Introductory Chemistry: An Atoms First

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Julia Burdge
Michelle Driessen

Introductory
Chemistry
AN ATOMS FIRST APPROACH

Second Edition
Fundamental Constants
Avogadro’s number (NA) 6.0221418 × 1023
Electron charge (e) 1.6022 × 10−19 C
Electron mass 9.109387 × 10−28 g
Faraday constant (F) 96,485.3 C/mol e−
Gas constant (R) 0.0821 L ⋅ atm/K ⋅ mol
8.314 J/K ⋅ mol
62.36 L ⋅ torr/K ⋅ mol
1.987 cal/K ⋅ mol
Planck’s constant (h) 6.6256 × 10−34 J ⋅ s
Proton mass 1.672623 × 10−24 g
Neutron mass 1.674928 × 10−24 g
Speed of light in a vacuum 2.99792458 × 108 m/s

Some Prefixes Used with SI Units

tera (T) 1012 centi (c) 10−2
giga (G) 109 milli (m) 10−3
mega (M) 106 micro ( µ) 10−6
kilo (k) 103 nano (n) 10−9
deci (d) 10−1 pico (p) 10−12

Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships

1 lb = 453.6 g
1 in = 2.54 cm (exactly)
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 km = 0.6215 mi
1 pm = 1 × 10−12 m = 1 × 10−10 cm
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101,325 N/m2 = 101,325 Pa
1 cal = 4.184 J (exactly)
1 L ⋅ atm = 101.325 J
1J=1C×1V
5°C
?°C = (°F − 32°F) ×
9°F
9°F
?°F = × (°C) + 32°F
5°C

?K = (°C + 273.15°C) (
1°C )
1K
 Periodic Table of the Elements
Main group Main group

Period 1A Group
number number 8A
1
18
1 Key 2
1 H
Hydrogen 6 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
He 1
2A Atomic number Symbol Helium
1.008 2 13 14 15 16 17
C 4.003
3 4 Carbon 5 6 7 8 9 10
Name 12.01 Average
2 Li Be atomic mass B C N O F Ne 2
Lithium Beryllium An element Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 Transition metals 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Al Si P S Cl Ar 3
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.99 24.31 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 5
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 6
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og 7
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (281) (280) (285) (286) (289) (289) (293) (293) (294)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Metals Lanthanides 6 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 6
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
Nonmetals
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Metalloids Actinides 7 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 7
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
 List of the Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Masses*
Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass† Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass†
Actinium Ac 89 (227) Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
Aluminum Al 13 26.9815386 Mercury Hg 80 200.59
Americium Am 95 (243) Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Antimony Sb 51 121.760 Moscovium Mc 115 (289)
Argon Ar 18 39.948 Neodymium Nd 60 144.242
Arsenic As 33 74.92160 Neon Ne 10 20.1797
Astatine At 85 (210) Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Barium Ba 56 137.327 Nickel Ni 28 58.6934
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Nihonium Nh 113 (286)
Beryllium Be 4 9.012182 Niobium Nb 41 92.90638
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98040 Nitrogen N 7 14.0067
Bohrium Bh 107 (272) Nobelium No 102 (259)
Boron B 5 10.811 Oganesson Og 118 (294)
Bromine Br 35 79.904 Osmium Os 76 190.23
Cadmium Cd 48 112.411 Oxygen O 8 15.9994
Calcium Ca 20 40.078 Palladium Pd 46 106.42
Californium Cf 98 (251) Phosphorus P 15 30.973762
Carbon C 6 12.0107 Platinum Pt 78 195.084
Cerium Ce 58 140.116 Plutonium Pu 94 (244)
Cesium Cs 55 132.9054519 Polonium Po 84 (209)
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 Potassium K 19 39.0983
Chromium Cr 24 51.9961 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.90765
Cobalt Co 27 58.933195 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Copernicium Cn 112 (285) Protactinium Pa 91 231.03588
Copper Cu 29 63.546 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Curium Cm 96 (247) Radon Rn 86 (222)
Darmstadtium Ds 110 (281) Rhenium Re 75 186.207
Dubnium Db 105 (268) Rhodium Rh 45 102.90550
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.500 Roentgenium Rg 111 (280)
Einsteinium Es 99 (252) Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678
Erbium Er 68 167.259 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Europium Eu 63 151.964 Rutherfordium Rf 104 (267)
Fermium Fm 100 (257) Samarium Sm 62 150.36
Flerovium Fl 114 (289) Scandium Sc 21 44.955912
Fluorine F 9 18.9984032 Seaborgium Sg 106 (271)
Francium Fr 87 (223) Selenium Se 34 78.96
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 Silicon Si 14 28.0855
Gallium Ga 31 69.723 Silver Ag 47 107.8682
Germanium Ge 32 72.64 Sodium Na 11 22.98976928
Gold Au 79 196.966569 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Sulfur S 16 32.065
Hassium Hs 108 (270) Tantalum Ta 73 180.94788
Helium He 2 4.002602 Technetium Tc 43 (98)
Holmium Ho 67 164.93032 Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Hydrogen H 1 1.00794 Tennessine Ts 117 (293)
Indium In 49 114.818 Terbium Tb 65 158.92535
Iodine I 53 126.90447 Thallium Tl 81 204.3833
Iridium Ir 77 192.217 Thorium Th 90 232.03806
Iron Fe 26 55.845 Thulium Tm 69 168.93421
Krypton Kr 36 83.798 Tin Sn 50 118.710
Lanthanum La 57 138.90547 Titanium Ti 22 47.867
Lawrencium Lr 103 (262) Tungsten W 74 183.84
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Uranium U 92 238.02891
Lithium Li 3 6.941 Vanadium V 23 50.9415
Livermorium Lv 116 (293) Xenon Xe 54 131.293
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3050 Yttrium Y 39 88.90585
Manganese Mn 25 54.938045 Zinc Zn 30 65.409
Meitnerium Mt 109 (276) Zirconium Zr 40 91.224
*These atomic masses show as many significant figures as are known for each element. The atomic masses in the periodic table are shown to four significant figures, which is
sufficient for solving the problems in this book.
†Approximate values of atomic masses for radioactive elements are given in parentheses.
 Introductory
Chemistry
An Atoms First Approach
SECOND EDITION

Julia Burdge
COLLEGE OF WESTERN IDAHO

Michelle Driessen
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2020 by McGraw-Hill
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To the people who will always matter the most: Katie, Beau, and Sam.
—Julia Burdge

To my family, the center of my universe and happiness, with special thanks to my husband for his
support and making me the person I am today.
—Michelle Driessen

And in memory of Raymond Chang. He was a brilliant educator, a prolific writer, an extraordinary
mentor, and a dear friend.
—Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen
About the Authors

Julia Burdge holds a Ph.D. (1994) from The University of Idaho in

Moscow, Idaho; and a Master’s Degree from The University of South Florida.
Her research interests have included synthesis and characterization of cisplatin
analogues, and development of new analytical techniques and instrumentation
for measuring ultra-trace levels of atmospheric sulfur compounds.
©David Spurgeon
She currently holds an adjunct faculty position at The College of Western
Idaho in Nampa, Idaho, where she teaches general chemistry using an atoms
first approach; but spent the lion’s share of her academic career at The
University of Akron in Akron, Ohio, as director of the Introductory Chemistry
program. In addition to directing the general chemistry program and supervising
the teaching activities of graduate students, Julia established a future-faculty
development program and served as a mentor for graduate students and
postdoctoral associates.

Julia relocated back to the Northwest to be near family. In her free time, she
enjoys precious time with her three children, and with Erik Nelson, her husband
and best friend.

Michelle Driessen earned a Ph.D. in 1997 from the

University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa. Her research and dissertation focused on
the thermal and photochemical reactions of small molecules at the surfaces
of metal nanoparticles and high surface area oxides.

Following graduation, she held a tenure-track teaching and research position

at Southwest Missouri State University for several years. A family move took
Courtesy of Michelle Driessen
her back to her home state of Minnesota where she held positions as adjunct
faculty at both St. Cloud State University and the University of Minnesota. It
was during these adjunct appointments that she became very interested in
chemical education. Over the past several years she has transitioned the
general chemistry laboratories at the University of Minnesota from verification
to problem-based, and has developed both online and hybrid sections of
general chemistry lecture courses. She is currently the Director of General
Chemistry at the University of Minnesota where she runs the general chemistry
laboratories, trains and supervises teaching assistants, and continues to
experiment with active learning methods in her classroom.

Michelle and her husband love the outdoors and their rural roots. They take
every opportunity to visit their family, farm, and horses in rural Minnesota.

viii
 Brief Contents
1 Atoms and Elements 2
2 Electrons and the Periodic Table 30
3 Compounds and Chemical Bonds 74
4 How Chemists Use Numbers 122
5 The Mole and Chemical Formulas 164
6 Molecular Shape 196
7 Solids, Liquids, and Phase Changes 238
8 Gases 272
9 Physical Properties of Solutions 312
10 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 348
11 Using Balanced Chemical Equations 386
12 Acids and Bases 420
13 Equilibrium 458
14 Organic Chemistry 484
15 Biochemistry 510
16 Nuclear Chemistry 526
17 Electrochemistry 542

Appendix Mathematical Operations A-1

Glossary G-1
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems AP-1
Index I-1
Contents
Preface xx

1 ATOMS AND ELEMENTS 2

1.1 The Study of Chemistry 3
• Why Learn Chemistry? 3
• The Scientific Method 3
1.2 Atoms First 5
1.3 Subatomic Particles and the
Nuclear Model of the Atom 6
1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table 10
■ Elements in the Human Body 11
■ Helium 13
1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table 14
■ Elements in Earth’s Crust 15
1.6 Isotopes 16
■ Mass Spectrometry 17
1.7 Atomic Mass 19 ©rozbyshaka/Getty Images

■ Iron-Fortified Cereal 20

2 ELECTRONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 30

2.1 The Nature of Light 31
■ Laser Pointers 33
2.2 The Bohr Atom 34
Visualizing Chemistry – Bohr Atom 36
■ Fireworks 38
■ The Photoelectric Effect 39
2.3 Atomic Orbitals 40
• s orbitals 43 • p orbitals 43
• d and f orbitals 44
2.4 Electron Configurations 46
2.5 Electron Configurations and the ©McGraw-Hill Education/David A. Tietz

Periodic Table 51
2.6 Periodic Trends 55
2.7 Ions: The Loss and Gain of Electrons 61
• Electron Configuration of Ions 61
• Lewis Dot Symbols of Ions 63

x
3 COMPOUNDS AND CHEMICAL BONDS 74
3.1 Matter: Classification and Properties 75
• States of Matter 75 • Mixtures 76
• Properties of Matter 78
3.2 Ionic Bonding and Binary Ionic
Compounds 81
3.3 Naming Ions and Binary Ionic
Compounds 85
• Naming Atomic Cations 86
• Naming Atomic Anions 87
• Naming Binary Ionic Compounds 87
3.4 Covalent Bonding and Molecules 89
• Covalent Bonding 90 • Molecules 90
• Molecular Formulas 93
■ Fixed Nitrogen in Fertilizers 96 ©Shutterstock/EpicStockMedia

3.5 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds 97

3.6 Covalent Bonding in Ionic Species: Polyatomic Ions 99
■ Product Labels 100
■ Product Labels 101
■ Hydrates 104
3.7 Acids 105
3.8 Substances in Review 107

Visualizing Chemistry – Properties of Atoms 108

• Distinguishing Elements and Compounds 110

• Determining Whether a Compound Is Ionic or Molecular 111
• Naming Compounds 111
4 HOW CHEMISTS USE NUMBERS 122
4.1 Units of Measurement 123
• Base Units 123 • Mass, Length, and Time 124
• Metric Multipliers 124
■ Henrietta Swan Leavitt 125
• Temperature 128
■ The Fahrenheit Temperature Scale 129
4.2 Scientific Notation 132
• Very Large Numbers 133 • Very Small
Numbers 134 • Using the Scientific Notation
Function on Your Calculator 135
4.3 Significant Figures 137
• Exact Numbers 137 • Measured Numbers 137
■ Arthur Rosenfeld 141
• Calculations with Measured Numbers 142
©David Clapp/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images
4.4 Unit Conversion 146
• Conversion Factors 146
■ The Importance of Units 148
• Derived Units 149
■ The International Unit 151
• Dimensional Analysis 152
4.5 Success in Introductory Chemistry Class 154

5 THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS 164

5.1 Counting Atoms by Weighing 165
• The Mole (The “Chemist’s Dozen”) 165
• Molar Mass 167 • Interconverting Mass,
Moles, and Numbers of Atoms 169
5.2 Counting Molecules by Weighing 171
• Calculating the Molar Mass of a
Compound 171 • Interconverting Mass, Moles,
and Numbers of Molecules (or Formula
Units) 173 • Combining Multiple Conversions
in a Single Calculation 175
■ Redefining the Kilogram 177
■ Derek Muller 178
5.3 Mass Percent Composition 178
©epa european pressphoto agency b.v./Alamy
■ Iodized Salt 180
5.4 Using Mass Percent Composition to Determine Empirical
Formula 181
■ Fertilizer & Mass Percents 183
5.5 Using Empirical Formula and Molar Mass to Determine
Molecular Formula 184
xii
6 MOLECULAR SHAPE 196
6.1 Drawing Simple Lewis Structures 197
• Lewis Structures of Simple Molecules 197
• Lewis Structures of Molecules with a Central
Atom 199 • Lewis Structures of Simple
Polyatomic Ions 199
6.2 Lewis Structures Continued 202
• Lewis Structures with Less Obvious Skeletal
Structures 202 • Lewis Structures with Multiple
Bonds 203 • Exceptions to the Octet Rule 204
■ Bleaching, Disinfecting, and
Decontamination 204
6.3 Resonance Structures 205
6.4 Molecular Shape 207
©Robin Treadwell/Science Source
■ Flavor, Molecular Shape, and Bond-Line
Structures 208
• Bond Angles 212
■ Molecular Shapes Resulting from Expanded Octets 213
6.5 Electronegativity and Polarity 215
• Electronegativity 215 • Bond Polarity 217
• Molecular Polarity 219
■ How Bond Dipoles Sum to Determine Molecular Polarity 221
6.6 Intermolecular Forces 222
• Dipole-Dipole Forces 222 • Hydrogen Bonding 223
• Dispersion Forces 225
■ Linus Pauling 227
• Intermolecular Forces in Review 228

7 SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND PHASE

CHANGES 238
7.1 General Properties of the Condensed
Phases 239
7.2 Types of Solids 240
• Ionic Solids 240 • Molecular Solids 240
• Atomic Solids 242 • Network Solids 243
■ A Network Solid as Hard as Diamond 244
7.3 Physical Properties of Solids 247
• Vapor Pressure 247 • Melting Point 248
©Larry Keller, Lititz Pa./Getty Images
7.4 Physical Properties of Liquids 251
• Viscosity 251 • Surface Tension 251
■ Surface Tension and the Shape of Water Drops 252
• Vapor Pressure 253 • Boiling Point 254
■ High Altitude and High-Pressure Cooking 256
7.5 Energy and Physical Changes 257
• Temperature Changes 257 • Solid-Liquid Phase Changes: Melting
and Freezing 259 • Liquid-Gas Phase Changes: Vaporization and
Condensation 260 • Solid-Gas Phase Changes: Sublimation 261

8 GASES 272
8.1 Properties of Gases 273
• Gaseous Substances 274
• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 275
8.2 Pressure 276
• Definition and Units of Pressure 276
• Measurement of Pressure 279
■ Fritz Haber 280
8.3 The Gas Equations 281
• The Ideal Gas Equation 281
■ Pressure Exerted by a Column of Fluid 285
©Eric Delmar/Getty Images
• The Combined Gas Equation 285
• The Molar Mass Gas Equation 286
8.4 The Gas Laws 289
• Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship 289
• Charles’s Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship 291
■ Automobile Air Bags and Charles’s Law 294
• Avogadro’s Law: The Moles-Volume Relationship 294
■ Amanda Jones 295
8.5 Gas Mixtures 297
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 297 • Mole Fractions 299
■ Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy 300

xiv
9 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 312
9.1 General Properties of Solutions 313
■ Honey – A Supersaturated Solution 314
■ Instant Hot Packs 315
9.2 Aqueous Solubility 315
9.3 Solution Concentration 316
• Percent by Mass 316
■ Trace Concentrations 317
• Molarity 319 • Molality 321 ©McGraw-Hill Education/Brian Rayburn, photographer
• Comparison of Concentration Units 321
9.4 Solution Composition 324
■ Robert Cade, M.D. 326
9.5 Solution Preparation 328
• Preparation of a Solution from a Solid 328 • Preparation of a
More Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution 329
Visualizing Chemistry – Preparing a Solution from a Solid 330
■ Serial Dilution 332
9.6 Colligative Properties 334
• Freezing-Point Depression 334 • Boiling-Point Elevation 335
■ Ice Melters 336
• Osmotic Pressure 337

10 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 348
10.1 Recognizing Chemical Reactions 349
10.2 Representing Chemical Reactions with
Chemical Equations 352
• Metals 353 • Nonmetals 353
• Noble Gases 353 • Metalloids 353
10.3 Balancing Chemical Equations 354
■ The Stoichiometry of Metabolism 358
10.4 Types of Chemical Reactions 359
• Precipitation Reactions 359
• Acid-Base Reactions 364
■ Oxygen Generators 365
©Lindsay Upson/Getty Images
• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 367
■ Antoine Lavoisier 372
■ Dental Pain and Redox 374
10.5 Chemical Reactions and Energy 376
10.6 Chemical Reactions in Review 376
11 USING BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 386
11.1 Mole to Mole Conversions 387
11.2 Mass to Mass Conversions 389
11.3 Limitations on Reaction Yield 391
• Limiting Reactant 392 • Percent Yield 395
■ Combustion Analysis 397
■ Alka-Seltzer 398
11.4 Aqueous Reactions 400
11.5 Gases in Chemical Reactions 405
• Predicting the Volume of a Gaseous
Product 405 • Calculating the Required
Volume of a Gaseous Reactant 406
©Michael Donne/Science Source
■ Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac 408
11.6 Chemical Reactions and Heat 409

12 ACIDS AND BASES 420

12.1 Properties of Acids and Bases 421
■ James Lind 422
12.2 Definitions of Acids and Bases 423
• Arrhenius Acids and Bases 423
• Brønsted Acids and Bases 423
• Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 424
12.3 Water as an Acid; Water as a Base 426
12.4 Strong Acids and Bases 428
12.5 pH and pOH Scales 431
©Aflo Co., Ltd./Alamy
■ Antacids and the pH Balance in Your
Stomach 438
■ Lake Natron 439
12.6 Weak Acids and Bases 440
12.7 Acid-Base Titrations 444
■ Using Millimoles to Simplify Titration Calculations 446
12.8 Buffers 447

xvi
13 EQUILIBRIUM 458
13.1 Reaction Rates 459

Visualizing Chemistry – Collision Theory 462

13.2 Chemical Equilibrium 464

■ How Do We Know That the Forward and
Reverse Processes Are Ongoing in a System
at Equilibrium? 466
13.3 Equilibrium Constants 466
■ Sweet Tea 467
©Eric Audras/Getty Images
• Calculating Equilibrium Constants 467
• Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant 470
13.4 Factors That Affect Equilibrium 471
■ Hemoglobin Production at High Altitude 471
• Addition or Removal of a Substance 472
• Changes in Volume 474 • Changes in Temperature 475

14 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 484

14.1 Why Carbon Is Different 485
14.2 Hydrocarbons 486
• Alkanes 487 • Alkenes and Alkynes 487
• Reactions of Hydrocarbons 489
14.3 Isomers 490
■ Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils 491
■ Representing Organic Molecules with
Bond-Line Structures 493
14.4 Functional Groups 494
14.5 Alcohols and Ethers 495
©Andre Geim & Kostya Novoselov/Science Source
14.6 Aldehydes and Ketones 497
■ Percy Lavon Julian 498
14.7 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 499
14.8 Amines and Amides 500
14.9 Polymers 502
15 BIOCHEMISTRY 510
15.1 Biologically Important Molecules 511
• Glycerol 511 • Fatty Acids 511
• Amino Acids 511
■ Marie Maynard Daly 512
• Sugars 513 • Phosphates 513
• Organic Bases 513
15.2 Lipids 514
• Fats 514 • Phospholipids 515
• Steroids 516
15.3 Proteins 516
©hlansdown/Getty Images
• Primary Structure 519 • Secondary
Structure 519 • Tertiary Structure 519
• Quaternary Structure 520
15.4 Carbohydrates 520
• Monosaccharides 520 • Disaccharides 520 • Polysaccharides 521
15.5 Nucleic Acids 522

16 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 526

16.1 Radioactive Decay 527
16.2 Detection of Radiation and Its Biological
Effects 530
■ Radioactivity in Tobacco 532
16.3 Dating Using Radioactive Decay 532
16.4 Medical Applications of Radioactivity 534
■ How Nuclear Chemistry Is Used to
Treat Cancer 535
16.5 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 535

Visualizing Chemistry – Nuclear Fission and

Fusion 536
■ Lise Meitner 538

©Andrey Gorulko/iStock/Getty Images

xviii
17 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 542
17.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Using the Half-Reaction Method 543
17.2 Batteries 547

Visualizing Chemistry – Construction of a

Galvanic Cell 548

• Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries 551

• Lead Storage Batteries 552
• Lithium-Ion Batteries 553 • Fuel Cells 553
17.3 Corrosion 554
17.4 Electrolysis 556
• Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride 556
©TEK IMAGE/Getty Images
• Electrolysis of Water 556

Appendix: Mathematical Operations A-1

Glossary G-1
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems AP-1
Index I-1
Preface
Introductory Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach by Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen
has been developed and written using an atoms first approach specific to introductory
chemistry. It is a carefully crafted text, designed and written with the introductory-
chemistry student in mind.

The arrangement of topics facilitates the conceptual development of chemistry for the
novice, rather than the historical development that has been used traditionally. Its lan-
guage and style are student friendly and conversational; and the importance and wonder
of chemistry in everyday life are emphasized at every opportunity. Continuing in the
Burdge tradition, this text employs an outstanding art program, a consistent problem-
solving approach, interesting applications woven throughout the chapters, and a wide
range of end-of-chapter problems.

Features
∙ Logical atoms first approach, building first an understanding of atomic structure,
followed by a logical progression of atomic properties, periodic trends, and how com-
pounds arise as a consequence of atomic properties. Following that, physical and chem-
ical properties of compounds and chemical reactions are covered—built upon a solid
foundation of how all such properties and processes are the consequence of the nature
and behavior of atoms.
∙ Engaging real-life examples and applications. Each chapter contains relevant, inter-
esting stories in Familiar Chemistry segments that illustrate the importance of chemis-
try to other fields of study, and how the current material applies to everyday life. Many
chapters also contain brief historical profiles of a diverse group of important people in
chemistry and other fields of scientific endeavor.
∙ Consistent problem-solving skill development. Fostering a consistent approach to
problem solving helps students learn how to approach, analyze, and solve problems.
282 CHAPTER 8 Gases
Each worked example (Sample Problem) is divided
into logical steps: Strategy, Setup, Solution, and
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.2 Using the Ideal Gas Equation to Calculate Volume
Think About It; and each is followed by three prac-
Calculate the volume of a mole of ideal gas at room temperature (25°C) and 1.00 atm.
Strategy Convert the temperature in °C to temperature in kelvins, and use the ideal gas equation to solve for the unknown volume.
tice problems. Practice Problem A allows the stu-
Setup The data given are n = 1.00 mol, T = 298 K, and P = 1.00 atm. Because the pressure is expressed in atmospheres, we dent to solve a problem similar to the Sample
use R = 0.0821 L · atm/K · mol to solve for volume in liters.
Solution Problem, using the same strategy and steps. Wher-
Student Note: It is a very common mistake to fail to convert to

(1 mol) (0.0821
K · mol )
ever possible, Practice Problem B probes under-
absolute temperature when solving a gas problem. Most often,
L · atm temperatures are given in degrees Celsius. The ideal gas
(298 K)
equation only works when the temperature used is in kelvins.
V= = 24.5 L
1 atm Remember: K = °C + 273.
standing of the same concept(s) as the Sample
THI N K AB O UT I T Problem and Practice Problem A, but is sufficiently
With the pressure held constant, we should expect the volume to increase with increased temperature. Room temperature
is higher than the standard temperature for gases (0°C), so the molar volume at room temperature (25°C) should be higher
different that it requires a slightly different ap-
than the molar volume at 0°C—and it is.
proach. Practice Problem C often uses concept art
Practice Problem A TTEMPT What is the volume of 5.12 mol of an ideal gas at 32°C and 1.00 atm?
or molecular models, and probes comprehension of
Practice Problem B UILD At what temperature (in °C) would 1 mole of ideal gas occupy 50.0 L (P = 1.00 atm)? underlying concepts. The consistent use of this ap-
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE The diagram on the left represents a sample of gas in a container with a movable
piston. Which of the other diagrams [(i)–(iv)] best represents the sample (a) after the absolute temperature has been doubled; proach gives students the best chance for develop-
(b) after the volume has been decreased by half; and (c) after the external pressure has been doubled? (In each case, assume
that the only variable that has changed is the one specified.) ing a robust set of problem-solving skills.
∙ Outstanding pedagogy for student learning. The
Checkpoints and Student Notes throughout each
chapter are designed to foster frequent self-­
assessment and to provide timely information re-
garding common pitfalls, reminders of important
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) information, and alternative approaches. Rewind and
Fast Forward links help to illustrate and reinforce
xx
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8.3 Using the Ideal Gas Equation to Calculate Pressure

Calculate the pressure of 1.44 mol of an ideal gas in a 5.00­L container at 36°C.
Strategy Rearrange the ideal gas law (Equation 8.1) to isolate pressure, P. Convert the temperature into kelvins, 36 + 273 = 309 K.
 Preface xxi

connections between material in different chapters, and enable students to find perti-
nent review material easily, when necessary.
∙ Key Skills pages are reviews of specific skills that the authors know will be important
to students’ understanding of later chapters. These go beyond simple reviews and actu-
ally preview the importance of the skills in later chapters. They are additional opportu-
nities for self-assessment and are meant to be revisited when the specific skills are
required later in the book.

Molecular Shape and Polarity KEY SKILLS Having determined molecular shape, we determine overall molecular polarity of each molecule by examining the individual
bond dipoles and their arrangement:
Cl
S H C C H C
Molecular polarity is tremendously important in determining the physical and chemical properties of a substance. Indeed, O O H Cl
molecular polarity is one of the most important consequences of molecular shape. To determine the shape of a molecule, H
we use a stepwise procedure:
1. Draw a correct Lewis structure [ Sections 6.1 and 6.2]. S and O have C and H have The C H bonds
2. Count electron groups on the central atom. Remember that an electron group can be a lone pair or a bond, and that electronegativity electronegativity are nonpolar. C
Determine whether values of 2.5 and values of 2.5 and and Cl have
a bond may be a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond.
or not the 3.5, respectively. 2.1, respectively. electronegativity
3. Apply the VSEPR model [ Section 6.4] to determine electron-group geometry. Therefore, the Therefore, the values of 2.5 and
individual bonds
4. Consider the positions of the atoms to determine the molecular shape, which may or may not be the same as the are polar. bonds are polar. bonds are considered 3.0, respectively.
electron-group geometry. nonpolar. Therefore, the C Cl
Consider the examples of SO2, C2H2, and CH2Cl2. We determine the molecular shape of each as follows: bonds are polar.

Cl
Draw the Lewis
O S O H C C H H C Cl Only in C2H2 do the dipole-moment vectors cancel each other. C2H2 is nonpolar, SO2 and CH2Cl2 are polar.
structure
H
Even with polar bonds, a molecule may be nonpolar if it consists of equivalent bonds that are distributed symmetrically.
Molecules with equivalent bonds that are not distributed symmetrically—or with bonds that are not equivalent, even if they
3 electron groups: 2 electron groups on 4 electron groups: are distributed symmetrically—are generally polar.
Count the electron each central atom:
groups on the ∙ 1 double bond ∙ 1 single bond ∙ 4 single bonds
central atom(s) ∙ 1 single bond ∙ 1 triple bond
∙ 1 lone pair
Key Skills Problems
6.1 6.3
Apply VSEPR to 3 electron groups 2 electron groups 4 electron groups Determine the molecular shape of selenium dibromide. Which of the following species is polar?
determine electron- arrange themselves arrange themselves arrange themselves a) linear a) OBr2
group geometry in a trigonal plane. linearly. in a tetrahedron. b) bent b) GeCl4
c) trigonal planar c) SiO2
Cl d) trigonal pyramidal d) BH3
S e) tetrahedral e) BeF2
H C C H C
O O H Cl
H 6.2 6.4
Determine the molecular shape of phosphorus triiodide. Which of the following species is nonpolar?
With 1 lone pair on With no lone pairs With no lone pairs a) linear a) NCl3
Consider positions the central atom, on the central atom, on the central atom, b) bent b) SeCl2
of atoms to the molecular the molecular the molecular c) trigonal planar c) SO2
determine shape is bent. shape is linear. shape is tetrahedral. d) trigonal pyramidal d) CF4
molecular shape. e) tetrahedral e) AsBr3

233 234

bur48912_ch06_196-237.indd 233 8/29/18 7:52 PM bur48912_ch06_196-237.indd 234 8/29/18 7:52 PM

∙ Author-created online homework. All of the online homework problems were devel-
oped entirely by co-author Michelle Driessen to ensure seamless integration with the
book’s content.

A Student-Focused Revision
For the second edition, real student data points and input, derived from our LearnSmart
users, were used to guide the revision. LearnSmart Heat Maps provided a quick visual
snapshot of usage of portions of the text and the relative difficulty students experienced
in mastering the content. With these data, we targeted specific areas of the text for
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∙ If the data indicated that the subject covered was more difficult than other parts of the
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Smart probes, the text content was substantively revised or reorganized to be as clear
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This process was used to direct all of the revisions for this new edition. The following
“New to This Edition” summary lists the more major additions and refinements.
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xxiv Preface

New to This Edition

∙ Chapter 1 New graphics were added to illustrate the use of atomic number and mass
number; and to elucidate the concept of average atomic mass. The importance of dif-
ferent isotopes is now illustrated with an environmental example.
∙ Chapter 2 New graphics illustrate the process of determining and writing electron
configurations, and new arrows and highlights in the text make it easier for students to
understand the process. Improvements to Figure 2.1 clarify the relationship between
frequency and wavelength.
∙ Chapter 3 Changes to Figure 3.6 further clarify the process by which sodium and chlo-
rine react to form sodium chloride.
∙ Chapter 4 A new section of text and a new graphic help students understand how
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age of significant figures has been augmented with new highlighting and arrows to
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the work of astronomer Henrietta Swan Leavitt.
∙ Chapter 5 New Sample and Practice Problems help students visualize the ratios of
combination expressed by chemical formulas, and clarify the process of calculating
formula masses. A new Profiles in Science box features the work of physicist and sci-
ence educator Derek Muller.
∙ Chapter 6 Arrows and highlighting have been added to the text to further clarify the
process of drawing Lewis structures, and new text has been added to the table of
electron-group geometries and molecular shapes.
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percent yield.
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∙ Chapter 15 A new Profiles in Science box features the work of chemist Marie Maynard Daly.
∙ Chapter 16 A new Profiles in Science box features the work of physicist Lise Meitner.

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 Acknowledgments
We wish to thank the many people who have contributed to the development of this new text. The following individuals
reviewed the text and provided invaluable feedback.

Pamela Auburn, Ph.D., Lone Star College
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College
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College
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Mya A. Norman, University of Arkansas-Fayetteville
David W. Pratt, University of Vermont
Brandon Tenn, Merced College
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Meramec
Veronica Wheaton, American River College (Los Rios
Community College District)

The following individuals helped write and review learning goal-oriented question content for this text’s SmartBook:

Margaret Ruth Leslie

Katie Malara
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Laura Wally

Additionally, we wish to thank our incredible team: Managing Director Kathleen McMahon, Executive Marketing
Manager Tami Hodge, Product Developer Marisa Dobbeleare, Program Manager Jolynn Kilburg, Senior Content Project
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Julia Burdge and Michelle Driessen

 CHAPTER
1
Atoms and Elements

1.1 The Study of Chemistry

• Why Learn Chemistry?
• The Scientific Method
1.2 Atoms First
1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear
Model of the Atom
1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table
1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table
1.6 Isotopes
1.7 Atomic Mass

The brilliant colors of a fireworks display result from the properties of the atoms
they contain. These atoms give off specific colors when they are burned.
©rozbyshaka/Getty Images
In This Chapter, You Will Learn
Some of what chemistry is and how it is studied using the scientific
method. You will learn about atomic structure and you will become
acquainted with the periodic table, how it is organized, and some
of the information it embodies.

Things To Review Before You Begin

• Basic algebra

Have you ever wondered how an automobile airbag works? Or why iron rusts when
exposed to water and air, but gold does not? Or why cookies “rise” as they bake? Or
what causes the brilliant colors of fireworks displays? These phenomena, and countless
others, can be explained by an understanding of the fundamental principles of chemistry.
Whether or not we realize it, chemistry is important in every aspect of our lives. In the
course of this book, you will come to understand the chemical principles responsible
for many familiar observations and experiences.

1.1 The Study of Chemistry

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that matter undergoes. Matter, in
turn, is anything that has mass and occupies space. Mass is one of the ways that sci-
entists measure the amount of matter.
You may already be familiar with some of the terms used in chemistry—even if
you have never taken a chemistry class. You have probably heard of molecules; and
even if you don’t know exactly what a chemical formula is, you undoubtedly know that
“H2O” is water. You may have used or at least heard the term chemical reaction; and
you are certainly familiar with many processes that are chemical reactions.

Why Learn Chemistry?

Chances are good that you are using this book for a chemistry class you are required
to take—even though you may not be a chemistry major. Chemistry is a required part
of many degree programs because of its importance in a wide variety of scientific
disciplines. It sometimes is called the “central science” because knowledge of chemis-
try supports the understanding of other scientific fields—including physics, biology,
geology, ecology, oceanography, climatology, and medicine. Whether this is the first in
a series of chemistry classes you will take or the only chemistry class you will ever
take, we hope that it will help you to appreciate the beauty of chemistry—and to
understand its importance in our daily lives.

The Scientific Method

Scientific experiments are the key to advancing our understanding of chemistry or any
science. Although different scientists may take different approaches to experimentation,
we all follow a set of guidelines known as the scientific method. This helps ensure the
quality and integrity of new findings that are added to the body of knowledge within
a given field.

4 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

The scientific method starts with the collection of data from careful observations
and/or experiments. Scientists study the data and try to identify patterns. When a pat-
tern is found, an attempt is made to describe it with a scientific law. In this context,
a law is simply a concise statement of the observed pattern. Scientists may then for-
mulate a hypothesis, an attempt to explain their observations. Experiments are then
designed to test the hypothesis. If the experiments reveal that the hypothesis is incor-
rect, the scientists must go back to the drawing board and come up with a different
interpretation of their data, and formulate a new hypothesis. The new hypothesis will
then be tested by experiment. When a hypothesis stands the test of extensive experi-
mentation, it may evolve into a scientific theory or model. A theory or model is a
unifying principle that explains a body of experimental observations and the law or
laws that are based on them. Theories are used both to explain past observations and
to predict future observations. When a theory fails to predict correctly, it must be
discarded or modified to become consistent with experimental observations. Thus, by
their very nature, scientific theories must be subject to change in the face of new data
that do not support them.
One of the most compelling examples of the scientific method is the development
of the vaccine for smallpox, a viral disease responsible for an estimated half a billion
deaths during the twentieth century alone. Late in the eighteenth century, English physi-
cian Edward Jenner observed that even during smallpox outbreaks in Europe, a particu-
lar group of people, milkmaids, seemed not to contract it.
Law: Milkmaids are not vulnerable to the virus that causes smallpox.
Based on his observations, Jenner proposed that perhaps milkmaids, who often
contracted cowpox, a similar but far less deadly virus, from the cows they worked with,
had developed a natural immunity to smallpox.
Hypothesis: Exposure to the cowpox virus causes the development of immunity
to the smallpox virus.
Jenner tested his hypothesis by injecting a healthy child with the cowpox virus—
and later with the smallpox virus. If his hypothesis were correct, the child would not
contract smallpox—and in fact the child did not contract smallpox.
Theory: Because the child did not develop smallpox, immunity seemed to have
resulted from exposure to cowpox.
Further experiments on many more people (mostly children and prisoners) con-
firmed that exposure to the cowpox virus imparted immunity to the smallpox virus.
The flowchart in Figure 1.1 illustrates the scientific method and how it guided
the development of the smallpox vaccine.

Hypothesis revised if Model altered if

experimental results experimental results
do not support it do not support it

Model (Theory)
Observations
Set of conceptual
Natural phenomena Experiment Further
Hypothesis assumptions that
and measured events; Procedure to test Experiment
Tentative explanation explains data from
if universally consistent, hypothesis; measures Tests predictions
that explains observations accumulated experiments;
can be stated one variable at a time based on model
predicts related
as a law
phenomena
Observation: Hypothesis: Experiment: Model: Further
Milkmaids don't Having contracted Intentionally expose Because child did not Experiment:
contract smallpox. cowpox, milkmaids a healthy child to cowpox contract smallpox, Many more humans
have a natural immunity and later to smallpox. immunity seemed to inoculated with
to smallpox. have resulted from cowpox virus, confirming
cowpox exposure. the model.

Figure 1.1
 SECTION 1.2 Atoms First 5

1.2 Atoms First

Even if you have never studied chemistry before, you probably know already that atoms
are the extraordinarily small building blocks that make up all matter. Specifically, an Student Note: By contrast,
atom is the smallest quantity of matter that still retains the properties of matter. Further, consider a sample of salt water.
an element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any We could divide it into smaller
samples of salt water; but given
means. Common examples of elements include aluminum, which we all have in our the necessary equipment, we
kitchens in the form of foil; carbon, which exists in several different familiar forms— could also separate it into two
including diamond and graphite (pencil “lead”); and helium, which can be used to fill different substances: water and
salt. An element is different in
balloons. The element aluminum consists entirely of aluminum atoms; the element that it is not made up of other
carbon consists entirely of carbon atoms; and the element helium consists entirely of substances. Elements are the
helium atoms. Although we can separate a sample of any element into smaller samples simplest substances.

of that element, we cannot separate it into other substances.

Figure 1.2 Repeatedly dividing this collection of iPods into smaller and smaller collections eventually leaves us with a single iPod,
which we cannot divide further without destroying it.
©SKD/Alamy

Let’s consider the example of helium. If we were to divide the helium in a balloon
in half, and then divide one of the halves in half, and so on, we would eventually (after a
very large number of these hypothetical divisions) be left with a sample of helium consist-
ing of just one helium atom. This atom could not be further divided to give
two smaller samples of helium. If this is difficult to imagine, think of a col-
lection of eight identical iPods. We could divide the collection in half three
times before we were left with a single iPod. Although we could divide the
last iPod in half, neither of the resulting pieces would be an iPod (Figure 1.2).
The notion that matter consists of tiny, indivisible pieces has been
around for a very long time, first having been proposed by the philosopher
Democritus in the fifth century b.c. But it was first formalized early in the
nineteenth century by John Dalton (Figure 1.3). Dalton devised a theory to
explain some of the most important observations made by scientists in the
eighteenth century. His theory included three statements, the first of which is:
∙ Matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms; all
atoms of a given element are identical; and atoms of one element
are different from atoms of any other element.
We will revisit this statement later in this chapter and introduce the second
and third statements to complete our understanding of Dalton’s theory in
Chapters 3 and 10.
We know now that atoms, although very small, are not indivisible. Rather,
they are made up of still smaller subatomic particles. The type, number, and Figure 1.3 John Dalton (1766–1844) was an
arrangement of subatomic particles determine the properties of atoms, which in English chemist, mathematician, and philosopher.
turn determine the properties of everything we see, touch, smell, and taste. In addition to his atomic theory, Dalton formu-
Our goal in this book will be to understand how the nature of atoms lated several laws governing the behavior of
gives rise to the properties of everything material. To accomplish this, we gases, and gave the first detailed description of
will take a somewhat unconventional approach. Rather than beginning with a particular type of color blindness, from which
observations on the macroscopic scale and working our way backward to he suffered. This form of color blindness, where
the atomic level of matter to explain these observations, we start by examin- red and green cannot be distinguished, is
ing the structure of atoms, and the nature and arrangement of the tiny known as Daltonism.
subatomic particles that atoms contain.

6 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

Before we begin our study of atoms, it is important for you to understand a

bit about the behavior of electrically charged objects. We are all at least casually
familiar with the concept of electric charge. You may have brushed your hair in very
low humidity and had it stand on end; and you have certainly experienced static
shocks and seen lightning. All of these phenomena result from the interactions of
electric charges. The following list illustrates some of the important aspects of elec-
tric charge:
∙ An object that is electrically charged may have a positive (+) charge or a
©Erika Mitchell/Getty Images negative (−) charge.

+ –
positive     negative

∙ Objects with opposite charges (one negative and one positive) are attracted
to each other. (You’ve heard the adage “opposites attract.”)

+ –
attraction
©believeinme33@123RF
∙ Objects with like charges (either both positive or both negative) repel each other.

+ + – –
repulsion      repulsion

∙ Objects with larger charges interact more strongly than those with smaller
charges.

+ + + +
++ ++
repulsion      stronger repulsion

∙ Charged objects interact more strongly when they are closer together.

+ + + +
repulsion      stronger repulsion

∙ Opposite charges cancel each other.

+ + – + –
positive negative
no net charge

Keeping in mind how charged objects interact will greatly facilitate your understanding
of chemistry.

1.3 Subatomic Particles and the

Nuclear Model of the Atom
Experiments conducted late in the nineteenth century indicated that atoms, which had
been considered the smallest possible pieces of matter, contained even smaller particles.
The first of these experiments were done by J. J. Thomson, an English physicist. The
experiments revealed that a wide variety of different materials could all be made to
emit a stream of tiny, negatively charged particles—that we now know as electrons.
Thomson reasoned that because all atoms appeared to contain these negative particles
but were themselves electrically neutral, they must also contain something positively
 SECTION 1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Model of the Atom 7

charged. This gave rise to a model of the atom as a sphere of positive – + –

charge, throughout which negatively charged electrons were uniformly dis- +
– – – +
tributed (Figure 1.4). This model was known as the “plum-pudding” +
+
Positively charged sphere
–
model—named after a then-popular English dessert. Thomson’s plum- –
+
+
–
pudding model was an early attempt to describe the internal structure of +
+
–

atoms. Although it was generally accepted for a number of years, this

model ultimately was proven wrong by subsequent experiments. Figure 1.4 Thomson’s experiments indicated
Working with Thomson, New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford that atoms contained negatively charged particles,
(one of Thomson’s own students) devised an experiment to test the plum- which he envisioned as uniformly distributed in a
pudding model of atomic structure. By that time, Rutherford had already sphere of positive charge.
established the existence of another subatomic particle known as an alpha
(α) particle, which is emitted by some radioactive substances. Alpha particles are posi-
tively charged, and are thousands of times more massive than electrons. In his most
famous experiment, Rutherford directed a stream of alpha particles at a thin gold foil.
A schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 1.5. If Thomson’s model of
the atom were correct, nearly all of the alpha particles would pass directly through the
foil—although a small number would be deflected slightly by virtue of passing very
close to electrons. Rutherford surrounded the gold foil target with a detector that pro-
duced a tiny flash of light each time an alpha particle collided with it. This allowed
Rutherford to determine the paths taken by alpha particles. Figure 1.6 illustrates the
expected experimental result.
The actual experimental result was very different from what had been expected.
Although most of the alpha particles did pass directly through the gold foil, some were
deflected at much larger angles than had been anticipated. Some even bounced off the
foil back toward the source—a result that Rutherford found absolutely shocking. He
knew that alpha particles could only be deflected at such large angles, and occasionally
bounce back in the direction of their source, if they encountered something within the
gold atoms that was (1) positively charged, and (2) much more massive than them-
selves. Figure 1.7 illustrates the actual result of Rutherford’s experiment.
This experimental result gave rise to a new model of the internal structure of
atoms. Rutherford proposed that atoms are mostly empty space, but that each has a
tiny, dense core that contains all of its positive charge and nearly all of its mass. This
core is called the atomic nucleus.

Gold atom: sphere of

Path followed by alpha particles, uniform positive charge
α particle emitter directed at the gold foil

Gold foil

Zinc-sulfide screen
Electrons: tiny, negatively charged
particles, uniformly distributed
throughout the sphere

Figure 1.6 Rutherford’s gold foil experiment was designed to

Light flashes produced
by α particles hitting screen
Figure 1.5 Rutherford’s experiment directed a stream of positively
charged alpha particles at a gold foil. The nearly circular detector with a few being deflected slightly by interaction with electrons.
emitted a flash of light when struck by an alpha particle.
test Thomson’s plum-pudding model of the atom, which depicted
the atom as negatively charged electrons uniformly distributed
in a sphere of positive charge. If the model had been correct,
the alpha particles would have passed directly through the foil,
(Remember that a positively charged object and a negatively
charged object are attracted to each other. A positively charged
alpha particle could be pulled slightly off course if it passed
very close to one of the negatively charged electrons.)
8 CHAPTER 1
Student Note: An alpha particle
is the combination of two protons
and two neutrons.
Atoms and Elements
Path followed by alpha particles
directed at the gold foil
Gold nucleus: tiny, dense,
positively charged center
Figure 1.7 The actual result of Rutherford’s gold foil experiment. Positively charged alpha
particles were directed at a gold foil. Most passed through undeflected, but a few were deflected
at angles much greater than expected—some even bounced back toward the source. This
indicated that as they passed through the gold atoms, they encountered something positively
charged and significantly more massive than themselves.
Subsequent experiments supported Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom; and
we now know that all atomic nuclei (the plural of nucleus) contain positively charged
particles called protons. And with the exception of hydrogen, the lightest element,
atomic nuclei also contain electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Together, the
protons and neutrons in an atom account for nearly all of its mass, but only a tiny frac-
tion of its volume. The nucleus is surrounded by a “cloud” of electrons—and just as
Rutherford proposed, atoms are mostly empty space. Figure 1.8 illustrates the nuclear
model of the atom.
Of the three subatomic particles in our model of the atom, the electron is the
smallest and lightest. Protons and neutrons have very similar masses, and each is nearly
–
Electrons
– –
Nucleus containing
protons ( ) and
– neutrons ( )
Figure 1.8 Nuclear model of the atom. Protons (blue) and neutrons (red) are contained within
the nucleus, a tiny space at the center of the atom. The rest of the volume of the atom is nearly
empty, but is occupied by the atom’s electrons. This illustration exaggerates the size of the
nucleus relative to the size of the atom. If the picture were actually done to scale, and the
nucleus were the size shown here (1 centimeter), the atom would be on the order of 100 meters
across—about the length of a football field.
 SECTION 1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Model of the Atom 9

2000 times as heavy as an electron. Further, because protons are positively charged and
electrons are negatively charged, combination of equal numbers of each results in com-
plete cancellation of the charges. The number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons in a neutral atom. Because neutrons are electrically neutral, they do not con-
tribute to an atom’s overall charge.
Sample Problem 1.1 lets you practice identifying which combinations of sub-
atomic particles constitute a neutral atom.

Identifying Neutral Atoms Using Numbers

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1 of Subatomic Particles

The following table contains data sets that indicate numbers of subatomic particles. Which of the sets of data represent neutral
atoms? For those that do not represent neutral atoms, determine what the charge is—based on the numbers of subatomic particles.
neutrons protons electrons
(a) 11 10 10
(b) 13 12 10
(c) 10   9   9
(d) 18 17 18
Strategy You have learned that the charge on a proton is +1 and the charge on an electron is −1. Neutrons have no charge. The
overall charge is the sum of charges of the protons and electrons, and a neutral atom has no charge. Therefore, a set of data in
which the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons represents a neutral atom.
Setup Data sets (a) and (c) each contain equal numbers of protons and electrons. Data sets (b) and (d) do not.
Solution The data in sets (a) and (c) represent neutral atoms. Those in (b) and (d) represent charged species. The charge on the
species represented by data set (b) is +2: 12 protons (+1 each) and 10 electrons (−1 each). The charge on the species represented
by data set (d) is −1: 17 protons (+1 each) and 18 electrons (−1 each).

TH IN K A BO U T IT
By summing the charges of protons and electrons, we can determine the overall charge on a species. Note that the
number of neutrons is not a factor in determining overall charge because neutrons have no charge.

Practice Problem A TTEMPT Which of the following data sets represent neutral atoms? For those that do not represent
neutral atoms, determine the charge.
neutrons protons electrons
(a) 38 31 28
(b) 26 22 20
(c) 12 11 11
(d) 6 5 5
Practice Problem B UILD Fill in the appropriate missing numbers in the following table:
overall charge protons electrons
(a) +2 23
(b) +3 30
(c) 0 53
(d) 16 18
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE
Determine which of the following pictures represents a
neutral atom. For any that does not represent a neutral
atom, determine the overall charge. (Protons are blue,
neutrons are red, and electrons are green.)

(a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c)

10 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.3 Subatomic Particles and the Nuclear Model of the Atom

1.3.1 Which of the following can change without changing 1.3.4 Which of the following could represent a neutral atom?
the charge on an atom? (Select all that apply.) (Select all that apply.)
a) Number of protons c) Number of electrons
b) Number of neutrons

1.3.2 Which of the following can change without changing the

elemental identity of an atom? (Select all that apply.)
a) Number of protons c) Number of electrons
b) Number of neutrons (a) (b) (c)
1.3.3 Which of the following must be equal for the combina-
tion to constitute a neutral atom?
a) Number of protons and number of neutrons
b) Number of protons and number of electrons
c) Number of neutrons and number of electrons
d) Number of protons, number of neutrons, and number
of electrons (a) (b) (c)

1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table

The identity of an element is determined by the number of protons in its nucleus. For
example, an atom with two protons in its nucleus is helium; one with six protons is carbon;
and one with 79 protons is gold. There are no helium atoms with any number other than
two protons, no carbon atoms with any number other than six protons, and no gold atoms
with any number other than 79 protons. The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is also
known as the atomic number, for which we use the symbol Z. All of the known elements
are arranged in order of increasing atomic number on the periodic table (Figure 1.9).
Figure 1.9 The modern 1 18
(1A) (8A)
periodic table. The
1 2
elements are arranged H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He
Hydrogen
in order of increasing (2A) (3A) (4A) (5A) (6A) (7A) Helium

atomic number, which 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F Ne
is shown above each Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

element’s symbol. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Francium Radium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihomium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium
 SECTION 1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table 11

Sample Problem 1.2 lets you practice identifying an element, given its atomic
number.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.2 Identifying an Element by Its Atomic Number

Identify the element given the atomic number of 16.

Strategy You have learned that the atomic number of an element represents the number of protons the element contains. The
atomic number is found above the element’s symbol on the periodic table.
Setup The element contains 16 protons.
Solution The elements on the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The symbol on the periodic
table that has a 16 above its symbol is S. This symbol represents the element sulfur.

TH IN K A BO U T IT
Remember that an element can be identified either by the number of protons in its nucleus (atomic number) or by its
symbol. Every atom with 16 protons is a sulfur atom; and every sulfur atom has 16 protons.

Practice Problem A TTEMPT Identify the

element with an atomic number of 35.
Practice Problem B UILD Determine the
atomic number for iodine.
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE
Identify the atomic number and identity of each
atom shown. (Protons are blue, neutrons are red,
and electrons are green.) (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c) (c)

Familiar Chemistry
Elements in the Human Body
Although the human body contains trace amounts of a large variety of elements, nearly 99 percent
of our mass consists of just six of the 118 known elements:

Oxygen 65%
Nitrogen 3% Calcium 1.5%
Carbon 18% Hydrogen 10% Phosphorus 1%
All others 1.5%
Hydrogen 10%

Nitrogen 3%

Calcium 1.5%
Carbon
Phosphorus 1.0% 18% Oxygen
65%

©Kwame Zikomo/Purestock/SuperStock

The extraordinary abundance of oxygen results from our bodies containing so much water (89 percent of water’s mass is the oxygen it contains).
Depending on health and age, the water content of a human body can range from 50 percent in a dehydrated person to 75 percent in a healthy infant.
The second most abundant element in our bodies, carbon, actually has a relatively low natural abundance. Although it makes up only about
0.1 percent of Earth’s crust, carbon is present in nearly all living systems.

12 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

The periodic table also identifies each element with a chemical symbol. A chemi-
cal symbol consists of one capital letter, or a combination of two letters, one capital
and one lowercase. The chemical symbol for helium, for example, is He, and that for
carbon is C. Most chemical symbols, including He and C, are derived from the familiar
English names of the elements.
Others are derived from an element’s Greek or Latin name and may take some
practice for you to recognize. Examples include Au (aurium) for gold, Sn (stannum)
for tin, Na (natrium) for sodium, and K (kalium) for potassium. Many of the most recent
additions to the periodic table (the highest atomic numbers) are named to honor the
scientists involved in their discovery.
Spend some time looking at the periodic table shown in Figure 1.9, or at the
beginning of this book. Note that each square on the table contains a chemical symbol
and a number, along with the element’s name. The number at the top of each square
is the atomic number, which is always a whole number. (Remember that the atomic
number, Z, is the number of protons.) Each element can be identified by its atomic
number, its name, or its chemical symbol—and we need only one of these pieces of
information to unambiguously specify the identity of an element. The periodic table
squares for helium, carbon, and gold are:
2 6 79
He C Au
Helium Carbon Gold

Sample Problem 1.3 lets you practice using atomic number, name, and chemical
symbol to identify an element.

Relating an Element’s Identity to Its

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.3 Chemical Symbol and Atomic Number
Complete the following table:
Element Chemical Symbol Atomic Number
(a) calcium
(b) Cu
(c) 13

Strategy You have learned that the atomic number of an element represents the number of protons the element contains and is
found above the element’s symbol on the periodic table.
Setup Using the one given piece of information in each part, the other two can be found. If the chemical name is given, the
symbol should be determined and used to find the atomic number using the periodic table. If the chemical symbol is given, it
should be used to determine the name of the element and the atomic number shown on the periodic table. If the atomic number
is given, it should be found on the periodic table to determine the chemical symbol and element name.
Solution In part (a) the chemical symbol for calcium is Ca. Using the periodic table, locate Ca and find that its atomic number
is 20. Part (b) gives the chemical symbol for copper. The chemical symbol Cu can be located on the periodic table to determine
the atomic number is 29. Part (c) gives the atomic number, which can be located on the periodic table to find that the chemical
symbol for the element is Al. This symbol represents the element aluminum.

T H I N K ABOU T IT
A strong grasp of the names and chemical symbols of the elements will allow you to use the periodic table to determine
many properties of any element in question and vice versa.

Practice Problem A TTEMPT Complete the following table:

Element Chemical Symbol Atomic Number
(a) rubidium
(b) 36
 SECTION 1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table 13

Practice Problem B UILD Identify the sets of data that are incorrect in the table:
Element Chemical Symbol Atomic Number
(a) iron Ir 26
(b) strontium Sr 38
(c) sodium Na 23
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE Complete the following table:
Chemical Atomic Number
Element Symbol (Protons) Neutrons Electrons
(a) potassium 20
(b) Be 5
(c) 35 46

CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.4 Elements and the Periodic Table

1.4.1 For which sets of information do the atomic number 1.4.2 Which pieces of information are sufficient for you to
and element symbol match? (Select all that apply.) identify an element? (Select all that apply.)
a) Z = 6, Cr d) Z = 16, O a) Atomic number only
b) Z = 8, He e) Z = 82, Pb b) Atomic number and element symbol
c) Z = 38, Sr c) Elemental symbol only
d) Element name only
e) Element name and element symbol

Familiar Chemistry
Helium
We have all seen helium balloons used as decorations and gifts; and most of us have been entertained
by the silly-sounding high-pitched voice of a person who has breathed in the helium from a balloon.
But as familiar as this may be, how much do you really know about helium? Where does it come from?
How abundant is it? Why does a balloon filled with helium float in the air? And what other uses do
we have for the element helium? Helium is actually the product of a radioactive decay process,
and although you may not understand yet what that is, you are probably aware that uranium is
“radioactive.” As it turns out, part of what makes uranium radioactive is the process that produces
helium. On Earth, helium is found in and around natural gas deposits, and although it is relatively
rare here on Earth, it is the second most abundant element in the universe. The element helium
was discovered late in the nineteenth century—and its value to society has been immense. It
is indispensable as coolant for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines; it is used in the
manufacture of computer chips, in scuba diving gas mixtures, in arc welding operations, and in a
host of military applications—including air-to-air missile guidance and surveillance operations. Helium
balloons float because helium is “lighter” than air. (Technically, helium has a lower density [ Section 4.4]
than air.) It is precisely because helium rises that we are facing a shortage here on Earth. Helium that
is released into the air will rise until it leaves the atmosphere and floats out into space. Helium is
considered a nonrenewable resource, prompting large-scale users of it (the military, the medical
industry, scientific research facilities, and the silicon-chip industry) to develop methods for capturing
and recycling the helium that they use. ©ericsphotography/iStock/Getty Images

14 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table

Student Note: The properties
that distinguish metals and
nonmetals are discussed in
Chapter 2 [ Section 2.6],
but you are undoubtedly familiar
with the term metal and have a
reasonably good sense of what
metallic properties are. Metals
conduct electricity and most are
shiny solids.
The periodic table (Figure 1.9) consists of 118 elements, arranged in vertical columns
called groups and horizontal rows called periods. The groups are headed by numerical
designations. The bottom designation, comprising a number and a letter, has been the
most commonly used system in which the table is divided into main-group elements
(designated A), and transition elements (designated B). The main-group elements include
Groups 1A and 2A on the left, and 3A through 8A on the right. (The transition elements
are those in the sunken, middle section of the table, with B group designations.) The groups
are also numbered 1 through 18 from left to right. Throughout this book, we consistently
use both numbering systems to refer to groups of the periodic table.
Although the periodic table is now arranged in order of increasing atomic number
(left to right, starting at the top), it was arranged originally in groups of elements with
similar properties—even before the concept of atomic number was known. Thus, the proper-
ties of elements within a group tend to be similar. Some of the groups have special names
that refer to the shared properties of the elements they contain. Group 1 (1A), for example,
is called the alkali metals; Group 2 (2A) is called the alkaline earth metals; Group 16 (6A)
is called the chalcogens; Group 17 (7A) is called the halogens; and Group 18 (8A) is
called the noble gases.
In addition to groups (columns) and periods (rows), the periodic table is divided into
metals and nonmetals by the diagonal zigzag line on the right side of the table. Most elements
are metals (left of the zigzag line). Nonmetals are to the right of the zigzag line. A handful
of elements have properties that are intermediate between metal and nonmetal and are referred
to as metalloids. These are found adjacent to the zigzag line. By noting an element’s position
in the periodic table, you can determine whether it is a metal, a nonmetal, or a metalloid.
Sample Problem 1.4 gives you some practice classifying elements by their positions
on the periodic table.

Identifying an Element as Metal, Nonmetal, or

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.4 Metalloid by Its Position on the Periodic Table

Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid:

(a) N   (b) Si   (c) Ca   (d) Cl   (e) As

Strategy Find the given chemical symbol on the periodic table.

Setup The nonmetallic elements are found in the upper right corner of the periodic table, above the zigzag line. The metallic
elements are found below the zigzag line. Note that the metalloids include the highlighted symbols next to the zigzag line. The
metalloids are neither metals nor nonmetals.
Solution Part (a) gives the symbol for nitrogen which is found in the nonmetal portion of the periodic table. Part (b) describes
silicon, which is a metalloid found along the zigzag line. Part (c) shows calcium, found in the metals area of the periodic table.
Part (d) is chlorine, a nonmetal. Part (e) describes arsenic, a metalloid.

T H I N K ABOU T IT
Most of the periodic table is composed of metals, with the elements in the upper right corner being nonmetals. A tiny
number of elements are shaded along the zigzag line and are considered metalloids.

Practice Problem A TTEMPT Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid:
(a) Se   (b) Al   (c) Na   (d) Kr   (e) Ge
Practice Problem B UILD Name an element that fits each of the following descriptions. Note that there may be more than
one element that will work.
(a) A nonmetal found in group 14 (4A). (d) A nonmetal found in group 15 (5A).
(b) A metalloid found in group 13 (3A). (e) A metal found in group 14 (4A).
(c) A metal found in group 15 (5A).
 SECTION 1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table 15

Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE Determine which categories each element (chemical symbol given) falls into.
Rubidium is used as an example.

Main-Group Transition Alkali Alkaline Noble

Symbol Element Element Metal Nonmetal Metalloid Metal Earth Metal Halogen Gas
Rb ✓ ✓ ✓
B
Zn
K

Familiar Chemistry
Elements in Earth’s Crust
Earth’s crust extends from the surface to an average depth of about
40 km (25 mi). Of the 118 known elements, just eight elements make
up nearly 99 percent of our planet’s crust. They are, in decreasing
order of abundance, oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), Mantle
calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). Crust
Beneath the crust is the mantle, a hot, fluid mixture of iron, carbon (C), Core
silicon, and sulfur (S); and a solid core believed to consist mostly Aluminum 8.1%
of iron. Iron 5.0%
Oxygen
Of the eight most abundant elements, oxygen and silicon alone 47% Calcium 3.6%
constitute over 70 percent of the crust. These two elements combine Sodium 2.8%
(along with small amounts of other elements) to form a huge variety Potassium 2.6%
of silicate minerals, including the two most common minerals,
Silicon Magnesium 2.1%
28% Others 0.8%
feldspar and quartz. The feldspar and quartz families of minerals
include many familiar rocks and gemstones.

Feldspar minerals:
Feldspar minerals: Andesine Labradorite
Andesine Labradorite

Amazonite
Amazonite

©Marcopolo9442/Getty Images ©Doug Sherman/Geofile ©Harry Taylor/Getty Images

Quartz minerals:
Quartz minerals:
Milky quartz Smoky quartz Rose quartz
Milky quartz Smoky quartz Rose quartz

©Doug Sherman/Geofile ©Scientifica/Getty Images ©Ron Evans/Getty Images

16 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.5 Organization of the Periodic Table

1.5.1 Which of the following series of elemental symbols 1.5.3 The periodic table shown here has four groups
lists a nonmetal, a metal, and a metalloid? highlighted. Which of the highlighted groups
a) Ca, Cu, Si c) Br, Ba, Ge e) Ag, Cr, As contain(s) only one metal, which contain(s) only
one nonmetal, and which contain(s) only one
b) K, Mg, B d) O, Na, S metalloid?
1.5.2 Which of the following elements would you expect to a) iv, iii, and i d) iii & iv, ii, and i & iv
have properties most similar to those of chlorine (Cl)? b) i, iv, and iii e) i, ii, and iii & iv
a) Cu c) Na e) S c) iv, ii, and iii
b) I d) Cr
1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Student Note: This is contrary
to the part of Dalton’s atomic
theory that we have encountered.
Atoms of a given element are, in
fact, not identical.
1.6 Isotopes
We have learned that an atom can be identified by the number of protons contained in
its nucleus—also known as its atomic number, Z. But remember that with just one
exception (hydrogen), the nuclei of atoms also contain neutrons—and most elements
consist of mixtures of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. For example, in a sample
of pure chlorine, all of the atoms have 17 protons—but they do not all have the same
number of neutrons. Roughly three-quarters of the chlorine atoms will have 18 neutrons
and one-quarter will have 20 neutrons. An atom with 17 protons and 18 neutrons and
an atom with 17 protons and 20 neutrons are both chlorine atoms. They are, however,
different isotopes of chlorine. Isotopes are atoms of the same element, and therefore
have the same number of protons, but have different numbers of neutrons.
The mass number (A) is the total number of neutrons and protons in an atom’s
nucleus. (Protons and neutrons are known, collectively, as nucleons.) Returning to
the example of chlorine, the mass number of a chlorine atom with 18 neutrons is
35 (17 protons + 18 neutrons), and the mass number of a chlorine atom with 20 neu-
trons is 37 (17 protons + 20 neutrons).
Isotope Symbol Element Name Protons Neutrons
35 17 18
17
Cl chlorine
sum = 35

37 17 20
17
Cl chlorine
 SECTION 1.6 Isotopes 17

In general, the way to denote the identity of an atom is with its elemental symbol (shown
here as X) with the superscript mass number (A) and the subscript atomic number (Z).
Mass number
(number of protons + neutrons)
A Student Note: Because these
ZX
Element symbol symbols designate isotopes by
Atomic number
specifying numbers of nucleons,
(number of protons) they are sometimes referred to
as nuclear symbols.
There are three isotopes of hydrogen, called hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium. Hydro-
gen has one proton and no neutrons in its nucleus, deuterium has one proton and one
neutron, and tritium has one proton and two neutrons. Thus, to represent the isotopes
of hydrogen, we write

Student Hot Spot

1 2 3
1 H 1 H 1 H Student data indicate that you
may struggle with determining the
mass number of an element. Access
protium deuterium tritium the eBook to view additional Learning
Resources on this topic.

Similarly, the two common isotopes of uranium (Z = 92), which have mass numbers
of 235 and 238, respectively, can be represented as follows:
235 238
92U 92U

The first isotope, with 235 − 92 = 143 neutrons in its nucleus, is used in nuclear reactors
and atomic bombs, whereas the second isotope, with 146 neutrons, lacks the properties
necessary for these applications. With the exception of hydrogen, which has different
names for each of its isotopes, the isotopes of other elements are identified by their mass
numbers. The two isotopes of uranium are called uranium-235 (pronounced “uranium two
thirty-five”) and uranium-238 (pronounced “uranium two thirty-eight”). Because the
atomic number subscript can be deduced from the elemental symbol, it may be omitted
from these representations without the loss of any information. The symbols 3H and 235U
are sufficient to specify the isotopes tritium and uranium-235, respectively.
The chemical properties of an element are determined primarily by the number
of protons, not by the number of neutrons. Therefore, isotopes of the same element
typically exhibit very similar chemical properties.

Thinking Outside the Box

Mass Spectrometry
How do we know the mass of an atom? An instrument called a mass
spectrometer is one very accurate method for determining the mass
of an atom. A mass spectrometer works by bombarding a gaseous
sample of a substance with a stream of electrons. When the electrons Detecting
collide with the gaseous atoms, they dislodge an electron and create Accelerating screen
plates
a positively charged ion (with a certain charge-to-mass, e/m ratio). Electron
beam
The positive ions are accelerated between two plates of opposite
charges. The beam of ions then passes through a magnetic field,
which separates the ions on the basis of the e/m ratio. The smaller the Magnet
e/m ratio, the more the magnetic field deflects the ion. The magnitude Ion beam
of deflection is used to determine the mass of the ion and therefore Sample
gas Filament
the mass of the parent atom.
The ability to identify different isotopes using mass spectrometry has
Diagram of one type of mass spectrometer.
facilitated some fascinating fields of study. Oxygen, for example, has three
naturally occurring isotopes: 16O, 17O, and 18O. 16O is the most abundant, by invaluable for determining the long-term history of global temperatures.
far, making up more than 99.7 percent of the total. The ratio of oxygen-18 Oxygen-17 has been used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) experiments
to oxygen-16 in the frozen water found at Earth’s poles has proved to elucidate details of physiology, such as oxygen usage in the brain.

18 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

Sample Problem 1.5 shows how to calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons using atomic numbers and mass numbers.

Determining Numbers of Subatomic

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.5 Particles in a Given Atom

Determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the following species:
(a) 35
l7 Cl   (b)
37
Cl   (c) 41
K   (d) carbon-14

Strategy Recall that the superscript denotes the mass number, A, and the subscript denotes the atomic number, Z. In cases
where no subscript is shown, as in parts (b), (c), and (d), the atomic number can be deduced from the elemental symbol or name.
For the purpose of determining the number of electrons, remember that atoms are neutral, so the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons.
Setup Number of protons = Z, number of neutrons = A − Z, and number of electrons = number of protons. Recall that the 14
in carbon-14 is the mass number.
Solution (a) The atomic number is 17, so there are 17 protons. The mass number is 35, so the number of neutrons is 35 − 17 = 18.
The number of electrons equals the number of protons, so there are 17 electrons.
(b) Because the element is again Cl (chlorine), the atomic number is again 17, so there are 17 protons. The mass number is 37,
so the number of neutrons is 37 − 17 = 20. The number of electrons equals the number of protons, so there are 17 electrons, too.
(c) The atomic number of K (potassium) is 19, so there are 19 protons. The mass number is 41, so there are 41 − 19 = 22
neutrons. There are 19 electrons.
14
(d) Carbon-14 can also be represented as C. The atomic number of carbon is 6, so there are 6 protons and 6 electrons. There
are 14 − 6 = 8 neutrons.

T H I N K ABOU T IT
Verify that the number of protons and the number of neutrons for each example sum to the mass number that is given. In
part (a), for example, there are 17 protons and 18 neutrons, which sum to give a mass number of 35, the value given in the
problem. In part (b), 17 protons + 20 neutrons = 37. In part (c), 19 protons + 22 neutrons = 41. In part (d), 6 protons +
8 neutrons = 14.

Practice Problem A TTEMPT How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in an atom of (a) 105B, (b) 36Ar,
85
(c) 38Sr, and (d) carbon-11?
Practice Problem B UILD Give the correct symbols to identify an atom that contains (a) 4 protons, 4 electrons, and
5 neutrons; (b) 23 protons, 23 electrons, and 28 neutrons; (c) 54 protons, 54 electrons, and 70 neutrons; and (d) 31 protons,
31 electrons, and 38 neutrons.
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE Fill in the missing information for neutral atoms:

Isotope Element Mass Neutrons Protons Electrons

Symbol Name Number (A) (n°) (p+) (e−)
N-15 nitrogen 15 8 7 7
nitrogen 14
23
Na 23 11

CHECKPOINT–SECTION 1.6 Isotopes

1.6.1 How many neutrons are there in an atom of 60Ni? 1.6.2 What is the mass number of an oxygen atom with nine
a) 60 d) 32 neutrons in its nucleus?

b) 30 e) 29 a) 8 d) 16

c) 28 b) 9 e) 18
c) 17
 SECTION 1.7 Atomic Mass 19

1.7 Atomic Mass

As we have seen, there are two different isotopes of chlorine, 35Cl and 37Cl. However, if
you examine the periodic table on the inside cover of the book, you will see a number
under the element’s symbol and name that is neither 35 nor 37. The number under the
symbol and name of chlorine is 35.45. That number, 35.45, is the atomic mass (M) of
chlorine, and it is what’s known as a weighted average. To understand how weighted aver-
ages work, consider a collection of two different varieties of apples: Granny Smith and Pink
Lady. A typical Granny Smith apple has a mass of 200 g, whereas a typical Pink Lady
apple has a mass of 150 g. If we were to have one of each type of apple, the average “per-
apple” mass would be 2002gapples
+ 150 g
= 175 g per apple.

200 g    150 g

200 g + 150 g
average mass = = 175 g per apple
2 apples

However, if we were to have a collection containing different numbers of Granny Smith

and Pink Lady apples, we would want to calculate a weighted average.

(2)200 g + (8)150 g
average mass = = 160 g per apple
10 apples

In this case, because there are more Pink Lady apples than Granny Smith apples, the
average per-apple mass would be closer to the mass of a Pink Lady. Likewise, because
there are more 35Cl atoms than 37Cl atoms, the average mass of a Cl atom is much
closer to 35 than to 37.
In order to understand the concept of atomic mass, we need to become familiar
with the units with which atomic masses are expressed—namely the atomic mass
unit or amu. An atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a 12C atom.
On this scale, the mass of a 35Cl atom is 34.968852721 amu. (Note that the mass of
an atom is not exactly equal to its mass number.) The mass of a 37Cl atom is
36.96590262 amu.
The number on the periodic table, 35.45, is the average atomic mass of chlo-
rine, and it can be calculated as follows:
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78 percent 35Cl and 24.22 percent 37Cl.
(0.7578)(34.968852721 amu) + (0.2422)(36.96590262 amu) = 35.45 amu
Many elements have more than two naturally occurring isotopes. (Tin, Sn, holds the
record with 10.) But in the case of elements with two isotopes, it is usually easy to
tell which isotope is more abundant simply by looking at the atomic mass listed in
the periodic table. Boron, for example, has two naturally occurring isotopes: 10B and
11
B. Because the atomic mass on the periodic table is 10.81, we know that 11B is the
more abundant of the isotopes, because the average atomic mass is closer to 11 than Student Hot Spot
it is to 10. In fact, the abundances of isotopes in natural boron are 80.1 percent 11B Student data indicate that you
and 19.9 percent 10B. may struggle with determining the
average atomic mass of an element.
Sample Problem 1.6 lets you practice determining which isotope is more abundant Access the eBook to view additional
Learning Resources on this topic.
in elements with just two naturally occurring isotopes.

20 CHAPTER 1 Atoms and Elements

Identifying the More Abundant Isotope

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.6 Given Average Atomic Mass
Each set of data lists two isotopes of a particular element. Use the atomic masses on the periodic table to determine which one
has a larger percent abundance.
(a) Ne-20 or Ne-22   (b) In-113 or In-115 (Z = 49)   (c) Cu-63 or Cu-65
Strategy The atomic masses shown on the periodic table are a weighted average of the naturally occurring isotopes of each element.
Setup The atomic mass shown on the periodic table will be closer to the isotope that is present in a higher abundance.
Solution (a) Ne-20 as the atomic mass of neon is listed as 20.18, which is closer to 20 than 22. (b) In-115 as the atomic mass
of indium is listed as 114.82, which is closer to 115 than 113. (c) Cu-63 as the atomic mass of copper is listed as 63.55, which is
closer to 63 than 65.

T H I N K ABOU T IT
The average atomic mass (shown on the periodic table for each element) should be closest to the most abundant isotope
for that element.

Practice Problem A TTEMPT Each set of data lists two isotopes of an element. Use the atomic masses on the periodic
table to determine which one has a larger percent abundance.
(a) Mg-24 or Mg-25   (b) Li-6 or Li-7   (c) Ta-180 or Ta-181 (Z = 73)
Practice Problem B UILD Which of the following statements could be true according to the atomic masses given on the
periodic table?
(a) Silver is a roughly equal mix of Ag-107 and Ag-109.   (c) Vanadium is a roughly equal mix of V-50 and V-51.
(b) Rubidium is predominantly composed of Rb-87.
Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE Determine the average per-apple mass of a collection of apples consisting of four
Granny Smith apples and six Pink Lady apples.

Familiar Chemistry
Iron-Fortified Cereal
Iron deficiency is the single most common nutritional deficiency in the
world. An estimated 25 percent of the world’s population does not consume
enough iron to maintain good health. Iron is necessary for the production of
hemoglobin, the component in red blood cells responsible for the transport
of oxygen, and insufficient iron causes anemia. People with anemia can
suffer from a variety of symptoms, including fatigue, weakness, pale color,
poor appetite, headache, and light-headedness. Although pharmacy
shelves display a variety of over-the-counter iron supplements, one of the
most popular ways to increase dietary intake of iron is by eating iron-
fortified cereal. Such cereals are common and include many familiar brands.
Have you ever thought about how the cereals become “fortified”? It may
surprise you to learn that most cereals are fortified with iron simply by the
addition of iron metal! Finely divided bits of iron are simply added to the
grain and other ingredients during processing. The iron metal in fortified
cereals is fairly simple to separate and observe—and this process is a
popular chemistry demonstration. If you blend the cereal with water and
apply a strong magnet, you can actually separate the iron filings.

(both) ©McGraw-Hill Education/David Moyer, photographer

Another random document with
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employment for his activity, and create an honourable retreat far
from public affairs in which he could no longer take part with
honour. He well understood this when he said: “Let us preserve at
least a partial liberty by knowing how to hide ourselves and keep
silence.”[282] To keep silence and hide, was indeed the programme
that suited him best, as it did all those who had submitted after
Pharsalia. We shall see how far he was faithful to it.

I.

It is very difficult to relinquish politics all at once. The conduct of

public affairs and the exercise of power, even when they do not
entirely content the mind, give a secondary importance to other
things, and life appears aimless to him who can no longer employ
himself in them. This is what happened to Cicero. He was certainly
very sincere when, on leaving Brundusium, he undertook “to hide
himself entirely in literature”; but he had promised more than he was
able to perform. He soon wearied of repose, and the pleasures of
study at length seemed a little too quiet; he listened with more
curiosity to outside rumours, and, in order to hear them better,
quitted Tusculum and returned to Rome. There he insensibly
resumed his old habits; he returned to the senate; his house was
again open to all who loved and cultivated letters; he began again to
frequent the houses of the friends he had in Caesar’s party, and by
their means resumed intercourse with Caesar himself.
They were easily reconciled, notwithstanding all their motives for
ill will. The taste for intellectual pleasures which united them was
stronger than all political antipathy. The first irritation over, they
approached each other with that ease that the habit and experience
of society give, forgetting or appearing to forget all the disagreements
that had separated them. Nevertheless these relations had become
more difficult than ever for Cicero. It was not only a protector that he
had found in his old fellow-student, it was a master. There was no
longer between them, as formerly, an agreement or understanding
that created reciprocal obligations; there was the victor to whom the
laws of war permitted everything, and the vanquished who owed his
life to his clemency. The difficulty of the position was greater,
because the more right the conqueror had to be exacting the more
public opinion commanded the conquered to be reserved. It may be
supposed that, at the time of the Gallic war, Cicero defended Caesar’s
projects through friendship or conviction; but since he had shown
that he disapproved his cause by boldly expressing his opinions
during the civil war, the deference he might show to his wishes was
nothing more than a sort of base flattery, and a discreditable way of
earning his pardon. Already his sudden return from Pharsalia had
been much blamed. “I am not forgiven for living,”[283] said he. He was
forgiven still less for his familiar relations with Caesar’s friends.
Good citizens murmured at seeing him visit so assiduously the house
of Balbus, go and dine with the voluptuous Eutrapelus in company
with Pansa or Antony, and by the side of the actress Cytheris, take
part in the sumptuous feasts that Dolabella gave with the money of
the vanquished; on all sides the malevolent had their eyes open to his
weaknesses. He had, then, to satisfy at once all parties, to hold with
the conquerors and the conquered for the sake of his reputation or
his safety, to live near the master without being too confident, and
without ever offending him, and in these dangerous relations to
make what he owed to his honour agree with what was needful for
his repose. It was a delicate situation, from which an ordinary man
would have had perhaps some trouble to extricate himself, but which
was not beyond the dexterity of Cicero. To get out of it he had in his
favour one marvellous quality which prevented him from appearing
too humble and too base, even when he was constrained to flatter.
Madame de Sévigné has said somewhere: “Wit is a dignity.” This
saying is true in every sense; nothing helps one more to pass through
difficult times without baseness. When a man preserves his wit
before an absolute master, when he dares to joke and smile in the
midst of the silence and terror of others, he shows by this that the
greatness of him to whom he speaks does not intimidate him, and
that he feels himself sufficiently strong to support it. To remain
master of oneself in his presence is still a way of braving him, and it
seems to me that an exacting and suspicious despot ought to be
almost as displeased with those who dare to be witty before him as
with those he may suspect of having courage. There is, then, below
that courage of the soul that inspires energetic resolutions, but near
it, that courage of the mind which is not to be despised, for it is often
the sole courage possible. After the defeat of the men of resolution,
the men of wit have their turn, and they still do some service when
the others can no longer do anything. As they are crafty and supple,
as they can raise their head quickly after necessity has forced them to
bend it, they maintain themselves with a certain amount of honour
in the ruin of their party. Their raillery, however discreet it may be, is
a sort of protestation against the silence imposed on all, and it at
least prevents the loss of liberty of speech after having lost the liberty
of action. Wit is not then such a trivial thing as people affect to
consider it; it also has its grandeur, and it may be that, after a great
disaster, when all is silent, downcast, and discouraged, it alone
maintains human dignity, which is in great danger of perishing.
Such was, very nearly, the part Cicero played at this time, and we
must acknowledge that it was not wanting in importance. In that
great city, submissive and mute, he alone dared to speak. He began
to do so early, he was still at Brundusium, not knowing if he should
obtain his pardon, when he frightened Atticus by the freedom of his
remarks. Impunity naturally rendered him bolder, and after his
return to Rome he took scarcely any other precaution than to make
his raillery as agreeable and as witty as possible. Caesar liked wit
even when it was exercised at his own expense. Instead of getting
angry at Cicero’s jokes, he made a collection of them, and in the
midst of the war in Spain, he ordered his correspondents to send
them to him. Cicero, who knew this, spoke without constraint. This
freedom, then so rare, drew all eyes upon him. He had never had
more society round him. The friends of Caesar frequented his society
readily to give themselves an air of liberality and tolerance, after the
example of their chief. As he was the most illustrious survivor of the
republican party after the death of Pompey and Cato, the remaining
partisans of the republic crowded around him. People came to see
him from all sides, and all parties met in the mornings in his
vestibule. “I receive at the same time,” said he, “the visits of many
good citizens who are downcast, and those of our joyful
conquerors.”[284]
This attention no doubt had something flattering in it, and nothing
must have given him more pleasure than to have regained his
importance. Let us remark, however, that in regaining his position as
a person of eminence, whose friendship was sought and whose house
was frequented, he had already fallen short of the first part of the
programme that he had laid down for himself; the share he had,
about the same time, in the return of the exiles, soon made him
forget the other. He had given up hiding to respond to Caesar’s
advances. We are going to see how he ceased to keep silence in order
to thank him for his clemency.
Caesar’s clemency is admired with good reason, and it deserves the
praises awarded to it. For the first time a ray of humanity had been
seen to shine in the midst of the pitiless wars of the ancient world.
No doubt about the extent of his rights had hitherto entered the
mind of the conqueror; he believed them to have no limit, and
exercised them without scruple. Who, before Caesar, had thought of
proclaiming and practising consideration for the vanquished? He
was the first who declared that his vengeance would not outlast his
victory, and that he would not strike a disarmed enemy. What adds
to the admiration his conduct inspires is that he gave this fine
example of mildness and moderation in a time of violence, between
the proscriptions of Sulla and those of Octavius; that he pardoned his
enemies at the very moment that they were massacring his soldiers
who were prisoners, and burning his sailors alive with their ships.
We must not, however, exaggerate, and history should not be a
panegyric. Without attempting to diminish Caesar’s glory, we may be
allowed to ask what motive he had in pardoning the vanquished, and
it is right to inquire how and within what limits he exercised his
clemency.
Curio, one of his closest friends, said one day to Cicero, in a private
conversation, that Caesar was cruel by nature, and that he had only
spared his enemies to preserve the affection of the people;[285] but the
sceptic Curio was very much disposed, like Caelius, to look at people
always on their bad side: he has certainly calumniated his chief. The
truth is that Caesar was clement both by nature and policy: pro
natura et pro instituto;[286] the continuator of his Commentaries,
who knew him well, says so. Now, if the heart does not change, policy
often changes with circumstances. When a man is good solely by
nature he is good always; but when the reflection which calculates
the good effect clemency will produce, and the advantage which may
be drawn from it, is added to the natural instinct that inclines to
clemency, it may happen that a man may become less clement as
soon as he has less interest to be so. He who becomes gentle and
humane, by policy, in order to draw men towards him, would
become cruel, by policy also, if he had need of intimidating them.
This happened to Caesar, and when we study his life closely we find
that his clemency suffered more than one eclipse. I do not think that
he committed any gratuitous cruelties for the sake of committing
them, as so many of his contemporaries did; but neither did he
refrain when he found some advantage in them. While he was
praetor in Spain he sometimes stormed towns which were willing to
surrender, in order to have a pretext for sacking them. In Gaul he
never hesitated to terrify his enemies by fearful vengeance; we see
him behead the whole senate of the Veneti, massacre the Usipetes
and the Tencteri, sell the forty thousand inhabitants of Genabum for
slaves at one time, and cut off the hands of all in Uxellodunum who
had taken up arms against him. And did he not keep in prison five
whole years that heroic chief of the Arverni, that Vercingetorix who
was an adversary so worthy of him, that he might coolly give the
order to slaughter him on the day of his triumph? Even at the time of
the civil war and when he was fighting his fellow-citizens, he got tired
of pardoning. When he saw that his system of clemency did not
disarm his enemies, he gave it up, and their obstinacy, which
surprised him, at last made him cruel. As the struggle was prolonged
it took darker colours on both sides. The war between the
republicans exasperated by their defeats and the conqueror furious
at their resistance, became merciless. After Thapsus, Caesar set the
example of punishments, and his army, inspired by his anger,
slaughtered the vanquished before his face. He had proclaimed,
when starting on his last expedition into Spain, that his clemency
was exhausted, and that all who did not lay down their arms should
be put to death. Therefore the battle of Munda was terrible. Dio
relates that both armies attacked with silent rage, and that instead of
the war-songs that usually resounded, one only heard at intervals the
words: “strike and kill.” When the fight was over the massacre began.
The eldest son of Pompey, who had succeeded in escaping, was
tracked in the forest for several days and killed without mercy, like
the Vendean chiefs in our wars of the Bocage.
The most glorious moment of Caesar’s clemency was just after the
battle of Pharsalia. He had proclaimed in advance when he entered
Italy that the proscriptions would not recommence. “I will not
imitate Sulla,” said he in a celebrated letter, which no doubt was
widely circulated. “Let us introduce a new way of conquering, and
seek our safety in clemency and mildness.”[287] At first he did not
belie these fair words. After the victory, he ordered the soldiers to
spare their fellow-citizens, and on the battle-field itself he gave his
hand to Brutus and many others. It is wrong however to think that
there was a general amnesty at that moment.[288] On the contrary, an
edict of Antony, who governed Rome in the absence of Caesar,
strictly forbade any Pompeian to return to Italy without having
obtained permission. Cicero and Laelius, from whom there was
nothing to fear, were alone excepted. Many others returned
afterwards, but they were only recalled individually and by special
decree. This was a means for Caesar to make the most of his
clemency. Usually pardons thus given separately were not given
gratuitously, they were almost always bought by the exiles with a
part of their property. Besides, they were seldom complete at first;
the exiles were allowed to return to Sicily, then to Italy, before
opening to them completely the gates of Rome. These steps cleverly
managed, by multiplying the number of favours granted by Caesar,
did not allow public admiration to cool. Each time the chorus of
flatterers recommenced their praises, and did not cease to celebrate
the generosity of the victor.
There was, then, after Pharsalia, a certain number of exiles in
Greece and in Asia who were waiting impatiently for permission to
return home, and who did not all obtain it. Cicero’s letters do us the
good office of making us acquainted with some of them. They are
people of all conditions and fortunes, merchants and farmers of the
taxes as well as great nobles. By the side of a Marcellus, a Torquatus
and a Domitius there are entirely unknown persons like Trebianus
and Toranius, which shows that Caesar’s vengeance did not stop at
the heads of the party. We find also among them three writers, and it
is worthy of notice that they were perhaps the most hardly treated.
One of them, T. Ampius, was a fiery republican who did not show so
much firmness in exile as one would have expected. He was occupied
in writing a history of illustrious men, and it seems that he did not
profit much by the good examples he found there. We know the other
two, who are not much alike, better: they were the Etruscan Caecina,
a merchant and a wit, and the scholar Nigidius Figulus. Nigidius,
who was compared with Varro for the extent of his attainments, and
who was, like him, at once philosopher, grammarian, astronomer,
physicist, rhetorician and lawyer, had particularly struck his
contemporaries by the extent of his theological researches. As he was
seen to be much occupied with the doctrines of the Chaldeans and
the followers of Orpheus, he passed for a great magician. It was
believed that he predicted the future, and he was suspected of raising
the dead. So many occupations, of such various kinds, did not
prevent him taking an interest in the affairs of his country. It was not
thought, then, that a scholar was excused from performing the duties
of a citizen. He solicited and obtained public offices: he was praetor
in difficult times, and was noticed for his energy. When Caesar
entered Italy, Nigidius, faithful to the maxim of his master
Pythagoras, which commands the sage to carry help to the law when
it is menaced, hastened to leave his books, and was one of the
principal combatants at Pharsalia. Caecina had appeared at first as
firm as Nigidius, and like him was conspicuous for his republican
ardour. Not content with taking up arms against Caesar, he had,
besides, insulted him in a pamphlet at the beginning of the war: but
he was as weak as he was violent, he could not bear exile. This
frivolous and worldly man had need of the pleasures of Rome, and
was disconsolate at being deprived of them. To obtain his pardon, he
formed the idea of writing a new work destined to contradict the old
one, and to obliterate its bad effect. He had called it his Querelae,
and this title indicates well enough its character. In it he lavished
eulogies on Caesar without measure, and yet he was always afraid he
had not said enough. “I tremble in all my limbs,” said he to Cicero,
“when I ask myself if he will be satisfied.”[289] So much humiliation
and baseness succeeded in softening the victor, and while he
relentlessly left the energetic Nigidius, who could not flatter, to die in
exile, he allowed Caecina to approach Italy, and settle down in Sicily.
Cicero had become the consoler of all these exiles, and employed
his influence in ameliorating their condition. He served them all with
the same zeal, although there were some among them of whom he
had reason to complain; but he no longer remembered their offences
when he saw their misfortunes. In writing to them he showed a
graceful tact in accommodating his language to their situation and
feelings, caring little whether he was consistent with himself,
provided he could console them and be useful to them. He told those
who lamented that they were kept away from Rome, that they were
wrong in wishing to return, and that it was better simply to hear
reports of the misfortunes of the republic than to see them with their
eyes; he wrote in the opposite strain to those who supported exile too
courageously, and would not beg for recall, to the great despair of
their families. When he met with a too servile eagerness in
anticipating and entreating Caesar’s kindness, he did not hesitate to
blame it, and with infinite tact recalled the unfortunate to that self-
respect which they had forgotten. If, on the contrary, he saw some
one disposed to commit a heroic imprudence and to attempt a
useless and dangerous move, he hastened to restrain this burst of
idle courage, and preached prudence and resignation. He did not
spare his pains during this time. He went to see the friends of the
master, or if necessary, he tried to see the master himself, although it
was very difficult to approach a man who had the affairs of the whole
world on his shoulders. He begged, he promised, he wearied with his
supplications and was almost always successful, for Caesar was
anxious to draw him more and more into his party by the favours he
granted him. The favour once obtained, he wished to be the first to
announce it to the exile, who impatiently awaited it; he heartily
congratulated him and added to his compliments a few of those
counsels of moderation and silence which he readily gave to others,
but which he did not always follow himself.
There was no more important personage among these exiles than
the former consul Marcellus; neither was there any whom Caesar
had so much reason to hate. By a sort of cruel bravado, Marcellus
had had an inhabitant of Como beaten with rods, in order to show
what value he set upon the rights that Caesar had granted to that
city. After Pharsalia, he had retired to Mitylene and did not think of
returning, when his relatives and Cicero took it into their heads to
obtain his pardon. While taking the first steps they met with an
unexpected obstacle: they thought they only had to entreat Caesar,
and they had to begin by appeasing Marcellus. He was an energetic
man whom the ill success of his cause had not dispirited, a veritable
philosopher, who had reconciled himself to exile, an obstinate
republican, who would not return to Rome to see her a slave. Quite a
long negotiation was necessary before he would consent to allow
them to crave anything for him from the conqueror, and even then
he allowed it with a very bad grace. When we read the letters that
Cicero wrote to him on this occasion, we greatly admire his skill, but
have some difficulty in understanding the motives of his persistence.
We ask with surprise why he took more interest in the return of
Marcellus than did Marcellus himself. They had never been very
closely connected; Cicero did not stand upon ceremony in blaming
his obstinacy, and we know that those stiff and self-willed characters
did not suit him. He must have had then some stronger motive than
affection to be so anxious for Marcellus’ return to Rome. This motive,
which he does not mention, but which we can guess, was the fear he
had of public opinion. He well knew that he was reproached with not
having done enough for his cause, and at times he accused himself of
having abandoned it too quickly. When, in the midst of Rome, where
he passed his time so gaily at those sumptuous dinners that Hirtius
and Dolabella gave him, and to which he went, he said, to enliven his
slavery a little; when he came to think of those brave men who had
been killed in Africa and Spain, or who were living in exile in some
dull and unknown town in Greece, he was angry with himself for not
being with them, and the thought of their sufferings often troubled
his pleasures. That is the reason why he worked with so much ardour
for their return. It was of importance to him to diminish the number
of those whose miseries formed a disagreeable contrast to the
happiness that he enjoyed, or who appeared to condemn his
submission by their haughty attitude. Every time that an exile
returned to Rome, it seemed to Cicero as though he got rid of some
remorse and escaped the reproaches of the ill-natured. Therefore,
when he had obtained, contrary to his expectation, the pardon of
Marcellus, his joy knew no bounds. It went so far as to make him
forget that resolution he had taken to keep silence to which he had
been faithful during two years. He spoke in the senate to thank
Caesar, and delivered the celebrated speech which remains to us.[290]
The reputation of this speech has had very diverse fortunes. It was
long unreservedly admired, and, in the last century, the worthy
Rollin regarded it as the model and perfection of eloquence; but this
enthusiasm has much diminished since we have become less
appreciative of the art of praising princes with delicacy, and value
free and open speech more highly than the most ingenious flattery.
We should certainly sometimes wish for a little more dignity in this
speech, and we are especially shocked at the manner in which
embarrassing recollections of the civil war are treated in it. He
should have said nothing of them, or have spoken out more boldly.
Ought he, for example, to hide the motives that the republicans had
for taking up arms and reduce the whole struggle to a conflict
between two eminent men? Was it the time, after the defeat of
Pompey, to sacrifice him to Caesar, and to assert with so much
assurance that he would have used the victory less well? That we may
be able to judge less severely the concessions that Cicero thought
himself obliged to make to the victorious party, we must recall the
circumstances in which this speech was delivered. It was the first
time he had spoken in public since Pharsalia. In that senate, purged
by Caesar and filled with his creatures, free speech had not yet been
heard. The friends and admirers of the master alone spoke, and
whatever excess we may find in the praises that Cicero gives him, we
may rest assured that all these flatteries must have seemed lukewarm
compared with those heard every day. Let us add that, as no one had
yet dared to make a trial of Caesar’s forbearance, its limits were not
exactly known. Now it is natural, that he who does not exactly know
where rashness begins has a little dread of becoming rash. When one
does not know the bounds of the liberty that is permitted, the fear of
overstepping them sometimes prevents their being reached at all.
Besides, this orator who spoke for an exile was himself one of the
vanquished. He knew the whole extent of the rights that victory then
conferred, and he did not try to hide it. “We have been defeated,” he
said to Caesar, “you might legitimately put us all to death.”[291] At the
present time things are quite different. Humanity has lessened these
pitiless rights, and the conquered, who knows it, does not give way so
completely; from the moment that he does not run the same risks it
is easy for him to have more courage; but when he found himself
before a master who had absolute power over him, when he knew
that he only held liberty and life by a favour always revocable, he
could not speak with the same boldness, and it would not be just to
call the reserve imposed by such a perilous position, timidity. There
is yet one other way, simpler and probably truer than the others, of
explaining these rather too exaggerated praises with which Cicero
has been reproached, namely, to acknowledge that they were sincere.
The greater the rights of the conqueror, the more becoming it was in
him to renounce them, and the merit was still greater when they
were renounced in favour of a man whom there were legitimate
reasons for hating. Accordingly, the excitement was very great
among the senators when they saw Caesar pardon his personal
enemy, and Cicero shared it. What proves that all these effusions of
joy and thankfulness, with which his speech is filled, were not simply
oratorical embellishments, is that we find them in a letter which he
addressed to Sulpicius, and which was not written for the public.
“That day seemed to me so grand,” said he, relating that memorable
sitting of the senate, “that I thought I saw the republic rise again.”[292]
This was going very far, and indeed nothing less resembled the
revival of the republic than this arbitrary act of a despot in pardoning
men who were only guilty of having served their country. This violent
hyperbole is none the less a proof of the deep and sincere emotion
that Caesar’s clemency caused Cicero. We know how open that
sensitive nature was to the impressions of the moment. He usually
allows himself to be seized so forcibly by admiration or hatred, that
he seldom keeps within bounds in expressing them. Hence came, in
the speech for Marcellus, some hyperbolical eulogies and an excess
of complimentary phrases which it is easy to account for, although
one would rather not have found them there.
These reservations being made, nothing remains but to admire.
Cicero’s speech does not contain only flatteries, as is asserted, and
those who read it carefully and without prejudice will find something
else. After thanking Caesar for his clemency, he takes the liberty of
telling him a few truths and giving him some advice. This second
part, which is somewhat hidden now under the splendour of the
other, is much more curious, although less striking, and must have
produced more effect in its time. Although he revised his work before
publishing it, as was usual with him, he must have preserved the
movement of improvisation. If he had not at first found those grand
periods, the most sonorous and pompous of the Latin tongue, it is at
least probable that he has not changed very much the order of the
ideas and the coherency of the speech. We feel that he becomes
excited and warmed by degrees, and in proportion as he advances he
becomes more daring. The success of his eloquence, of which they
had been deprived so long, the applause of his friends, the
admiration and surprise of the new senators who had not yet heard
him, that sort of transport a man feels in speaking when he perceives
he is listened to; in sum, the place itself where he was speaking, those
walls of the senate house to which he alluded in his discourse, and
which guarded the memory of so many eloquent and free voices,—all
this put him in heart again. He forgot the timid precautions of the
commencement, and boldness came with success. Was it not
attacking absolute power indirectly when he said: “I am grieved to
think that the destiny of the republic, which ought to be immortal,
depends entirely on the life of one man who must some time die.”[293]
And what can we think of that other saying, still sharper, almost
cruel? “You have done much to gain the admiration of men; you have
not done enough to deserve their praises.”[294] What must Caesar do
in order that the future may praise him as much as it admires him?
He must change that which exists: “The republic cannot remain as it
is.” He does not explain himself, but we guess what he wants. He
wants liberty, not that entire liberty that they had enjoyed up to
Pharsalia, but a moderate and regulated liberty, compatible with a
strong and victorious government, the sole liberty that Rome could
support. It is plain that at this moment Cicero did not think it
impossible to make a compromise between Caesar and liberty. Could
not a man who so ostentatiously renounced one of the least disputed
rights of victory be tempted to renounce the others later? And when
he was seen to be so clement and generous towards private
individuals, was it forbidden to think that he might one day show the
same liberality to his country? However weak this hope might be, as
there was then no other, an honest man and a good citizen would not
let it be lost, and it was his duty to encourage Caesar by all possible
means to realize it. They were not then to blame in praising him
without restraint for what he had done, in order to urge him to do
still more, and it seems to me that the praises Cicero heaps on him,
when we think of the intention he had in giving them, lose a little of
that look of slavishness with which they have been reproached.
Caesar listened to the compliments with pleasure and to the advice
without anger. He was too pleased that Cicero had at last broken
silence to think of being angry at what he had said. It was important
to him that this statesman, on whom all eyes were fixed, should re-
enter public life in some way or other. While that powerful voice
persisted in remaining mute it seemed to protest against the new
government. By not even attempting to contradict him, it let it be
thought it had not the liberty to do so, and made the slavery appear
heavier. He was then so content to hear Cicero’s voice again that he
let him say what he liked. Cicero quickly perceived it and took
advantage of it. From this moment, when he speaks in public, we feel
that he is more at his ease. His tone becomes firmer, and he concerns
himself less about compliments and eulogies. With the speech for
Marcellus, he had tried what liberties he could take. Having once felt
his ground, he was more sure of his steps and walked with
confidence.
Such was the position of Cicero during Caesar’s dictatorship; we
see clearly that it was not so humble as has been asserted, and that,
in a time of despotism, he was able to render some services to liberty.
These services have been generally ill appreciated, and I am not
surprised at it. It is with men something as it is with works of art:
when we see them at a distance we are only struck with the bold
situations and well-drawn attitudes; the details and finer shades
escape us. We can well understand those who give themselves up
entirely to the conqueror like Curio or Antony, or those who
constantly resist him like Labienus and Cato. As to those ingenious
and flexible minds who fly from all extremes, who live adroitly
between submission and revolt, who turn difficulties rather than
force them, who do not refuse to pay with a few flatteries for the right
of telling a few truths, we are always tempted to be severe towards
them. As we cannot clearly distinguish their attitude at the distance
from which we regard them, their smallest subserviencies appear to
be cowardice, and they seem to be prostrating themselves when they
are only bowing. It is only by drawing near them, that is to say by
studying the facts closer, that we succeed in rendering them justice. I
think that this minute study is not unfavourable to Cicero, and that
he was not mistaken when he said later, speaking of this period of his
life, that his slavery had not been without some honour: quievi cum
aliqua dignitate.[295]

II.

In giving an account of the relations of Cicero and Caesar after

Pharsalia, I have purposely omitted to speak of the courteous contest
they had about Cato. It was such a curious incident that it seems to
me to be worth the trouble of being studied apart, and in order to
understand better the sentiments that each of the two brought into
this contest, perhaps it will not be amiss to begin by making the
acquaintance of the person who was the subject of the dispute.
A sufficiently correct idea is generally formed of Cato by us, and
those who attack him as well as those who admire him are very
nearly agreed upon the principal features of his character. He was
not one of those elusive and many-sided natures like Cicero, that it is
so difficult to seize. On the contrary, no one was ever more
outspoken, more uniform, than he, and there is no figure in history
whose good and bad qualities are so clearly marked. The only danger
for those who study him is to be tempted to exaggerate still more this
bold relief. With a little intention it is easy to make an obstinate
block of this obstinate man, a boor and brute of this frank and
sincere man; that is to say, to draw the caricature and not the
portrait of Cato. To avoid falling into this extreme, it will be proper,
before speaking of him, to read again a short letter that he addressed
to Cicero when proconsul of Cilicia.[296] This note is all that remains
to us of Cato, and I should be surprised if it did not very much
astonish those who have a preconceived notion of him. There is
neither rudeness nor brutality in it, but on the contrary much
refinement and wit. The occasion of the letter was a very difficult
one: it was a question of refusing Cicero a favour that he very much
wished to obtain. He had had in his old age the aspiration to become
a conqueror, and he asked the senate to vote a thanksgiving to the
gods for the success of the campaign he had just made. The senate in
general showed deference to this caprice, Cato almost alone resisted;
but he did not wish to fall out with Cicero, and the letter he wrote to
justify his refusal is a masterpiece of dexterity. He shows him that in
opposing his demand, he understands the interests of his glory,
better than he does himself. If he will not thank the gods for the
successes Cicero has obtained, it is because he thinks that Cicero
owes them to himself alone. Is it not better to give him all the honour
than to attribute it to chance, or the protection of heaven? This is
certainly a very amiable way of refusing, and one that did not leave
Cicero an excuse for getting angry, discontented though he was. Cato,
then, was a man of wit at odd moments, although at first sight we
might have some difficulty in supposing so. His character had
become supple by the study of Greek literature; he lived in the midst
of an elegant society, and he had unconsciously taken something
from it. This is what that witty letter makes us suspect, and we must
remember it, and take care to read it again every time we are
tempted to fancy him an ill-bred rustic.
We must, however, admit that usually he was stiff and stubborn,
hard to himself, and severe on others. That was the turn of his
humour; he added to it by his self-will. Nature is not alone to blame
for those self-willed and absolute characters that we meet with; a
certain pursuit of quaint originality and a little self-complacency,
very often make us aid nature and bring it out more vigorously. Cato
was led into this defect by the very name he bore. The example of his
illustrious grandfather was always before his eyes, and his single
study was to resemble him, without taking into account the
difference of times and men. In imitating we exaggerate. There is
always a little effort and excess in the virtues we try to reproduce. We
take only the most salient points of the model, and neglect the others
which tone them down. This happened with Cato, and Cicero justly
blames him for imitating only the rough and hard sides of his
grandfather. “If you let the austerity of your behaviour take a few
tints of his gay and easy manners, your good qualities would be more
pleasing.”[297] It is certain that there was in the old Cato a dash of
piquant animation, of rustic gaiety, of bantering good-nature, that
his grandson did not have. He only shared with him his roughness
and obstinacy, which he pushed to extremes.
Of all excesses the most dangerous perhaps is the excess of good; it
is at least that of which it is most difficult to correct oneself, for the
culprit applauds himself, and no one dares to blame him. Cato’s
great defect was that he never knew moderation. By dint of wishing
to be firm in his opinion, he became deaf to the advice of his friends
and the lessons of experience. The practical conduct of life, that
imperious mistress, to speak like Bossuet, had no hold upon him. His
energy often went to the length of obstinacy, and his sense of honour
was sometimes in fault by being too scrupulous. This extreme
delicacy prevented him succeeding when he canvassed for public
offices. The people were very exacting towards those who asked for
their votes. During the rest of the year they allowed themselves to be
driven and ill-used, but on election day they knew they were masters
and took pleasure in showing it. They could only be gained by
flattering all their caprices. Cicero often laughed at those unfortunate
and deferential candidates (natio officiosissima candidatorum), who
go in the morning knocking at every door, who pass their time in
paying visits and compliments, who make it a duty to accompany the
generals when they enter or leave Rome, who form the retinue of all
the influential orators, and who are forced to have infinite
consideration and respect for everybody. Among the common
people, upon whom after all the election depended, the more honest
wished to be flattered, the rest required to be bought. Cato was not
the man to do either the one or the other. He would neither flatter
nor lie; still less would he consent to pay. When he was pressed to
offer those repasts and those presents that for so long candidates had
not dared to refuse, he answered bluntly: “Are you bargaining for
pleasures with debauched young men, or asking the government of
the world of the Roman people?” And he did not cease repeating this
maxim, “that it is only a man’s merits which must solicit.”[298] A hard
saying! said Cicero, and one they were not accustomed to hear at a
time when all offices were for sale. It displeased the people, who
profited by this venality, and Cato, who persisted in only soliciting on
his merits, was almost always vanquished by those who solicited with
their money.
Characters of this sort, honest and outspoken, are met with, in
different degrees, in private as well as in public life, and for this
reason they belong to the domain of comedy as well as to that of
history. If I were not afraid of failing in respect towards the gravity of
the personage I am studying, I should say that this haughty response
that I have just quoted, makes me think involuntarily of one of the
finest creations of our theatre. It is a Cato that Molière wished to
paint in the Misanthrope. We are here only concerned with the
fortune of a private individual, and not with the government of the
world, we have only to do with a lawsuit; but in his position, the Cato
of the Comedy speaks just like the other. He will not submit to
customs that he does not approve of. Even at the risk of losing his
case he will not visit the judges, and when people say to him: “And
who do you then intend to solicit for you?” he answers as haughtily
as Cato: “Who do I intend? Reason, my just cause, and equity.”
Whatever we may feel, these personages always inspire a great
respect. We have not the heart to blame them, but, nevertheless, we
must have the courage to do so. Honesty, honour, liberty, all noble
causes in fine, cannot well be defended with this exaggerated and
strait-laced rigour. They have disadvantages enough by themselves
in their struggle with corruption and licence, without making them
more unpleasing still by a useless stiffness and severity. To multiply
scruples is to disarm virtue. It is quite enough that she is forced to be
grave; why wish to make her repulsive? Without sacrificing anything
of principle, there are points on which she ought to give way to men
in order to rule them. What proves that those men, who boast of
never giving way, are wrong is that they are not as inflexible as they
suppose, and that, in spite of their resistance, they always end by
making some concessions. That austere, that stern Alceste, is a
member of society after all, and of the best. He lives at court, and we
can see very well what he is. I do not say only by his manners and
appearance, although I imagine the man with the green ribbons
dressed with taste and elegance, but by those turns of phrase he
employs, by those polite evasions which are also lies, and which he
will not endure in Philinte. Before breaking out against the nobleman
of the sonnet he uses adroit formulas where we only catch a glimpse
of the truth:
“Do you find anything amiss in my sonnet?”
“I do not say that.”
What is this “I do not say that,” which he repeats so often, but a
blameworthy compliance and weakness, if we judge it with the rigour
of the misanthrope? Rousseau severely reproaches Alceste for it, and
I do not think that Alceste, if he remains faithful to his principles,
can find any reply to Rousseau; it would not be difficult either to
point out contradictions of the same kind in Cato. This stern enemy
of intrigue, who at first will do nothing for the success of his
candidature, ends by canvassing: he went to the Campus Martius like
everybody else, to shake hands with the citizens and ask for their
votes. “What!” says Cicero to him ironically, whom these
inconsistencies put into good humour, “is it your business to come
and ask for my vote? Is it not rather I who ought to thank a man of
your merit who wishes to brave fatigue and dangers for me?”[299] This
stern enemy of lying did more: he had one of those slaves called
nomenclatores who knew the name and profession of every citizen of
Rome, and he used him like the rest, to make the poor electors
believe that he knew them. “Is not this cheating and deceiving the
public?” said Cicero, and he was not wrong. The saddest thing is that
these concessions, that compromise the dignity and unity of a
character, are of no use: they are generally made with a bad grace,
and too late; they do not efface the remembrance of past rudeness,
and gain nobody. Notwithstanding his tardy solicitations and the aid
of his nomenclator, Cato did not attain the consulship, and Cicero
severely blames the awkwardness that made him fail. No doubt he
could do without being consul; but the republic had need that he
should be consul, and in the eyes of many good citizens, to favour by
refinements of scrupulosity and exaggerations of honour the triumph
of the worst men was almost to abandon and betray it.
It is easy to understand these excesses and exaggerations in a man
who intends to fly the approach of humankind, like Alceste; but they
are unpardonable in one who wishes to live with men, and still more
so in one who aspires to govern them. The government of men is a
nice and difficult matter which requires a man not to begin by
repelling those whom he is desirous of leading. Certainly he ought to
intend to make them better, but it is necessary to begin by taking
them as they are. The first law of politics is to aim only at the
possible. Cato often overlooked this law. He could not condescend to
those attentions without which one cannot govern the people; he had
not sufficient flexibility of character nor that turn for honourable
intrigue which make a man succeed in the things he undertakes; he
wanted some of that pliancy that brings opposing pretensions
together, calms jealous rivalries, and groups people divided by
humours, opinions and interests around one man. He could only be a
striking protest against the manners of his time; he was not the head
of a party. Let us venture to say, notwithstanding the respect we feel
for him, that his spirit was obstinate because his mind was narrow.
He did not at first distinguish the points on which a man should give
way and those that ought to be defended to the last. A disciple of the
Stoics, who said that all faults are equal, that is, according to Cicero’s
joke, that it is as wrong to kill a fowl needlessly as to strangle one’s
father, he had applied this hard and strange theory to politics. His
mind being restricted to the merest legality, he defended the smallest
things with tiresome obstinacy. His admiration of the past knew no
discrimination. He imitated the ancient costumes as he followed the
old maxims, and he affected not to wear a tunic under his toga
because Camillus did not wear one. His want of breadth of mind, his
narrow and obstinate zeal were more than once hurtful to the
republic. Plutarch reproaches him with having thrown Pompey into
Caesar’s arms by refusing some unimportant gratifications of his
vanity. Cicero blames him for having dissatisfied the knights whom
he had had so much trouble to conciliate with the senate. No doubt
the knights made unreasonable demands, but he should have
conceded everything rather than let them give Caesar the support of
their immense wealth. It was on this occasion that Cicero said of
him: “He thinks he is in the republic of Plato and not in the mud of
Romulus,”[300] and this saying is still that which best characterizes
that clumsy policy that, by asking too much of men, ends by getting
nothing.
Cato’s natural character was that of opposition. He did not
understand how to discipline and lead a party, but he was admirable
when it was a question of making head against an adversary. To
conquer him, he employed a tactic in which he often succeeded:
when he saw that a decision that seemed to him fatal, was about to
be taken, and that it was necessary at any price to prevent the people
voting, he began to speak and did not leave off. Plutarch says that he
could speak for a whole day without fatigue. Nothing deterred him,
neither murmurs, cries, nor threats. Sometimes a lictor would pull
him down from the rostrum, but as soon as he was free he went up
again. One day the tribune Trebonius got so much out of patience
with this resistance that he had him led off to prison: Cato, without
being disconcerted, continued his speech while going along, and the
crowd followed him to listen. It is to be remarked that he was never
really unpopular: the common people, who love courage, were at last
mastered by this steady coolness and this unconquerable energy. It
sometimes happened that they declared themselves in his favour,
contrary to their interests and preferences, and Caesar, all-powerful
with the populace, dreaded nevertheless the freaks of Cato.
It is none the less true, as I have already said, that Cato could not
be the head of a party, and what is more deplorable is, that the party
for which he fought had no head. It was an assemblage of men of
capacity and of dignified personages, none of whom had the
necessary qualities to take the lead of the rest. Not to mention
Pompey, who was only a doubtful and distrusted ally, among the
others, Scipio repelled every one by his haughtiness and cruelty;
Appius Claudius was only a credulous augur who believed in the
sacred chickens; Marcellus was wanting in pliability and urbanity,
and was himself aware that scarcely anybody liked him; Servius
Sulpicius had all the weaknesses of a punctilious lawyer; and lastly,
Cicero and Cato erred in opposite directions, and it would have been
necessary to unite them both, or modify them one by the other in
order to have a complete politician. There were, therefore, only
brilliant personalities and no head in the republican party before
Pharsalia, and we may even say that, as this jealous selfishness and
these rival vanities were ill blended, there was scarcely a party.
The civil war, which was a stumbling-block for so many others,
which laid bare so many littlenesses and so much cowardice,
revealed, on the other hand, all the goodness and all the greatness of
Cato. A sort of crisis then took place in his character. As in certain
maladies the approach of the last moments gives more elevation and
lucidity to the mind, so, it seems, that at the threat of that great
catastrophe which was about to engulf the free institutions of Rome,
Cato’s honest soul was yet further purified, and that his intelligence
took a juster view of the situation from the feeling of the public
dangers. While fear makes others go to extremes, he restrains the
usual violence of his conduct, and, while thinking of the dangers the
republic is running, he becomes all at once discreet and moderate.
He who was always ready to attempt useless resistance, advises
giving way to Caesar; he wishes them to grant all his demands; he
resigns himself to all concessions in order to avoid civil war. When it
breaks out he submits to it with sorrow, and tries by all means to
diminish its horrors. Every time he is consulted he is on the side of
moderation and mildness. In the midst of those young men, the
heroes of the polished society of Rome, among those lettered and
elegant wits, it is the rugged Cato who defends the cause of
humanity. He compelled the decision, in spite of the outbursts of the
fiery Pompeians, that no town shall be sacked, no citizen be killed off
the field of battle. It seems that the approach of the calamities he
foresaw, softened that energetic heart. On the evening of the battle of
Dyrrhachium, while every one was rejoicing in Pompey’s camp, Cato
alone, seeing the corpses of so many Romans lying on the ground,
wept: noble tears, worthy of being compared with those that Scipio
shed over the ruins of Carthage, the memory of which antiquity so
often recalled! In the camp at Pharsalia, he severely blamed those
who spoke only of massacre and proscription and divided among
themselves in advance the houses and lands of the conquered. It is
true that after the defeat, when the greater number of those wild
schemers were at Caesar’s knees, Cato went everywhere to stir him
up enemies and to revive the civil wars in all the ends of the earth.
Just as he had wished them to yield before the battle, so was he
determined not to submit when there was no more hope of freedom.