 92 = 143 neutrons in its nucleus, is used in nuclear reac-
tors and atomic bombs, whereas the second isotope, with 146 neutrons, lacks the prop-
erties necessary for these applications. With the exception of hydrogen, which has
different names for each of its isotopes, the isotopes of other elements are identified by
their mass numbers. The two isotopes of uranium are called uranium-235 (pronounced
“uranium two thirty-five”) and uranium-238 (pronounced “uranium two thirty-eight”).
Because the atomic number subscript can be deduced from the elemental symbol, it may
be omitted from these representations without the loss of any information. The symbols
3
H and 235U are sufficient to specify the isotopes tritium and uranium-235, respectively.
The chemical properties of an element are determined primarily by the number
of protons and electrons in its atoms, not by the number of neutrons. Therefore, isotopes
of the same element typically exhibit very similar chemical properties.
Sample Problem 1.5 shows how to calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons using atomic numbers and mass numbers

Determining Numbers of Subatomic

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.5 Particles in a Given Atom
Determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the following species:
(a) 35
l7 Cl (b)
37
Cl (c) 41
K (d) carbon-14
Strategy Recall that the superscript denotes the mass number, A, and the subscript denotes the atomic number, Z. In cases
where no subscript is shown, as in parts (b), (c), and (d), the atomic number can be deduced from the elemental symbol or name.
For the purpose of determining the number of electrons, remember that atoms are neutral, so the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons.
Setup Number of protons = Z, number of neutrons = A − Z, and number of electrons = number of protons. Recall that the 14
in carbon-14 is the mass number.
Solution (a) The atomic number is 17, so there are 17 protons. The mass number is 35, so the number of neutrons is 35 − 17 = 18.
The number of electrons equals the number of protons, so there are 17 electrons.
(b) Because the element is again Cl (chlorine), the atomic number is again 17, so there are 17 protons. The mass number is 37,
so the number of neutrons is 37 − 17 = 20. The number of electrons equals the number of protons, so there are 17 electrons, too.
(c) The atomic number of K (potassium) is 19, so there are 19 protons. The mass number is 41, so there are 41 − 19 = 22
neutrons. There are 19 electrons.
14
(d) Carbon-14 can also be represented as C. The atomic number of carbon is 6, so there are 6 protons and 6 electrons. There
are 14 − 6 = 8 neutrons.
T H I N K ABOU T IT
Verify that the number of protons and the number of neutrons for each example sum to the mass number that is given. In
part (a), for example, there are 17 protons and 18 neutrons, which sum to give a mass number of 35, the value given in the
problem. In part (b), 17 protons + 20 neutrons = 37. In part (c), 19 protons + 22 neutrons = 41. In part (d), 6 protons +
8 neutrons = 14.
Practice Problem A TTEMPT How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in an atom of (a) 105B, (b) 36Ar,
85
(c) 38Sr, and (d) carbon-11?
Practice Problem B UILD Give the correct symbols to identify an atom that contains (a) 4 protons, 4 electrons, and
5 neutrons; (b) 23 protons, 23 electrons, and 28 neutrons; (c) 54 protons, 54 electrons, and 70 neutrons; and (d) 31 protons,
31 electrons, and 38 neutrons.
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE Fill in the missing information for neutral atoms:
Isotope Element Mass Neutrons Protons Electrons

Symbol Name Number (A) (n°) (p+) (e−)
N-15 nitrogen 15 8 7 7
nitrogen 14
23
Na 23 11
CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.6 Isotopes
1.6.1 How many neutrons are there in an atom of 60Ni? 1.6.2 What is the mass number of an oxygen atom with nine
a) 60 d) 32 neutrons in its nucleus?
b) 30 e) 29 a) 8 d) 16
c) 28 b) 9 e) 18
c) 17
SECTION 1.7 Atomic Mass 19
Familiar Chemistry
Iron-Fortified Cereal
Iron deficiency is the single most common nutritional deficiency in the world. An estimated 25 percent of
the world’s population does not consume enough iron to maintain good health. Iron is necessary for
production of hemoglobin, the component in red blood cells responsible for the transport of oxygen, and
insufficient iron causes anemia. People with anemia can suffer from a variety of symptoms including
fatigue, weakness, pale color, poor appetite, headache, and light-headedness. Although pharmacy
shelves display a variety of over-the-counter iron supplements, one of the most popular ways to increase
dietary intake of iron is by eating iron-fortified cereal. Such cereals are common and include many familiar
brands. Have you ever thought about how the cereals become “fortified”? It may surprise you to learn that
most cereals are fortified with iron simply by the addition of iron metal! Finely divided bits of iron are
simply added to the grain and other ingredients during processing. The iron metal in fortified cereals is
fairly simple to separate and observe—and this process is a popular chemistry demonstration. If you blend
the cereal with water and apply a strong magnet, you can actually separate the iron filings.
Credit: (both) © McGraw-Hill Education/David Moyer, photographer
(A number of YouTube videos illustrate this process quite nicely. Search: iron fortified cereal)
1.7 Atomic Mass

As we have seen, there are two different isotopes of chlorine, 35Cl and 37Cl. However,
if you examine the periodic table on the inside cover of the book, you will see a num-
ber under the element’s symbol and name that is neither 35 nor 37. The number under
the symbol and name of chlorine is 35.45. That number, 35.45, is the atomic mass (M)
of chlorine. In order to understand the concept of atomic mass, we need to become
familiar with the units with which atomic masses are expressed—namely the atomic
mass unit or amu. An atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a 12C
atom. On this scale, the mass of a 35Cl atom is 34.968852721 amu. (Note that the mass
of an atom is not exactly equal to its mass number.) The mass of a 37Cl atom is
36.96590262 amu.
The number on the periodic table, 35.45, is the average atomic mass of chlo-
rine. It is much closer to 35 than it is to 37, though, because it is not a simple average,
but rather a weighted average. Because 35Cl is far more abundant in naturally occur-
ring chlorine than 37Cl, the average atomic mass of chlorine is closer to the mass of
35 37
Cl than to the mass of Cl. The average atomic mass of chlorine can be calculated
as follows:
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78 percent 35Cl and 24.22 percent 37Cl.
(0.7578)(34.968852721 amu) + (0.2422)(36.96590262 amu) = 35.45 amu
Many elements have more than two naturally occurring isotopes. (Tin, Sn, holds the
record with 10.) But in the case of elements with two isotopes, it is usually easy to tell
which isotope is more abundant simply by looking at the atomic mass listed in the peri-
odic table. Boron, for example, has two naturally occurring isotopes: 10B and 11B. Because
the atomic mass on the periodic table is 10.81, we know that 11B is the more abundant
of the isotopes, because the average atomic mass is closer to 11 than it is to 10. In fact,
the abundances of isotopes in natural boron are 80.1 percent 11B and 19.9 percent 10B.
Sample Problem 1.6 lets you practice determining which isotope is more abundant
in elements with just two naturally occurring isotopes.
Identifying the More Abundant Isotope

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.6 Given Average Atomic Mass
Each set of data lists two isotopes of a particular element. Use the atomic masses on the periodic table to determine which one
has a larger percent abundance.
(a) Ne-20 or Ne-22 (b) In-113 or In-115 (Z = 49) (c) Cu-63 or Cu-65
Strategy The atomic masses shown on the periodic table are a weighted average of the naturally occurring isotopes of each element.
Setup The atomic mass shown on the periodic table will be closer to the isotope that is present in a higher abundance.
Solution (a) Ne-20 as the atomic mass of neon is listed as 20.18, which is closer to 20 than 22. (b) In-115 as the atomic mass
of indium is listed as 114.82, which is closer to 115 than 113. (c) Cu-63 as the atomic mass of copper is listed as 63.55, which is
closer to 63 than 65.
T H I N K ABOU T IT
The average atomic mass (shown on the periodic table for each element) should be closest to the most abundant isotope
for that element.
Practice Problem A TTEMPT Each set of data lists two isotopes of an element. Use the atomic masses on the periodic
table to determine which one has a larger percent abundance.
(a) Mg-24 or Mg-25 (b) Li-6 or Li-7 (c) Ta-180 or Ta-181 (Z = 73)
Practice Problem B UILD Which of the following statements could be true according to the atomic masses given on the
periodic table?
(a) Silver is a roughly equal mix of Ag-107 and Ag-109.
(b) Rubidium is predominantly composed of Rb-87.
(c) Vanadium is a roughly equal mix of V-50 and V-51.
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE A plastic supermarket bag contains 10 apples. The bag could contain Granny
Smith apples, Pink Lady apples, or a mixture of the two. The masses of a Granny Smith and Pink Lady apple are 200 grams and
150 grams, respectively.
(a) What mass would the bag of apples have if they were all Granny Smith apples?
(b) What mass would the bag of apples have if they were all Pink Lady apples?
(c) C
ould the bag contain a 50:50 mix of Granny Smith and Pink Lady apples if it had a mass of 1200 grams? (Think about how
much the bag would weigh if 5 apples were Granny Smith and 5 were Pink Ladies.) What would the average mass of an apple
in the bag be in a 50:50 mix?
(d) W
hat would the average mass of an apple in the bag be if the percent abundance of apples was 10.00% Granny Smith and
90.00% Pink Ladies?
SECTION 1.7 Atomic Mass 21
Sample Problem 1.7 shows you how to calculate the average atomic mass for an
element, knowing the relative abundance of its naturally occurring isotopes.
Calculating Average Atomic Mass

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.7 Given Isotope Abundance
The percent abundance of the two stable isotopes of copper, Cu-63 (62.929599 amu) and Cu-65 (64.927793 amu), are 69.17% and
30.83%, respectively. Determine the average atomic mass of copper.
Strategy Each isotope contributes to the average atomic mass based on its relative abundance. Multiplying the mass of each isotope
by its fractional abundance (percent value divided by 100) will give its contribution to the average atomic mass.
Setup Each percent abundance must be converted to a fractional abundance: 69.17/100 or 0.6917 and 30.83/100 or 0.3083. Once
we find the contribution to the average atomic mass for each isotope, we can then add the contributions together to obtain the
average atomic mass. This is a weighted average.
Solution
0.6917 × 62.929599 = 43.5284 amu
+0.3083 × 64.927793 = 20.0172 amu
63.5456 amu
TH IN K A BO U T IT
The average atomic mass should be closest to the atomic mass of the most abundant isotope (in this case the Cu-63
isotope) and, to two places past the decimal point, should be the same number that appears in the periodic table on the
inside front cover of this book (in this case, 63.55 amu).
Practice Problem A TTEMPT The percent abundance of the two stable isotopes of nitrogen, N-14 (14.003074002 amu)
and N-15 (15.000108898 amu), are 99.63% and 0.37%, respectively. Determine the average atomic mass of nitrogen. (Report your
answer to two places past the decimal point.)
Practice Problem B UILD The percent abundance of the three stable isotopes of neon, Ne-20 (19.9924401754 amu), Ne-21
(20.99384668 amu), and Ne-22 (21.991385114 amu), are 90.5%, 0.3%, and 9.3%, respectively. Determine the average atomic mass
of neon. (Report your answer to two places past the decimal point.)
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE The figure is a representation of 15 atoms of a
fictitious element with the symbol Rr and atomic number 115. Rr has two isotopes represented by
the colors: Rr-285 (green) and Rr-294 (purple). Use the drawing (statistically representative of
naturally occurring Rr) and the following masses of each isotope to calculate the atomic mass of Rr.
Rr-285 (green) = 284.9751 amu
Rr-294 (purple) = 293.9855 amu
CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.7 Atomic Mass
1.7.1 Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes, 10B and 1.7.2 The two naturally occurring isotopes of antimony,
11 121
B, which have masses 10.0129 and 11.0093 amu, Sb (57.21 percent) and 123Sb (42.79 percent), have
respectively. Given the average atomic mass of boron masses of 120.904 and 122.904 amu, respectively.
(10.81 amu), determine the percent abundance of each What is the average atomic mass of Sb?
isotope. a) 121.90 amu
a) 50% 10B, 50% 11B b) 122.05 amu
b) 20% 10B, 80% 11B c) 121.76 amu
c) 98% 10B, 2% 11B d) 121.34 amu
d) 93% 10B, 7% 11B e) 122.18 amu
e) 22% 10B, 78% 11B
Chapter Summary
Section 1.1 of an atom. The periodic table arranges the elements in order of
increasing atomic number. Each element has a unique chemical
∙ Chemistry is the study of matter and of the changes that matter
symbol, consisting of one capital letter (e.g., C, H, F, O) or of
undergoes. Matter is everything material—essentially every-
one capital and one lowercase letter (e.g., He, Cl, Na, Al).
thing we can see, smell, taste, and touch. Mass refers to the
amount of matter in an object or group of objects.
Section 1.5
∙ The scientific method is a systematic approach to scientific ex-
∙ The periodic table is divided into vertical columns called
perimentation in which observations can be used to formulate
groups and horizontal rows called periods. Elements in the
a scientific law, the experimental data collected can be used to
same group exhibit similar properties. Further, the periodic
develop a scientific hypothesis, and a successful hypothesis can
table is separated into metals and nonmetals by a zigzag line
give rise to a scientific theory or model. Scientific theories are
running down the right side of the table. Most of the elements
always being tested by further experiment and must be changed
that lie adjacent to the zigzag line are neither metal nor non-
or replaced if newly discovered data are inconsistent with them.
metal, but are referred to as metalloids. Some of the groups
(vertical columns) have special names. Group 1A is referred to
Section 1.2
as the alkali metals, Group 2A is the alkaline earth metals,
∙ Atoms are the tiny building blocks of all matter. Elements are Group 6A is the chalcogens, Group 7A is the halogens, and
substances that consist of just one type of atom and that cannot Group 8A is the noble gases.
be broken down into simpler substances.
Section 1.6
Section 1.3
∙ Atoms of a given element are not all identical. Those with the
∙ Electrons are negatively charged particles that are part of all same atomic number (Z) but different numbers of neutrons are
atoms. The nucleus is the tiny, dense core that contains all of called isotopes. The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom
an atom’s positive charge, and nearly all of its mass. The posi- is the atom’s mass number (A). Collectively, protons and
tively charged particles in the nucleus of an atom are protons, neutrons (the particles in the nucleus) are called nucleons.
and the electrically neutral particles in the nucleus are neutrons.
With the exception of hydrogen atoms, all atoms contain neu- Section 1.7
trons. An alpha particle is the positively charged combination
∙ Atomic mass (M) is the mass of an atom in atomic mass units
of two protons and two neutrons.
(amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth the
mass of a carbon-12 atom (a carbon atom with six protons and
Section 1.4
six neutrons in its nucleus). The average atomic mass of an
∙ The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus element is the weighted average of the element’s naturally
of an atom. Atomic number determines the elemental identity occurring isotopes.
Key Terms
Alkali metal 14 Chemistry 3 Mass number (A) 16 Nucleus 7

Alkaline earth metal 14 Electron 6 Matter 3 Period 14
Alpha particle 7 Element 5 Metal 14 Periodic Table 10
Atom 5 Group 14 Metalloid 14 Proton 8
Atomic mass (M) 19 Halogen 14 Model 4 Scientific Method 3
Atomic mass unit (amu) 19 Hypothesis 4 Neutron 8 Theory 4
Atomic number (Z) 10 Isotope 16 Noble Gas 14
Average atomic mass 19 Law 4 Nonmetal 14
Chalcogens 14 Mass 3 Nucleon 16
Organization of the Periodic Table KEY SKILLS
As you proceed through this course, you will find yourself using the periodic table a lot. It is a powerful tool that embod-
ies much more information than may be immediately apparent. For you to make the best possible use of this tool, it is
very important that you become familiar with the information it provides and comfortable using it to understand new
concepts and solve problems.
There are several ways to view the organization of the periodic table. One way is to divide the table into metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids. This is shown with color coding here. Metals are shown in green, nonmetals in blue, and
metalloids in yellow.
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Another way to look at the organization is that elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. We read across
the periods of the periodic table the same way we read a page of text: left to right in the first row, then left to right in
the second row, and so on.
1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
23
The elements we will encounter most often will be those in the main group of the periodic table. Each element’s tile gives
its atomic number, its elemental symbol, its name, and its average atomic mass. Note that each column of elements has a
group number (1A–8A). Very often, solving a problem in a later chapter will require you to use the periodic table to look
up atomic masses, elemental symbols, group numbers, etc.—and it is very important that you practice this enough to do
it quickly and accurately.
1A Group 8A
1 number 18
1 2
H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
Hydrogen
1.008 2 13 14 15 16 17 Helium
4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.10 40.08 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.47 87.62 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.9 137.3 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
Francium Radium Ununtrium Flerovium Ununpentium Livermorium Ununseptium Ununoctium
(223) (226) (284) (289) (288) (293) (293) (294)
Key Skills Questions

1.1 1.3
Of the main-group elements, which group (of Groups 1A–8A) Within the main group, how many instances are there where
contains the largest number of metals? the order of elements does not proceed in order of increasing
a) 1A average atomic mass?
b) 3A a) None
c) 4A b) One
d) 6A c) Two
e) 7A d) Three
e) More than three
1.2
Of the main-group elements, which period (of periods 1–6) 1.4
contains the largest number of nonmetals? What causes isotopes of an element to have different atomic
a) 2 masses?
b) 3 a) Different numbers of protons
c) 4 b) Different numbers of electrons
d) 5 c) Different numbers of neutrons
e) 6 d) Different charges
e) Different numbers of protons and neutrons
24
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Aires. The habits of P. melsheimeri have been described by Harris,
Packard[251] and Newman, and those of P. batesi by Newman.[252] The
larva is very peculiar; there is a flexible pair of appendages on the
head, the use of which is unknown;[253] they arise by slender stalks
behind and above the eyes, are about as long as the head, and are
easily broken off. After hatching, the young larva, when it begins to
feed, fastens two leaves together with silk threads, and so feeds after
the fashion of a Tortricid, rather than a case-making, larva.
Subsequently, however, the caterpillar entirely detaches two pieces of
leaves and fastens them together at the edges, thus constructing a
case that it lives in, and carries about; it can readily leave the case and
afterwards return to it. When at rest, the larva relieves itself from the
effort of supporting this case by the device of fastening it to a leaf with a
few silken threads; when the creature wished to start again, "it came
out and bit off these threads close to the case." Subsequently it
changes inside the case to a pupa armed with transverse rows of teeth,
like so many other pupae that are capable of a certain amount of
movement. The larva is of broad, short, peculiar form, and is said to be
very bold in defending itself when attacked. The moth is somewhat like
the silkworm moth, though of a more tawny colour. Newman does not
allude to any cephalic appendages as existing in the larva of P. batesi.
If we accept the eggs figured and described by Snellen,[254] as those of
P. batesi, it is possible that this Insect possesses a peculiar mode of
oviposition, the eggs being placed one on the other, so as to form an
outstanding string; but we think this example probably abnormal; the
mode is not shared by P. melsheimeri. The genus Lacosoma is
considered by Packard to be an ally of Perophora. The caterpillar of L.
chiridota doubles a leaf at the mid-rib and fastens the two edges
together, thus forming an unsymmetrical case. Many larvae of
Microlepidoptera do something like this, but the Lacosoma cuts off the
habitation thus formed and carries it about. Packard says it may have
descended from ancestors with ordinary habits and that certain peculiar
obsolete markings on the body of the caterpillar may be indications of
this.[255]
Fig. 188—Larvae of Hammock-moth, Perophora sanguinolenta, projecting
from their Hammocks, built from their own excrement. South
America. (After Jones.)
The Argentinian Insect Mamillo curtisea[256] is also probably an ally of

Lacosoma. The caterpillar of this moth spins a dwelling for itself, and is
remarkable from the bright colour of the thoracic segments, the
following somites being colourless; the head bears a pair of large
processes, quite different from those figured by Harris. The moth itself
is very Geometrid-like in colour and form. This species is now assigned
to Perophora, but it seems to be very doubtful whether many of the
species placed in this genus really belong to it. The diversity of habits
and instincts evinced by these moths of exceptional modes of life, but
considered to be closely allied, is very interesting. The most remarkable
of all is the Hammock-moth, Perophora sanguinolenta, of the centre of
South America, the larva of which constructs its portable habitations out
of its own excrement, which is of peculiar form, specially suitable for the
purpose. The caterpillar, when wishing to enlarge its case, builds it up
from excrement "flattened at the sides, so as to adapt it for building
purposes."[257]
Fig. 189.—Antennae of Sphingidae. A, One joint of antenna of

Choerocampa elpenor ♂ , enlarged; B, three joints of antenna of
Sphinx ligustri, seen from one side, and enlarged.
Fam. 9. Sphingidae (Hawk-moths).—A very important family of moths

of large or moderate size. They have a proboscis which is frequently
very long; there is a frenulum; the body is stouter than in most other
Lepidoptera, and the wings are of small superficies in comparison with
it; the antennae are somewhat peculiar, having a thick, solid
appearance, pointed at the tip. This is usually somewhat hooked, and
bears a few hairs. In the males the antennae are formed in a manner
specially characteristic of the family. In section, each joint shows a
chitinous process on the under side (Fig. 189, A), forming with that of
the other joints a continuous ridge, and on each side of this ridge there
exists a series of short, delicate "cilia" arranged in a very beautiful
manner (Fig. 189, B). This structure, with some modifications, appears
to be usually present in the family; it attains a very perfect development
in cases where the tips of two rows of cilia bend towards one another,
meeting so as to form an arched cavity. This structure is different from
what occurs in the males of other families of Lepidoptera, for though
cilia are very common, they are usually placed either on two projections
from the body of the antennae (instead of on the two sides of a single
projection), or there is but a single whorl, or set, of them on each joint
(Catocala, etc.). The front wings are usually pointed at the tip, and are
long in proportion to their width; but in the Smerinthini they are of
different form, with the outer margin scalloped; the hind wings are
remarkably small; the abdomen is frequently pointed, but in the
Macroglossini, or Humming-bird hawk-moths, it is furnished at the tip
with a tuft, or with two tufts, of dense, long scales, capable of
expansion.
The larvae are remarkable for their colours and form. The anterior
segments are attenuated, but are capable of great retraction, so that in
repose (Fig. 190, A) this shape is concealed by the curious attitudes
that are assumed. There is in nearly all cases a conspicuous horn on
the eleventh segment, and the body at the extremity behind the horn is
so much modified that the terminal two segments look like little more
than a pair of large claspers. In the Choerocampini, the thoracic
segments are retractile, and can be withdrawn into the more or less
inflated fourth segment, and give the creature somewhat the
appearance of a miniature hooded snake. The larvae of Sphingidae do
not bear any conspicuous hairs—except during the first instar. They do
not spin cocoons, but bury themselves in the earth. The pupa is
remarkable from the deep cleft that exists to admit air to the first
spiracle, and for a deep depression on each side of the anterior part of
abdominal segments 5-7; in some cases the proboscis projects on the
breast somewhat like the handle of a pitcher.
Fig. 190—Larva of the Poplar Hawk-moth, Smerinthus populi. × 1. A, in

repose; B, in movement.
A great deal has been written on the colours, markings, and attitudes of
Sphingid larvae, and many interesting facts have been brought to light.
We may refer the reader to the writings of Weismann[258] and Poulton,
[259] without, however, recommending him to place an implicit
confidence in their somewhat metaphysical disquisitions; for the views
there shadowed will necessarily became much modified with the
advance of exact knowledge. It is certain that the position assumed by
the same individual varies much according to age, and to the interval
since the last moult; sometimes the attitude is much more remarkable
than that shown in Figure 190, A, for the anterior segments are held
erect, as well as contracted, the front part of the body being curled, and
the Insect supported by the claspers and two pairs only of the
abdominal feet. There is, too, a considerable difference in colour before
and after an ecdysis. Piepers, who has had a long experience among
Sphingid larvae in Java, considers that much of what has been written
as to the protective value of their colours and attitudes, is mere fancy,
and wild generalisation.[260]
Sphingidae have been recorded as capable of producing sounds in the

larval and pupal, as well as in the perfect, instars; but the method in
which this is done has not been ascertained, except in the case of the
imago of the Death's-head moth, which is well known to emit a very
audible cry when not on the wing; in this case it is highly probable that
the method is the friction of the palpi against the proboscis, as stated by
Réaumur and Landois; the inner face of the palp is said to be marked in
this case with fine ridges or striae.
Fig. 191—Cocytia durvillii. New Guinea. (After Boisduval.)
Fam. 10. Cocytiidae.—A single genus constitutes this family, and there
are only three or four species known; they come from the region of New
Guinea, whence the first was brought by D'Urville nearly a hundred
years ago. They are still amongst the rarest of Insects. Nothing is
known as to their life-histories. In appearance they somewhat remind
us of the Bee-hawk moths and Zygaenidae. Butler says[261] the family
is characterised by the palpi, which differ much in the two sexes, and by
the antennae resembling those of Castniidae or Hesperiidae. The form,
transparency, and coloration of the wings reminds one vividly of the
Sphingid genus Hemaris; the nervuration is somewhat like that of
Hemaris, but has certain features of Zygaenidae. Butler places the
family between Agaristidae and Zygaenidae.
Fig. 192—Cerura vinula (Puss-moth) caterpillar. A, Moulting; B, the same

individual a few hours after the moult.
Fam. 11. Notodontidae (Prominents, Puss-moths, etc.).—This is one
of the most extensive of the families of Bombyces; it consists in larger
part of obscure-coloured moths, somewhat like the ordinary Noctuidae
of temperate regions; to which family the Notodonts are indeed
considered to be very closely allied. The family contains, however,
some very remarkable forms. Tarsolepis has an elongate body,
terminated (in the female of T. fulgurifera) by a very conspicuous tuft of
enormously long, battledore scales; while in the male of T. sommeri the
hind legs are provided with an appendage of beautiful, roseate hairs. A
few of the larger kinds bear a considerable resemblance in form and
proportions to the Sphingidae. Some of the larvae are most interesting
objects; the Puss-moth caterpillar, the Lobster, and the Dragon larvae
are of such strange forms that they have already interested several
generations of observers. The Puss-moth is common in the southern
half of England; its caterpillar (Fig. 192) has, instead of the claspers, a
pair of tubes in which are concealed two long, flexible whips, capable of
being thrust out, and withdrawn, with rapidity. The structure and the
mode of action of these flagella have been well elucidated by Professor
Poulton.[262] The flagella are to be considered as actual prolongations
of the receptacle in which each is placed, though they are of very
different texture therefrom; they are everted by blood-pressure and
drawn in by muscular action; this latter function is very perfectly
accomplished, the amount of relaxation and contraction of the muscle
being very great. It has been maintained that the whips have arisen as
arms of protection against the attacks of Ichneumon flies; observation
shows, however, that the proportion of these "protected" Insects
destroyed by enemies of this sort is quite as large as it is in the case of
forms that are not so protected. The Puss-moth larva is also believed to
be protected by terrifying attitudes,[263] as well as by ejection (like so
many other larvae and insects generally) of fluid. There is no reason for
believing that these larvae are less eaten than others, and
consequently a further hypothesis has been proposed, to the effect that
if they had not acquired these means of defence they would have been
exterminated altogether. This supposition is considered to account for
their acquiring the defence by means of natural selection; realising the
dictum of D. O'Phace, Esq.—
Some flossifers think that a fakkilty's granted,
The minnit it's proved to be thoroughly wanted.
When the Puss-moth caterpillar is full grown it spins a peculiar

cocoon of a solid and impervious nature, which it manages to make
look very like the spots, crevices, or other places amongst which it is
located; in this prison the creature remains for nine or ten months—
by far the larger part of its existence. When it has changed to a moth
it has to escape from the cell in which it so effectually confined itself.
This is effected by the cocoon being thinner in front of the head of
the moth, and by the emission from the alimentary canal of a fluid
that softens the cocoon at the spot alluded to. Mr. Latter has
ascertained[264] that this fluid is strongly alkaline, and contains
potassium hydroxide. The front of the head of the moth is provided
with a shield, consisting of a portion of the pupa shell, which enables
the moth to push through in safety, and at the same time protects the
head from the emitted fluid. Figure 192 shows the great change that
occurs in the period of a few hours in the size of the head of the
larva, as well as in that of the spiracles: in A the old spiracles are
seen surrounded by the much larger new orifices, which are at the
moment of moulting quite visible through the skin that is about to be
cast off.
The caterpillar of the Lobster-moth, Stauropus fagi, is more

remarkable than that of the Puss-moth, but is unfortunately very rare.
It has remarkably long thoracic legs, the abdomen is swollen at the
tip, and instead of the terminal claspers has two long slender
processes. The effect of these peculiarities is greatly enhanced by
the extraordinary attitude assumed by the caterpillar, which holds the
first five segments erect, with the second and third pairs of thoracic
legs outstretched; the swollen terminal segment is also held erect.
Hermann Müller states[265] that when seen from the front this
caterpillar looks like a spider, and also that when alarmed it moves
the long legs after the fashion of an Arachnid. He believes that it is
thus effectually protected from the attacks of Ichneumons. Birchall
says[266] that the young larva, when at rest, closely resembles, in
colour and outline, one of the twigs of beech with unopened buds, on
which it frequently stations itself; and that, when feeding, its likeness
to a great earwig or to a Staphylinus is very striking. Others say that
this caterpillar resembles a dead and crumpled beech leaf.
The larva of Hybocampa milhauseri—the Dragon of old Sepp—is

highly remarkable. When young it has grand lateral horns in front,
and a dorsal row; as it grows the lateral horns disappear. Dr.
Chapman says[267] that he could not understand at first why any
larva should have such remarkable angular outlines, curiously
conspicuous corners and humps. But he afterwards found that the
creature exactly resembled a curled oak leaf, eaten and abandoned
by a Tortrix larva. This caterpillar also constructs an elaborate
cocoon from which the moth escapes by an operation performed by
the pupa, which is provided with two hard spines, called by Dr.
Chapman sardine-openers. "By a lateral rotatory movement of the
pupa, which obtains its fulcrum from the tightness with which it is
grasped by the cocoon, it traverses over and over again" the same
part of the cocoon till it is cut through; at the same time the spines
act as guides to a fluid which is emitted so as to soften the part that
has to be sundered.
Though many other larvae of Notodontidae are of most curious form

and assume remarkable attitudes, yet this is not the case with all,
and some are quite ordinary and like the caterpillars of common
Noctuidae. This is the case with the species Rhegmatophila alpina
we have selected to illustrate the metamorphosis of the Order (Fig.
157). Those who wish to form an idea of the variety of larval forms in
this family will do well to refer to Packard's beautiful volume on the
North American forms.[268] The family has a very wide distribution,
but is absent from New Zealand and Polynesia, and appears to be
but poorly represented in Australia. In Britain we have about two
dozen species.
Fam. 12. Cymatophoridae.—A small family of nocturnal moths that

connect the Bombyces with the Noctuids; they are usually
associated with the latter, but are widely separated in Hampson's
arrangement because of a slight difference of nervuration, nervule 5
being nearer to 6 than to 4, whereas in Noctuidae the reverse is the
case. The Insects, however, in certain respects approach the
Notodontidae, and are of interest if only as showing that the linear
sequences we adopt in books are necessarily conventional, and to
some extent deceptive. We have three genera in Britain; our pretty
Peach-blossom, Thyatira batis, and the very different Buff-arches, T.
derasa, being among them. Meyrick denies any connexion of this
group with Noctuidae, and in his nomenclature Cymatophora
becomes Polyploca, and the family, consequently, Polyplocidae.
Fam. 13. Sesiidae or Aegeriidae (Clear-wings).—A family of

comparatively small extent; its members have frequently one or both
pairs of wings in large part free from scales, the tip of the body
tufted, the hind legs of one sex peculiar. The size is usually small,
but in the largest forms the measurement may be but little less than
two inches across the expanded wings. The pupa is of the kind
classed as "incompletae" by Chapman, the appendages not being
firmly glued to the body, and much mobility existing; an "eye-collar"
is present, and the segments of the abdomen are armed with series
of teeth. The larva is a concealed feeder, nearly naked and
colourless, but with the legs normal in number—three thoracic, four
abdominal pairs of feet, and the terminal claspers; these are
sometimes but poorly developed; the larvae have a greater or less
resemblance to those of Longicorn beetles, the habits of which they
share. The family was formerly associated with the Sphingidae, with
which it has no true relationship; it is more closely allied to the
Tineidae. Some of the species have a certain resemblance to
Hymenoptera, which is probably in most, if not in all cases merely
incidental. The proper position of the family was pointed out by
Butler,[269] but he did not distinguish it from Tinaegeriidae. Meyrick
calls the family Aegeriadae, and places it in his series Tineina.
Fig. 193—Oedematopoda princeps. Africa. (After Walsingham.)
We have two genera of these Clear-wings in Britain. They are

Trochilium (called variously Sesia, Sphecia, and Aegeria), with two
species of comparatively large size, and Sesia (called variously
Trochilium and Aegeria), with nearly a dozen species of smaller size.
A third genus, Sciapteron, is doubtfully native with us. They are
much prized by collectors on account of the rarity of the Insects and
their great difference in appearance from our other native
Lepidoptera.
Fam. 14. Tinaegeriidae. This is one of the least known of the

families of Lepidoptera, and has only recently been distinguished
from Sesiidae. It is entirely exotic, and our knowledge of it is
principally due to Lord Walsingham.[270] Nothing is known as to the
life-histories, except that it has been stated by Stainton that a larva
feeds in webs on shoots of a shrub of the genus Clerodendron. The
family is widely distributed, but its metropolis will probably prove to
be the tropics of Africa. It is of considerable interest as showing that
the Sesiidae really belong to the Tineid series of moths. The species
we figure (Fig. 193) has a character otherwise peculiar to Sesiidae in
the wings being inserted on the thorax remote from the head—a
feature we do not find in the Tineidae proper; while on the other
hand it has the long wing-fringes, and the shape of the wings that
are characteristic of Tineidae. It is worth mentioning that though
these Insects are of excessive rarity and very peculiar, there exists in
the Solomon Islands[271] a species distinct from, though at first sight
excessively similar to, the S. African one we figure.
Fam. 15. Syntomidae.—This family has usually been associated
with the Zygaenidae. It includes a large number of moths having, as
a rule, in external appearance little to distinguish them from the
family named. Many of them are of gaudy colours, and probably of
diurnal, but somewhat sedentary, habits. The wings are less ample
than usual, the hind pair frequently very small, so that the Insects
have somewhat the proportions of Hymenoptera. In some cases the
resemblance is made more remarkable by the fact that the wings are
transparent and bare of scales, or have scales only at the margins,
so as to be like the wings of Hymenoptera. Not less remarkable is
the fact that these Insects use the body itself for the purposes of
adornment or display; thus adopting a system prevalent in the
Hymenoptera, rather than that of their own Order, where the rule is
that the wings are more ornamented than the body. In many cases
the shape of the body is so very different from the normal that the
disposition of the organs of life in the interior of the body must be
materially affected. In some genera, such as Andrenimorpha, the
form, colour and attitude of the body and some of the limbs are
plainly similar to Hymenoptera. These Insects have a highly-
developed frenulum, retinaculum, and proboscis; bipectinate
antennae in the male, a complex organ at the base of the abdomen
on each side, and are in fact highly-developed forms, except
perhaps as regards the structures in connexion with flight.
Unfortunately little or nothing is known as to the habits and

metamorphoses of these extraordinary creatures, but it is no doubt
to them Seitz referred in saying, "How far one may be deceived by
appearances of a mimetic nature can only be comprehended by
visiting the tropics; in this part of the world [Europe] one is prepared
by knowledge gained from books for the appearance Sesia presents.
Had one no knowledge of this sort as to Sesiidae he would actually
in the field [in Brazil] overlook dozens of these little creatures without
being aware of his deception. The surprise at finding a quite different
being in the net from what one believes he has caught occurs daily
in Brazil, so rich in Lepidoptera."[272] The same intelligent observer
says[273] that a species of Macrocneme was observed by him to be
exactly like one of the blue wasps of the genus Pepsis.
One remarkable point in these Hymenopteroid Syntomids is their

complete dissimilarity from their immediate allies. They resemble
very different Hymenoptera; and not only stinging Hymenoptera; the
Sessiliventres have a large share of their attentions; the numerous
species of Dycladia partaking the appearance of the South American
Sawflies in a wonderful manner. Bees, Wasps of the most different
kinds, and a variety of Sawflies are beautifully paralleled, if one may
use such an expression, by these Syntomids. That shown in Fig. 194
has the abdomen formed like that of a Petiolate Hymenopteron; the
base of this part, moreover, resembles in a remarkable manner the
"median segment" of that Order. The constriction is, however, placed
not at the base of the abdomen but beyond the second segment.
Thus the structure is not morphologically similar to that of the
Hymenoptera, for the median segment of Aculeate Hymenoptera
consists of only one abdominal segment, while in this moth the
corresponding part is formed of two segments. Though anatomically
inexact, the resemblance is, as to proportions, correct; and those
who delight in the use of the imagination will see that had the moth
used only one segment for the imitation, the result would have been
less successful owing to insufficient size. In his very interesting
account of some Brazilian Syntomids,[274] Seitz describes a species
of Trichura provided with a long appendage that is held straight
backwards during life; and he informs us that this creature resembles
a female Ichneumon, the long process looking like the elongate
ovipositor of the Hymenopteron. Possibly the species from Demerara
we figure may resemble an Ichneumon we are not acquainted with,
though its colour and form rather suggest a likeness to an Aculeate.
This case of resemblance is of the most noteworthy character, for an
appendage of this kind in a Lepidopterous Insect is without parallel,
and is almost equivalent to the production of a new structure. An
interesting feature of the case is that Ichneumonidae do not sting,
and there is no evident reason why the enemies of the moth should
be particularly afraid of an ovipositor.
The larvae appear to be in form somewhat like those of Zygaenidae;
but with the same sort of remarkable clothing, in the form of tufts and
brushes, that we find in Lymantriidae. A cocoon is formed. In Britain
no member of this family is to be met with, but Naclia ancilla may
formerly have been a native; Syntomis phegea has occurred here;
probably an escaped example that had been introduced in one of its
earlier stages.
Fig. 194—Trichura, sp. × 2⁄1. Demerara.
Fam. 16. Zygaenidae (Burnet-Moths).—This family is one about the

limits and characters of which much difference of opinion prevails.
As exemplified by our Burnet-moths it is characterised (in addition to
the points given in the table) by the peculiar, flexible antennae; these
are a little thicker before the tip, but are curved and pointed at the
extremity, and without pectinations in the male. There is an elongate
proboscis; bladder-like organs at the sides of the first abdominal
segment are not present. The pupa is softer than is usual in the
Macrolepidoptera, and the parts are less firmly fixed together, so that
unusual mobility exists; six of the intersegmental membranes are
free, and the abdomen has much power of movement; there is no
eye-collar; the antennae, hind legs, and proboscis-tips stretch
backwards as far as the fifth or sixth abdominal segment, the tips
being quite free; on the dorsal plates of the abdomen there are rows
of minute elevations reminding one of the teeth existing in pupae that
live in stems or galleries. This is altogether a peculiar pupa; it lives
closely enclosed in a small hard cocoon, and its great capacity for
movement is perhaps connected with the fact that the pupa itself
manages to force its way through the cocoon in anticipation of the
emergence of the moth. This cocoon is fastened tightly to a stem,
and is covered with a substance that gives it a glazed appearance.
The larvae are objects of a baggy nature, with inferior coloration,
consisting of large dark blotches on a light ground, and without any
remarkable development of their somewhat feeble system of hairs.
Numerous small moths from the tropics are assigned to the family;
they are most of them conspicuously marked and coloured, and like
our Burnets are probably diurnal.
Fig. 195—Hampsonia pulcherrima. Wings on right side detached and

denuded to show nervuration. India. (After Swinhoe.)
The family Chalcosiidae is reduced by Hampson to the position of a

sub-family of Zygaenidae. It consists of a large variety of diurnal
moths of varied and brilliant colours, with an expanse of wing large in
comparison with the typical Zygaenae, and with the antennae
pectinate or flabellate to the tip. Some of these Insects (which are as
conspicuous as possible in appearance, at any rate in a cabinet, the
East Indian Cadphises moorei e.g.) are considered to be destitute of
any special "protection." Histia is a genus of remarkable cruciform
moths, of a mixture of black and metallic colours, with carmine-tinted
bodies. Hampsonia pulcherrima (East India) is a curious moth of
butterfly form and coloration, red and black with yellow patches, and
with some of the nervules distorted, as if they had been forced apart
in certain spots in order to accommodate these patches.
Two or three hundred species of Chalcosiidae are recorded. They

are specially characteristic of the Indo-Malayan region.
Fam. 17. Himantopteridae (Thymaridae of some authorities) are

placed by Hampson in the sub-family Phaudinae of Zygaenidae
characterised by the absence of the mouth-parts. The
Himantopteridae are small moths, and have the scales on the wings
very imperfect and hair-like; the hind wings form long slender tails,
so that the Insects scarcely look like moths. They are peculiar to
India and Africa. In the South African genus Dianeura (belonging
really to Phaudinae) also the wings are scaleless and nearly
transparent.
Fam. 18. Heterogynidae.—Consists of the single genus

Heterogynis which has hitherto been found only in the south of
Europe. This is an important form connecting Zygaenidae and
Psychidae. The larvae resemble those of Zygaena, and construct an
oval cocoon for their metamorphosis. The male issues as a small
moth of smoky colour, the scales being but imperfect; the female
chrysalis shows no trace of any appendages, and the imago is
practically a maggot, and never leaves the cocoon; in it she deposits
her eggs, and the young larvae hatch there.[275]
Fam. 19. Psychidae.—Small, or moderate-sized moths, with

imperfect scales, and little or no colour beyond certain shades of
duskiness; the sexes very different, the female being wingless and
sometimes quite maggot-like; the male often with remarkable,
bipectinate antennae, the branches sometimes very long and
flexible. Larva inhabiting a case that it carries about. This family
consists of Insects unattractive in appearance but presenting some
points of great interest. It is frequently stated that the Psychidae are
destitute of scales, but Heylaerts states[276] that, in addition to hairs,
scales of a more or less imperfect formation are present in all, but
that they are, like those of some Sphingidae (Macroglossa), very
easily detached. There is much difference in the females, some
having well-developed legs, while others are not only apterous, but
are bare and destitute of appendages like a maggot, while in certain
cases (Fig. 196, G), the head is reduced in size and is of peculiar
form so as to make the Insect look really like the larva of one of the
parasitic Diptera. These females never leave their cases, but deposit
their eggs therein, and inside, also, their former pupa-skin; and here
the young hatch; the peculiar little larvae are very numerous, and it is
suggested that they make a first meal on the body of their parent, but
this we believe has not been satisfactorily ascertained. Great
differences as to the condition of the legs, antennae, etc., are said to
exist in species of the same genus. There is also a remarkable
diversity in the pupae of the females; the male sex being normal in
this respect. Some of the female pupae are destitute of wing-sheaths
and all other appendages, while others are said to possess them,
though there are no wings at all in the imago (Fumea, e.g.).[277]
Great difficulties attend the study of these case-bearing Insects, and
several points require careful reconsideration, amongst them the one
we have just mentioned. The males fly rapidly in a wild manner, and
may sometimes be met with in swarms; their lives are believed to be
very brief, rarely exceeding a couple of days, and sometimes being
limited to a few hours.
Fig. 196—Metamorphosis of Monda rhabdophora. Ceylon. A, Larva in

case, nat. size; B, larva itself, magnified; C, case of female during
pupation; D, case of male during pupation; E, female pupa,
magnified; F, male moth, nat. size; G, female moth, magnified.
(From unpublished drawings by Mr. E. E. Green).
The larvae are called basket-worms, and their baskets or cases are
well worthy of attention. Their variety is remarkable; the most
extraordinary are some of the genus Apterona Fig. 197, B, which
perfectly resemble the shells of Molluscs such as snails; indeed, the
specimens in the collection at the British Museum were sent there as
shells. This case is not, like those of other Psychidae, constructed of
earth or vegetable matter, but is of silk and is in texture and
appearance exactly like the surface of a shell. Psyche helix is,
according to Ingenitzky,[278] found in great numbers near Lake Issyk-
kul in Central Asia, where the larvae feed, in their snail-shell-like
cases, on a grass, just like snails. Only females could be reared from
these larvae. The case of Chalia hockingi (Fig. 197, C) consists of
little pieces of wood cut to the proper lengths, and spirally arranged,
so as to form a construction that would be quite a credit to our own
species. In some of the Canephorinae we meet with long cylindrical
cases, like those of Caddis-worms, or of Tineid larvae.
Fig. 197—Baskets, or cases, of Psychidae. A, Amicta quadrangularis;

B, Apterona (or Cochlophora) valvata; C, Chalia hockingi.
Riley has given an account of several points in the structure and

natural history of one of the North American basket- or bag-worms,
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis; one of his points being the manner
in which the newly hatched larva forms its case.[279] This question
has also been discussed by Packard.[280] The larvae when hatched
in unnatural conditions will make use of fragments of paper, cork,
etc., for the case; the act of construction takes one or two hours, and
the larva does not eat till the case is completed. It walks in a peculiar
manner, the legs of the third pair being moved forwards together, as
if they were the prongs of a fork.
This family is already one of considerable extent, but its study, as

already remarked, is but little advanced. Some naturalists are
inclined to place it among the Tineidae, but it is connected with
Zygaenidae by means of Heterogynidae. Mr. Meyrick divides it,
placing Psyche and Sterrhopteryx (the forms representing, according
to his ideas, the family Psychidae in Britain) in the series Psychina
which includes Zygaenidae. He removes the other British genera,
Fumea, and Epichnopteryx, to Tineidae near Solenobia and
Taleporia. The group Canephorinae, to which the two genera in
question belong, was long since separated from Psychidae by
Herrich-Schäffer, but this course was condemned by Heylaerts.
Parthenogenesis has been thought by some to occur in numerous
species in this family, but Heylaerts says that it is limited to Apterona
crenulella var. helix, and even of this species males are found in
certain localities.
Fam. 20. Cossidae (Goat-Moths, or Carpenter-Worms).—Moths of

moderate, or rather large size, without proboscis, frequently with a
dense covering of matted, imperfect scales; the pattern being vague.
The larvae bore into trees in which they often make large burrows,
leaving holes from which sap exudes. Our common Goat-moth is a
good specimen of this family, which is a very widely distributed one.
The Australian genus Ptilomacra has very large, pectinated
antennae in the male. The larvae of Cossidae are nearly bare of
clothing and are unadorned; they form a slight cocoon of silk mixed
with gnawed wood. The pupa of the Goat-moth is remarkable for the
great development of the rows of teeth on the dorsal aspects of the
segments of the abdomen, and for the absence of consolidation in
this part, six of the intersegmental incisions being free, and the
ventral aspect almost membranous. Very little is known as to other
pupae of the family. It is believed that the generations of these
Insects are fewer than usual, the growth of the larva occupying a
period of two or three years. The larva of Zeuzera aesculi forms a
temporary cocoon in which it passes a winter-sleep, before again
feeding in the spring.[281] It is a moot question whether the
Zeuzeridae should be separated from the Cossidae or not. The
group includes our Wood-leopard moth, which, like many other
Zeuzerids, is spotted in a very striking but inartistic manner. The
position the family Cossidae should occupy in an arrangement of the
Lepidoptera is a very difficult question. Some consider the Insects to
be allied to Tortricidae. The wing-nervuration of Cossus is very
peculiar and complex, there being four or five cells on the front wing,
and three on the hind one. Meyrick places Zeuzeridae as a family of
his series Psychina, but separates Cossidae proper (he calls them
Trypanidae) as a family of the series Tortricina.
Fam. 21. Arbelidae.—Closely allied to Cossidae, but without
frenulum, and with less complex wing-nervures. A small family
believed to be similar to Cossidae in the life-history. The tropical
African Arbelidae are considered by Karsch to be a distinct family,
Hollandiidae.
Fam. 22. Chrysopolomidae.—This family has been established by

Dr. Aurivillius[282] for an African genus, allied in wing-nervuration to
Cossidae; the Insects are like Lasiocampidae.
Fam. 23. Hepialidae (Ghost- and Swift-Moths).—Moths of very

diverse size, some gigantic; wings not fitting together well at the
bases; without a frenulum; no proboscis; the scales imperfect; the
nervures complex. The Hepialidae are extremely isolated amongst
the Lepidoptera; indeed, they have really no allies; the conclusion
that they are connected with the Micropterygidae being certainly
erroneous. Although but small in numbers—only about 150 species
being known—they exhibit a remarkable variety in size and colour.
Many are small obscure moths, while others are of gigantic size—six
or seven inches across the wings—and are amongst the most
remarkably coloured of existing Insects. The great Charagia of
Australia, with colours of green and rose, bearing white spots, are
remarkable. The South African Leto venus is of large size, and has
an astonishing supply of glittering metallic splashes on the wings,
making a barbaric but effective display. The South Australian
Zelotypia staceyi, of enormous size, is also a handsome moth; but
the majority of species of the family are adorned only in the feeblest
manner.
Very little is known as to the larvae; they are either subterranean,

feeding on roots, or they live in the wood of trees and shrubs. They
are nearly bare, and are apparently the lowest type of Bombycid
larva. At the same time, it would appear there is considerable variety
amongst them. Packard says[283] the young larva of Hepialus
mustelinus has the arrangement of setae that is normal in Tineidae.
The larva of H. humuli seems to be a very simple form, but H. hectus
shows a considerable amount of divergence from it. They probably
live for several years; the larva of H. argenteo-maculatus in North
America lives for three years, at first eating the roots of Alder and
then entering the stems. The pupae are also peculiar. They are of
unusually elongate, cylindrical form, with comparatively feeble
integument, but with a considerable development of chitinous,
elevated, toothed ridges, on the dorsal aspect, and a very strong
ridge of this kind on the ventral surface of the seventh segment; the
wing-sheaths are short; it is very difficult to distinguish the full
number of abdominal segments. These pupae are remarkably agile,
and by wriggling and kicking are able to move a considerable
distance; it is said that they can force themselves to the surface even
when the superficial soil is quite hard. We cannot consider this pupa
naturally placed amongst either the pupae obtectae or incompletae
of Chapman.
Fig. 198—Pupa of Hepialus lupulinus. Britain. A, Ventral; B, dorsal

aspect.
We have already remarked that little is known as to the life-histories.

The species are probably prolific, a female of H. thule having been
known to deposit more than 2000 eggs. Of the Australian forms little
more is known[284] than that they live in the wood of trees and
shrubs, and are rapidly disappearing; we may fear that some are
extinct without ever having been discovered, and others, also
unknown but still existing, may disappear only too soon; the wasteful
destruction of timber in Australia having been deplorable.

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Introductory Chemistry: An Atoms First

Approach Julia Burdge

Julia Burdge holds a Ph.D. (1994) from The University of Idaho in

She currently holds an adjunct faculty position at The College of Western

Michelle Driessen earned a Ph.D. in 1997 from the

Following graduation, she held a tenure-track teaching and research position

Appendix Mathematical Operations A-1

2 ELECTRONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 30

Visualizing Chemistry – Bohr Atom 38

2.3 Atomic Orbitals 41

Properties of Atoms 108

• Distinguishing Elements and Compounds 110

5 THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS 162

7 SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND PHASE

10 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND

12 ACIDS AND BASES 416

Collision Theory 458

13.2 Chemical Equilibrium 460

14 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 480

16 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 522

Nuclear Fission and Fusion 532

Construction of a Galvanic Cell 544

• Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries 547

Appendix: Mathematical Operations A-1

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1.1 The Study of Chemistry

Things To Review Before You Begin

1.1 The Study of Chemistry

Why Learn Chemistry?

The Scientific Method

Hypothesis revised if Model altered if

1.2 Atoms First

of that element, we cannot separate it into other substances.

Before we begin our study of atoms, it is important for you to understand a

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∙ Opposite charges cancel each other.

1.3 Subatomic Particles and the

charged. This gave rise to a model of the atom as a sphere of positive 2 1

Gold atom: sphere of

Figure 1.6 Rutherford’s gold foil experiment was designed to

Path followed by alpha particles

Gold nucleus: tiny, dense,

Subsequent experiments supported Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom; and

Identifying a Neutral Atom Using Numbers

(a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c)

1.3.2 Which of the following can change without changing the

1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table

atomic number, which 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.2 Identifying an Element by Its Atomic Number

Identify the element given the atomic number of 16.

Practice Problem A TTEMPT Identify the

Relating an Element’s Identity to Its

Practice Problem A TTEMPT Complete the following table:

CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table

1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table

Identifying an Element as Metal, Nonmetal, or