Chemistry 6, International Student

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JULIA BURDGE

CHEMISTRY
Sixth Edition

ISTUDY
 Fundamental Constants
Avogadro’s number (NA) 6.0221418 × 1023
Electron charge (e) 1.6022 × 10−19 C
Electron mass 9.109387 × 10−28 g
Faraday constant (F ) 96,485.3 C/mol e−
Gas constant (R) 0.08206 L ⋅ atm/K ⋅ mol
8.314 J/K ⋅ mol
62.36 L ⋅ torr/K ⋅ mol
1.987 cal/K ⋅ mol
Planck’s constant (h) 6.6256 × 10−34 J ⋅ s
Proton mass 1.672623 × 10−24 g
Neutron mass 1.674928 × 10−24 g
Speed of light in a vacuum 2.99792458 × 108 m/s

Some Prefixes Used with SI Units

tera (T) 1012 centi (c) 10−2
giga (G) 109 milli (m) 10−3
mega (M) 106 micro ( µ) 10−6
kilo (k) 103 nano (n) 10−9
−1
deci (d) 10 pico (p) 10−12

Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships

1 lb = 453.6 g
1 in = 2.54 cm (exactly)
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 km = 0.6215 mi
1 pm = 1 × 10−12 m = 1 × 10−10 cm
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101,325 N/m2 = 101,325 Pa
1 cal = 4.184 J (exactly)
1 L ⋅ atm = 101.325 J
1J=1C×1V
5°C
?°C = (°F − 32°F) × _
​​   ​​​
9°F
9°F
?°F = _
​​   ​​ × (°C) + 32°F
5°C

?K = (°C + 273.15°C) ​​(_

1°C )
1K
​   ​ ​​

ISTUDY
ISTUDY
Periodic Table of the Elements
Main group Main group

Period 1A Group
number number 8A
1
18
1 Key 2
1 H
Hydrogen 6 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
He 1
2A Atomic number Symbol Helium
1.008 2 13 14 15 16 17
C 4.003
3 4 Carbon 5 6 7 8 9 10
Name 12.01 Average
2 Li Be atomic mass B C N O F Ne 2
Lithium Beryllium An element Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 Transition metals 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Al Si P S Cl Ar 3
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.99 24.31 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 5
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 6
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og 7
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (281) (280) (285) (286) (289) (289) (293) (293) (294)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Metals Lanthanides 6 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 6
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
Nonmetals
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Metalloids Actinides 7 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 7
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
 List of the Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Masses*
Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass† Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass†
Actinium Ac 89 (227) Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
Aluminum Al 13 26.9815386 Mercury Hg 80 200.59
Americium Am 95 (243) Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Antimony Sb 51 121.760 Moscovium Mc 115 (289)
Argon Ar 18 39.948 Neodymium Nd 60 144.242
Arsenic As 33 74.92160 Neon Ne 10 20.1797
Astatine At 85 (210) Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Barium Ba 56 137.327 Nickel Ni 28 58.6934
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Nihonium Nh 113 (286)
Beryllium Be 4 9.012182 Niobium Nb 41 92.90638
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98040 Nitrogen N 7 14.0067
Bohrium Bh 107 (272) Nobelium No 102 (259)
Boron B 5 10.811 Oganesson Og 118 (294)
Bromine Br 35 79.904 Osmium Os 76 190.23
Cadmium Cd 48 112.411 Oxygen O 8 15.9994
Calcium Ca 20 40.078 Palladium Pd 46 106.42
Californium Cf 98 (251) Phosphorus P 15 30.973762
Carbon C 6 12.0107 Platinum Pt 78 195.084
Cerium Ce 58 140.116 Plutonium Pu 94 (244)
Cesium Cs 55 132.9054519 Polonium Po 84 (209)
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 Potassium K 19 39.0983
Chromium Cr 24 51.9961 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.90765
Cobalt Co 27 58.933195 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Copernicium Cn 112 (285) Protactinium Pa 91 231.03588
Copper Cu 29 63.546 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Curium Cm 96 (247) Radon Rn 86 (222)
Darmstadtium Ds 110 (281) Rhenium Re 75 186.207
Dubnium Db 105 (268) Rhodium Rh 45 102.90550
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.500 Roentgenium Rg 111 (280)
Einsteinium Es 99 (252) Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678
Erbium Er 68 167.259 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Europium Eu 63 151.964 Rutherfordium Rf 104 (267)
Fermium Fm 100 (257) Samarium Sm 62 150.36
Flerovium Fl 114 (289) Scandium Sc 21 44.955912
Fluorine F 9 18.9984032 Seaborgium Sg 106 (271)
Francium Fr 87 (223) Selenium Se 34 78.96
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 Silicon Si 14 28.0855
Gallium Ga 31 69.723 Silver Ag 47 107.8682
Germanium Ge 32 72.64 Sodium Na 11 22.98976928
Gold Au 79 196.966569 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Sulfur S 16 32.065
Hassium Hs 108 (270) Tantalum Ta 73 180.94788
Helium He 2 4.002602 Technetium Tc 43 (98)
Holmium Ho 67 164.93032 Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Hydrogen H 1 1.00794 Tennessine Ts 117 (293)
Indium In 49 114.818 Terbium Tb 65 158.92535
Iodine I 53 126.90447 Thallium Tl 81 204.3833
Iridium Ir 77 192.217 Thorium Th 90 232.03806
Iron Fe 26 55.845 Thulium Tm 69 168.93421
Krypton Kr 36 83.798 Tin Sn 50 118.710
Lanthanum La 57 138.90547 Titanium Ti 22 47.867
Lawrencium Lr 103 (262) Tungsten W 74 183.84
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Uranium U 92 238.02891
Lithium Li 3 6.941 Vanadium V 23 50.9415
Livermorium Lv 116 (293) Xenon Xe 54 131.293
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3050 Yttrium Y 39 88.90585
Manganese Mn 25 54.938045 Zinc Zn 30 65.409
Meitnerium Mt 109 (276) Zirconium Zr 40 91.224
*These atomic masses show as many significant figures as are known for each element. The atomic masses in the periodic table are shown to four significant figures, which is
sufficient for solving the problems in this book.
†Approximate values of atomic masses for radioactive elements are given in parentheses.

ISTUDY
 Chemistry
Julia Burdge
COLLEGE OF WESTERN IDAHO

ISTUDY
 CHEMISTRY
Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019. Copyright ©2023 by
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Cover Image: Stockbyte/Alamy Stock Photo

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guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered

ISTUDY
 Dedication

To the people who will always matter the most: Katie, Beau, and Sam.

About the Author

Julia Burdge received her Ph.D. (1994) from the University of Idaho in
Moscow, Idaho. Her research and dissertation focused on instrument development
for analysis of trace sulfur compounds in air and the statistical evaluation of data near
the detection limit.

In 1994, she accepted a position at The University of Akron in Akron, Ohio, as an

Courtesy of Julia Burdge
assistant professor and director of the Introductory Chemistry program. In the year
2000, she was tenured and promoted to associate professor at The University of
Akron on the merits of her teaching, service, and research in chemistry education. In
addition to directing the general chemistry program and supervising the teaching
activities of graduate students, she helped establish a future-faculty development
program and served as a mentor for graduate students and post-doctoral associ-
ates. In 2008, Julia relocated back to the northwest to be near family. She lives in
Boise, Idaho, and holds an adjunct faculty position at the College of Western Idaho
in Nampa.

In her free time, Julia enjoys the company of her children and Erik Nelson, her
­husband and best friend.

vii

ISTUDY
 Brief Contents
1 Chemistry: The Central Science 2
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 42
3 Stoichiometry: Ratios of Combination 90
4 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 140
5 Thermochemistry 202
6 Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms 254
7 Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table 312
8 Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts 358
9 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 408
10 Gases 464
11 Intermolecular Forces and the Physical Properties of Liquids and Solids 528
12 Modern Materials 582
13 Physical Properties of Solutions 616
14 Chemical Kinetics 664
15 Chemical Equilibrium 726
16 Acids and Bases 786
17 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 850
18 Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium 910
19 Electrochemistry 958
20 Nuclear Chemistry 1010
21 Environmental Chemistry 1048
22 Coordination Chemistry 1078
23 Organic Chemistry 1106
24 Online Only Chapter: Metallurgy and the Chemistry of Metals
25 Online Only Chapter: Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds

Appendix 1 Mathematical Operations A-1

Appendix 2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-6
Appendix 3 Solubility Product Constants at 25°C A-13
Appendix 4 Dissociation Constants for Weak Acids and Bases at 25°C A-15

viii

ISTUDY
 Contents
Preface xxvii

Acknowledgments xxxi

1 CHEMISTRY: THE CENTRAL SCIENCE 2

1.1 The Study of Chemistry 4
• Chemistry You May Already Know 4
■ How Can I Enhance My Chances of
Success in Chemistry Class? 5
• The Scientific Method 5
1.2 Classification of Matter 7
• States of Matter 7 • Elements 7
• Compounds 8 • Mixtures 8
1.3 Scientific Measurement 9
• SI Base Units 10 • Mass 11 Bernhard Staehli/Shutterstock
• Temperature 11
■ Fahrenheit Temperature Scale 12
• Derived Units: Volume and Density 13
■ Why Are Units So Important? 15
1.4 The Properties of Matter 16
• Physical Properties 16
• Chemical Properties 16
• Extensive and Intensive Properties 17
1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement 19
• Significant Figures 19 • Calculations with Measured Numbers 21
■ What’s Significant About Significant Figures? 22
• Accuracy and Precision 24
1.6 Using Units and Solving Problems 26
• Conversion Factors 26
• Dimensional Analysis—Tracking Units 26

ix

ISTUDY
 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS 42
2.1 The Atomic Theory 44
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 47
• Discovery of the Electron 47
• Radioactivity 49 • The Proton and the
Nucleus 50 • Nuclear Model of the
Atom 50 • The Neutron 51
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number,
and Isotopes 52
2.4 The Periodic Table 55 Zoonar/O Popova/age fotostock
■ Distribution of Elements on Earth 56
2.5 The Atomic Mass Scale and Average Atomic Mass 57
2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds 60
• Atomic Ions 60 • Polyatomic Ions 61 • Formulas of Ionic
Compounds 62 • Naming Ionic Compounds 64
• Oxoanions 65 • Hydrates 66
2.7 Molecules and Molecular Compounds 67
• Molecular Formulas 67 • Naming Molecular Compounds 69
• Simple Acids 71 • Oxoacids 71
• Empirical Formulas of Molecular Substances 72
2.8 Compounds in Review 76

3 STOICHIOMETRY: RATIOS OF COMBINATION 90

3.1 Molecular and Formula Masses 92
3.2 Percent Composition of Compounds 93
3.3 Chemical Equations 95
• Interpreting and Writing Chemical
Equations 95
• Balancing Chemical Equations 96
■ The Stoichiometry of Metabolism 99
3.4 The Mole and Molar Masses 101
Zigy Kaluzny/The Image Bank/Getty Images
• The Mole 102 • Determining Molar
Mass 104 • Interconverting Mass, Moles, and
Numbers of Particles 105 • Empirical Formula from
Percent Composition 107
3.5 Combustion Analysis 108
• Determination of Empirical Formula 108
• Determination of Molecular Formula 109

ISTUDY
 3.6 Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations 111
• Moles of Reactants and Products 111
• Mass of Reactants and Products 113
3.7 Limiting Reactants 115
• Determining the Limiting Reactant 115

Limiting Reactant Problems 116

• Reaction Yield 119
• Types of Chemical Reactions 121

4 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 140

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous
Solutions 142
• Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 142
• Strong Electrolytes and Weak
Electrolytes 142
• Identifying Electrolytes 145
4.2 Precipitation Reactions 146
• Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Sara Stathas/Alamy Stock Photo
•
Compounds in Water 147 Molecular
Equations 149 • Ionic Equations 150 • Net Ionic Equations 150
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions 152
• Strong Acids and Bases 152
• Brønsted Acids and Bases 153
• Acid-Base Neutralization 155
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 158
• Oxidation Numbers 159 • Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous
Solutions 162 • Balancing Simple Redox Equations 163
• Other Types of Redox Reactions 166
4.5 Concentration of Solutions 168
• Molarity 169

Preparing a Solution from a Solid 170

• Dilution 172 • Serial Dilution 173 • Solution Stoichiometry 175
■ How Are Solution Concentrations Measured? 178
4.6 Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis 179
• Gravimetric Analysis 179 • Acid-Base Titrations 180
• Redox Titration 184

xi

ISTUDY
 5 THERMOCHEMISTRY 202
5.1 Energy and Energy Changes 204
• Forms of Energy 204 • Energy Changes in
Chemical Reactions 205 • Units of Energy 206
5.2 Introduction to Thermodynamics 208
• States and State Functions 208
• The First Law of Thermodynamics 209
• Work and Heat 210
5.3 Enthalpy 212
• Reactions Carried Out at Constant Volume or
at Constant Pressure 212 Pixtal/age fotostock

• Enthalpy and Enthalpy Changes 214

• Thermochemical Equations 214
5.4 Calorimetry 217
• Specific Heat and Heat Capacity 217
• Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 219

Determination of ΔH°rxn by Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 220

■ Heat Capacity and Hypothermia 223
• Constant-Volume Calorimetry 223

Determination of Specific Heat by Constant-Pressure

Calorimetry 224
■ What if the Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter Isn’t Negligible? 228
5.5 Hess’s Law 228
5.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 231

6 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC

STRUCTURE OF ATOMS 254
6.1 The Nature of Light 256
• Properties of Waves 256
• The Electromagnetic Spectrum 257
• The Double-Slit Experiment 257
6.2 Quantum Theory 259
• Quantization of Energy 259
■ Laser Pointers 260
• Photons and the Photoelectric Effect 262 Source: John Crawford/National
Cancer Institute
■ Where Have I Encountered the
Photoelectric Effect? 263

xii

ISTUDY
 6.3 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 265
• Atomic Line Spectra 266 • The Line Spectrum of Hydrogen 267

Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen 268

■ Lasers 272
6.4 Wave Properties of Matter 273
• The de Broglie Hypothesis 274 • Diffraction of Electrons 276
6.5 Quantum Mechanics 277
• The Uncertainty Principle 277 • The Schrödinger Equation 278
• The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom 279
6.6 Quantum Numbers 279
• Principal Quantum Number (n) 280 • Angular Momentum Quantum
Number (𝓁 ) 280 • Magnetic Quantum Number (m𝓁) 280
• Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms) 282
6.7 Atomic Orbitals 283
• s Orbitals 284 • p Orbitals 285 • d Orbitals and Other Higher-
Energy Orbitals 285 • Energies of Orbitals 286
6.8 Electron Configuration 287
• Energies of Atomic Orbitals in Many-Electron Systems 287 • The
Pauli Exclusion Principle 288 • The Aufbau Principle 289 • Hund’s
Rule 290 • General Rules for Writing Electron Configurations 291
6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 292

7 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 312
7.1 Development of the Periodic
Table 314
■ The Chemical Elements of Life 316
7.2 The Modern Periodic Table 317
• Classification of Elements 317
• Representing Free Elements in Chemical
Equations 320
7.3 Effective Nuclear Charge 320
7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements 321 Yoshikazu Tsuno/AFP/Getty Images
• Atomic Radius 322 • Ionization Energy 324
• Electron Affinity 326 • Metallic Character 328
• Explaining Periodic Trends 329
7.5 Electron Configuration of Ions 331
• Ions of Main Group Elements 331
• Ions of d-Block Elements 332

xiii

ISTUDY
 7.6 Ionic Radius 333
• Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius 333
• Isoelectronic Series 334
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the Main Group
Elements 336
• General Trends in Chemical Properties 337
• Properties of the Active Metals 338
• Properties of Other Main Group Elements 339
• Comparison of Group 1 and Group 11 Elements 343
■ Salt Substitutes 344
• Variation in Properties of Oxides Within a Period 344

8 CHEMICAL BONDING I: BASIC CONCEPTS 358

8.1 Lewis Dot Symbols 360
8.2 Ionic Bonding 362
• Lattice Energy 362
• The Born-Haber Cycle 364

Born-Haber Cycle 366

8.3 Covalent Bonding 369
• Lewis Structures 369
• Multiple Bonds 370
• Comparison of Ionic and Covalent
Compounds 370
8.4 Electronegativity and Polarity 371
• Electronegativity 372
Dinodia Photos/Alamy Stock Photo
• Dipole Moment, Partial Charges, and
Percent Ionic Character 374
8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures 378
8.6 Lewis Structures and Formal Charge 380
8.7 Resonance 384
8.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 386
• Incomplete Octets 386 • Odd Numbers of Electrons 387
■ The Power of Radicals 387
• Expanded Octets 388
■ Which Is More Important: Formal Charge or the Octet Rule? 389
8.9 Bond Enthalpy 390

xiv

ISTUDY
 9 CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR
GEOMETRY AND BONDING THEORIES 408
9.1 Molecular Geometry 410
• The VSEPR Model 411
• Electron-Domain Geometry and
Molecular Geometry 412
• Deviation from Ideal Bond
Angles 416
• Geometry of Molecules with More
than One Central Atom 416
■ How Are Larger, More Complex
Editorial Image, LLC
Molecules Represented? 418
9.2 Molecular Geometry and Polarity 419
■ Can More Complex Molecules Contain Polar Bonds and Still Be
Nonpolar? 420
9.3 Valence Bond Theory 421
• Representing Electrons in Atomic Orbitals 422
• Energetics and Directionality of Bonding 423
9.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 425
• Hybridization of s and p Orbitals 426
• Hybridization of s, p, and d Orbitals 430
9.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Multiple Bonds 434

Formation of Pi Bonds in Ethylene and Acetylene 438

9.6 Molecular Orbital Theory 441
• Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals 441
• σ Molecular Orbitals 442
• Bond Order 443
• π Molecular Orbitals 444
• Molecular Orbital Diagrams 446
• Molecular Orbitals in Heteronuclear Diatomic Species 446
9.7 Bonding Theories and Descriptions of Molecules with
Delocalized Bonding 448

xv

ISTUDY
 10 GASES 464
10.1 Properties of Gases 466
• Characteristics of Gases 466
• Gas Pressure: Definition and
Units 467
• Calculation of Pressure 468
• Measurement of Pressure 469
10.2 The Gas Laws 471
• Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-
Volume Relationship 471
• Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law:
Corbis/VCG/Image 100/Getty Images
The Temperature-Volume
Relationship 474
• Avogadro’s Law: The Amount-Volume Relationship 476
• The Combined Gas Law: The Pressure-Temperature-Amount-Volume
Relationship 478
10.3 The Ideal Gas Equation 480
• Deriving the Ideal Gas Equation from the Empirical
Gas Laws 480
• Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation 482
10.4 Reactions with Gaseous Reactants and Products 484
• Calculating the Required Volume of a Gaseous Reactant 485
• Determining the Amount of Reactant Consumed Using
Change in Pressure 486 • Predicting the Volume of a Gaseous
Product 487
10.5 Gas Mixtures 488
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 489
• Mole Fractions 490
• Using Partial Pressures to Solve Problems 491

Molar Volume of a Gas 494

■ Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy 496
10.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 498
• Application to the Gas Laws 498 • Molecular Speed 501
• Diffusion and Effusion 502
10.7 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 504
• Factors That Cause Deviation from Ideal Behavior 505
• The van der Waals Equation 505
■ What’s Really the Difference Between Real Gases and
Ideal Gases? 506

xvi

ISTUDY
 11 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND THE PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 528
11.1 Intermolecular Forces 530
• Dipole-Dipole Interactions 530
• Hydrogen Bonding 531
■ Sickle Cell Disease 532
• Dispersion Forces 534
• Ion-Dipole Interactions 536
11.2 Properties of Liquids 537
• Surface Tension 537 • Viscosity 538
• Vapor Pressure 538
11.3 Crystal Structure 543
• Unit Cells 543 • Packing Spheres 544
• Closest Packing 545
11.4 Types of Crystals 548
Tom Wang/Shutterstock
• Ionic Crystals 548
■ How Do We Know the Structures of Crystals? 549
• Covalent Crystals 553 • Molecular Crystals 554
• Metallic Crystals 554
11.5 Amorphous Solids 556
11.6 Phase Changes 557
• Liquid-Vapor Phase Transition 558 • Solid-Liquid Phase
Transition 559 • Solid-Vapor Phase Transition 561
■ The Dangers of Phase Changes 561
11.7 Phase Diagrams 563

12 MODERN MATERIALS 582

12.1 Polymers 584
• Addition Polymers 584
• Condensation Polymers 590
■ Electrically Conducting Polymers 592
12.2 Ceramics and Composite Materials 594
• Ceramics 594
• Composite Materials 596
12.3 Liquid Crystals 596
12.4 Biomedical Materials 599
• Dental Implants 600 • Soft Tissue
Materials 601 • Artificial Joints 602 Jonas Ekstromer/AFP/Getty Images

xvii

ISTUDY
 12.5 Nanotechnology 602
• Graphite, Buckyballs, and Nanotubes 603
12.6 Semiconductors 605
12.7 Superconductors 607

13 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 616

13.1 Types of Solutions 618
13.2 The Solution Process 619
• Intermolecular Forces and Solubility 619
• The Driving Force for Dissolution 622
■ Why Are Vitamins Referred to as Water
Soluble and Fat Soluble? 623
13.3 Concentration Units 624
• Molality 624 • Percent by Mass 624
• Comparison of Concentration Units 625
Purestock/SuperStock
13.4 Factors That Affect Solubility 628
• Temperature 628 • Pressure 629
13.5 Colligative Properties 631
• Vapor-Pressure Lowering 631
• Boiling-Point Elevation 634
• Freezing-Point Depression 634 • Osmotic
Pressure 636 • Electrolyte Solutions 637
■ Intravenous Fluids 639
■ Hemodialysis 642
13.6 Calculations Using Colligative Properties 642
13.7 Colloids 646

14 CHEMICAL KINETICS 664

14.1 Reaction Rates 666
• Average Reaction Rate 666
• Instantaneous Rate 668
• Stoichiometry and Reaction Rate 670
14.2 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Reactant
Concentration 674
• The Rate Law 674 • Experimental
Chalabala/iStock/Getty Images
Determination of the Rate Law 674
14.3 Dependence of Reactant Concentration on Time 679
• First-Order Reactions 679
• Second-Order Reactions 684

xviii

ISTUDY
 14.4 Dependence of Reaction Rate on Temperature 687
• Collision Theory 688 • The Arrhenius Equation 690
14.5 Reaction Mechanisms 695
• Elementary Reactions 696 • Rate-Determining Step 696
• Experimental Support for Reaction Mechanisms 698
• Identifying Plausible Reaction Mechanisms 699
• Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step 701
14.6 Catalysis 703
• Heterogeneous Catalysis 704 • Homogeneous Catalysis 706
• Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 706
■ Catalysis and Hangovers 708

15 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 726

15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium 728
■ How Do We Know That the Forward
and Reverse Processes Are Ongoing
in a System at Equilibrium? 731
15.2 The Equilibrium Constant 731
• Calculating Equilibrium
Constants 732
• Magnitude of the Equilibrium
Constant 735 Buena Vista Images/DigitalVision/Getty
Images
15.3 Equilibrium Expressions 736
• Heterogeneous Equilibria 736
• Manipulating Equilibrium Expressions 738
• Equilibrium Expressions Containing Only Gases 741
15.4 Using Equilibrium Expressions to Solve Problems 744
• Predicting the Direction of a Reaction 744
• Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 745

Equilibrium (ice) Tables 748

15.5 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium 755
• Addition or Removal of a Substance 755
• Changes in Volume and Pressure 758
• Changes in Temperature 759 • Catalysis 761

Le Châtelier’s Principle 762

Effect of Volume Change 764

■ What Happens to the Units in Equilibrium Constants? 766
■ Hemoglobin Production at High Altitude 767

xix

ISTUDY
 16 ACIDS AND BASES 786
16.1 Brønsted Acids and Bases 788
16.2 The Acid-Base Properties of Water 790
16.3 The pH Scale 791
■ Antacids and the pH Balance in Your
Stomach 796
16.4 Strong Acids and Bases 797
• Strong Acids 798 • Strong Bases 799
16.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization
Constants 803
• The Ionization Constant, Ka 803
• Calculating pH from Ka 804

Using Equilibrium Tables to Solve

Problems 806
• Percent Ionization 808
• Using pH to Determine Ka 810
16.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization
Constants 812 Environmental Images/Universal Images
• The Ionization Constant, Kb 812 Group/Shutterstock

• Calculating pH from Kb 812

• Using pH to Determine Kb 814
16.7 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 815
• The Strength of a Conjugate Acid or Base 815
• The Relationship Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate
Acid-Base Pair 816
16.8 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids 818
16.9 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength 822
• Hydrohalic Acids 822 • Oxoacids 822 • Carboxylic Acids 824
16.10 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions 825
• Basic Salt Solutions 825 • Acidic Salt Solutions 827
• Neutral Salt Solutions 829
• Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion Hydrolyze 830
16.11 Acid-Base Properties of Oxides and Hydroxides 831
• Oxides of Metals and Nonmetals 831
• Basic and Amphoteric Hydroxides 832
16.12 Lewis Acids and Bases 833

xx

ISTUDY
 17 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA
AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 850
17.1 The Common Ion Effect 852
17.2 Buffer Solutions 854
• Calculating the pH of a Buffer 854
• Preparing a Buffer Solution with a
Specific pH 857

Buffer Solutions 858

■ Maintaining the pH of Blood 860
17.3 Acid-Base Titrations 862
• Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations 862
• Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations 865
• Strong Acid–Weak Base Titrations 869
• Acid-Base Indicators 871
17.4 Solubility Equilibria 875
• Solubility Product Expression and Ksp 875
• Calculations Involving Ksp and Solubility 875 Margouillat photo/Shutterstock

• Predicting Precipitation Reactions 879

17.5 Factors Affecting Solubility 882
• The Common Ion Effect 882 • pH 883

Common Ion Effect 884

• Complex Ion Formation 887
17.6 Separation of Ions Using Differences in Solubility 891
• Fractional Precipitation 892
• Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions in Solution 893

18 ENTROPY, FREE ENERGY, AND EQUILIBRIUM 910

18.1 Spontaneous Processes 912
18.2 Entropy 912
• A Qualitative Description of Entropy 913
• A Quantitative Definition of Entropy 913
18.3 Entropy Changes in a System 914
• Calculating ΔSsys 914 • Standard
Entropy, S° 916 • Qualitatively
Predicting the Sign of ΔS°sys 919 LAGUNA DESIGN/Science Photo Library/
Science Source
Factors That Influence the Entropy
of a System 922

xxi

ISTUDY
 18.4 Entropy Changes in the Universe 924
• Calculating ΔSsurr 925
• The Second Law of Thermodynamics 925
• The Third Law of Thermodynamics 927
18.5 Predicting Spontaneity 929
• Gibbs Free-Energy Change, ΔG 929
• Standard Free-Energy Changes, ΔG° 932
• Using ΔG and ΔG° to Solve Problems 933
18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium 936
• Relationship Between ΔG and ΔG° 936
• Relationship Between ΔG° and K 938
18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems 942

19 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 958
19.1 Balancing Redox Reactions 960
19.2 Galvanic Cells 963

Construction of a Galvanic Cell 964

19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials 967
19.4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under
Standard-State Conditions 974
19.5 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under
Conditions Other than Standard
State 978
Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo
• The Nernst Equation 978
• Concentration Cells 980
■ Biological Concentration Cells 982
19.6 Batteries 984
• Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries 984
• Lead Storage Batteries 985
• Lithium-Ion Batteries 986 • Fuel Cells 986
19.7 Electrolysis 988
• Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride 988
• Electrolysis of Water 989
• Electrolysis of an Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution 989
• Quantitative Applications of Electrolysis 990
19.8 Corrosion 993

xxii

ISTUDY
 20 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 1010
20.1 Nuclei and Nuclear Reactions 1012
20.2 Nuclear Stability 1014
• Patterns of Nuclear Stability 1014
• Nuclear Binding Energy 1016
20.3 Natural Radioactivity 1020
• Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 1020
• Dating Based on Radioactive
Decay 1021
20.4 Nuclear Transmutation 1024
20.5 Nuclear Fission 1027

Nuclear Fission and Fusion 1028 Puwadol Jaturawutthichai/Alamy Stock Photo

20.6 Nuclear Fusion 1033

20.7 Uses of Isotopes 1035
• Chemical Analysis 1035 • Isotopes in Medicine 1035
20.8 Biological Effects of Radiation 1036
■ Radioactivity in Tobacco 1038

21 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 1048

21.1 Earth’s Atmosphere 1050
21.2 Phenomena in the Outer Layers of the
Atmosphere 1053
• Aurora Borealis and Aurora
Australis 1053 • The Mystery Glow of
Space Shuttles 1054
21.3 Depletion of Ozone in the
Stratosphere 1055
• Polar Ozone Holes 1057
21.4 Volcanoes 1059
21.5 The Greenhouse Effect 1059
21.6 Acid Rain 1064
21.7 Photochemical Smog 1066 Digital Vision/Getty Images
21.8 Indoor Pollution 1067
• The Risk from Radon 1067 • Carbon Dioxide and
Carbon Monoxide 1069 • Formaldehyde 1070

xxiii

ISTUDY
 22 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 1078
22.1 Coordination Compounds 1080
• Properties of Transition Metals 1080
• Ligands 1082 • Nomenclature of
Coordination Compounds 1084
22.2 Structure of Coordination
Compounds 1087
22.3 Bonding in Coordination Compounds:
Crystal Field Theory 1090
• Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral
Complexes 1090
• Color 1091
• Magnetic Properties 1093
• Tetrahedral and Square-Planar
Complexes 1095
22.4 Reactions of Coordination
Compounds 1096 David Kay/Shutterstock
22.5 Applications of Coordination
Compounds 1097
■ The Coordination Chemistry of Oxygen
Transport 1099

23 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1106

23.1 Why Carbon Is Different 1108
23.2 Organic Compounds 1110
• Classes of Organic Compounds 1110
• Naming Organic Compounds 1113
■ How Do We Name Molecules with
More Than One Substituent? 1114
■ How Do We Name Compounds with
Specific Functional Groups? 1117
23.3 Representing Organic Molecules 1121
• Condensed Structural Formulas 1122
• Kekulé Structures 1122
• Bond-Line Structures 1123
• Resonance 1124
Courtesy of Julia Burdge

xxiv

ISTUDY
 23.4 Isomerism 1128
• Constitutional Isomerism 1128
• Stereoisomerism 1128
■ Plane-Polarized Light and 3-D Movies 1131
■ Biological Activity of Enantiomers 1132
23.5 Organic Reactions 1132
• Addition Reactions 1133 • Substitution Reactions 1135
■ SN1 Reactions 1137
• Other Types of Organic Reactions 1140
■ The Chemistry of Vision 1141
23.6 Organic Polymers 1142
• Addition Polymers 1142
• Condensation Polymers 1143
• Biological Polymers 1145

24 METALLURGY AND THE CHEMISTRY OF

METALS (ONLINE ONLY)
24.1 Occurrence of Metals
■ The Importance of Molybdenum
24.2 Metallurgical Processes
• Preparation of the Ore
• Production of Metals
• The Metallurgy of Iron
• Steelmaking
• Purification of Metals
24.3 Band Theory of Conductivity
• Conductors
• Semiconductors
24.4 Periodic Trends in Metallic
Properties
24.5 The Alkali Metals
24.6 The Alkaline Earth Metals
• Magnesium • Calcium David A. Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC

24.7 Aluminum

xxv

ISTUDY
 25 NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS AND
THEIR COMPOUNDS (ONLINE ONLY)
25.1 General Properties of Nonmetals
25.2 Hydrogen
• Binary Hydrides • Isotopes of Hydrogen
• Hydrogenation • The Hydrogen Economy
25.3 Carbon
25.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus
• Nitrogen • Phosphorus
25.5 Oxygen and Sulfur
• Oxygen • Sulfur
25.6 The Halogens
• Preparation and General Properties of the
Halogens • Compounds of the Halogens
• Uses of the Halogens

Appendixes
1 Mathematical Operations A-1
2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and
25°C A-6 M. Brodie/Alamy Stock Photo

3 Solubility Product Constants at 25°C A-13

4 Dissociation Constants for Weak Acids and Bases
at 25°C A-15
Glossary G-1
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems AP-1
Index I-1

xxvi

ISTUDY
 Preface
Welcome to the exciting and dynamic world of Chemistry! My desire to create a gen-
eral chemistry textbook grew out of my concern for the interests of students and fac-
ulty alike. Having taught general chemistry for many years, and having helped new
teachers and future faculty develop the skills necessary to teach general chemistry, I
believe I have developed a distinct perspective on the common problems and misun-
derstandings that students encounter while learning the fundamental concepts of
chemistry—and that professors encounter while teaching them. I believe that it is pos-
sible for a textbook to address many of these issues while conveying the wonder and
possibilities that chemistry offers. With this in mind, I have tried to write a text that
balances the necessary fundamental concepts withSECTION engaging real-life examples and
4.5 Concentration of Solutions 169

applications,
Molarity while utilizing a consistent, step-by-step problem-solving approach and
Student Note: Molarity can equally
Molarity, or molar concentration, symbolized M, is defined as the number of moles
an innovative art and media program.
of solute per liter of solution. Thus, 1 L of a 1.5 molar solution of glucose (C H O ),
well be defined as millimoles per
milliliter (mmol/mL), which can simplify
6 12 6
some calculations.
written as 1.5 M C6H12O6, contains 1.5 mol of dissolved glucose. Half a liter of the
same solution would contain 0.75 mol of dissolved glucose, a milliliter of the solution
Key Features
would contain 1.5 × 10−3 mol of dissolved glucose, and so on.
moles solute
molarity = ____________ Equation 4.1
liters solution
Problem-Solving Methodology
To calculate the molarity of a solution, we divide the number of moles of solute by
the volumeProblems
Sample of the solution are
in liters.
worked examples that guide the student step-by-step through the
Equation 4.1 can be rearranged in three ways to solve for any of the three vari-
process of solving
ables: molarity (M), molesproblems. Each
of solute (mol), Sample
or volume Problem
of solution in liters follows
(L). the same four-step
Student Note: method:
Students sometimes
have difficulty seeing how units
Strategy,(1)Setup,
M=
mol Solution, and ____
____ (2) L =
Think
mol About It (check).
(3) mol = M × L
cancel in these equations. It may help
to write M as mol/L until you become
L M completely comfortable with these
Sample Problem 4.8 illustrates how to use these equations to solve for molarity, equations.

volume of solution, and moles of solute.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4.8

For an aqueous solution of glucose (C6H12O6), determine (a) the molarity of 2.00 L of a solution that contains 50.0 g of glucose, (b) the
volume of this solution that would contain 0.250 mol of glucose, and (c) the number of moles of glucose in 0.500 L of this solution. Strategy: plan is laid out for
Strategy Convert the mass of glucose given to moles, and use the equations for interconversions of M, liters, and moles to calcu- solving the problem.
late the answers.
Setup The molar mass of glucose is 180.2 g.
50.0 g
moles of glucose = ___________ = 0.277 mol
180.2 g/mol
0.227 mol C 6 H 12 O 6
Solution (a) molarity = _________________ = 0.139 M Setup: necessary information is
2.00 L solution
gathered and organized.
A common way to state the concentration of this solution is to say, “This solution is 0.139 M in glucose.”
0.250 mol C 6 H 12 O 6
(b) volume = _________________ = 1.80 L
0.139 M
(c) moles of C6H12O6 in 0.500 L = 0.500 L × 0.139 M = 0.0695 mol
Solution: problem is worked out.
TH INK AB OUT IT
Check to see that the magnitudes of your answers are logical. For example, the mass given in the problem corresponds to
0.277 mol of solute. If you are asked, as in part (b), for the volume that contains a number of moles smaller than 0.277, make
sure your answer is smaller than the original volume.

Think About It:

Practice Problem A TTEMPT For an aqueous solution of sucrose (C12H22O11), determine (a) the molarity of 5.00 L of a – Assess the result.
solution that contains 235 g of sucrose, (b) the volume of this solution that would contain 1.26 mol of sucrose, and (c) the number – Provides information that shows
of moles of sucrose in 1.89 L of this solution.
the relevance of the result or the
Practice Problem B UILD For an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (NaCl), technique.
determine (a) the molarity of 3.75 L of a solution that contains 155 g of sodium – Sometimes shows an alternate
chloride, (b) the volume of this solution that would contain 4.58 mol of sodium
route to the same answer.
chloride, and (c) the number of moles of sodium chloride in 22.75 L of this solution.

Practice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE The diagrams represent solutions

of two different concentrations. What volume of solution 2 contains the same
amount of solute as 5.00 mL of solution 1? What volume of solution 1 contains
the same amount of solute as 30.0 mL of solution 2? solution 1 solution 2

xxvii

ISTUDY bur8577x_ch04_140-201.indd 169 05/08/21 10:46 AM

 0.250 mol C 6 H 12 O 6
_________________
THIN
volume = THINK K A BO
0.139AMBOU T I T
=U
1.80 LI T
Check to that
see the
thatmagnitudes
the magnitudes of your answers are logical. For example, the mass given in the problem corresponds to
CCheck
moles ofxxviii to see
6H12O6 inPREFACE
0.500 L = 0.500 of your
L × 0.139 M =answers
0.0695 are
mollogical. For example, the mass given in the problem corresponds to
0.2770.277
mol ofmol of solute.
solute. If youIf are
youasked,
are asked,
as inas in (b),
part partfor
(b),the
forvolume
the volume that contains
that contains a number
a number of moles
of moles smaller
smaller than than
0.277,0.277,
makemake
sure sure
your your answer
answer is smaller
is smaller than than the original
the original volume.
volume.
H INK AB O U T IT Each Sample Problem is followed by my ABC approach of three Practice Problems:
Attempt, Build, and Conceptualize.
heck to see that the magnitudes of your answers are logical. For example, the mass given in the problem corresponds to
Practice
277 mol of solute. If you are asked, as in part (b),
Practice Problem A TTEMPT for theProblem
Foraqueous
volume A
an aqueous
(orcontains
that
solution
“Attempt”) asks H
a number
of sucrose
the
of student to applythan
moles smaller thethe
same
0.277,Strategy
make to solve
Practice Problem A TTEMPT For an solution of sucrose (C12H(C O1122
2212 ), Odetermine
11), determine (a)molarity
(a) the molarity of 5.00
of 5.00 L of La of a
a problem very similar to the Sample
ure your answer is smaller than the original volume.
solution that contains Problem. In general, the same Setup and series of
solution that contains 235 g235 of gsucrose,
of sucrose, (b) the (b)volumethe volume of thisof solution
this solution that would
that would contain
contain 1.26 1.26
mol ofmolsucrose,
of sucrose, andthe
and (c) (c)number
the number
of moles of moles of sucroseof sucrose in 1.89 in 1.89L of Lthis thissteps
of solution. solution. in the Solution can be used to solve Practice Problem A.
Practice Problem B (or “Build”) assesses mastery of the same skills as those required for
Practice
ctice Problem Practice Problem
A TTEMPT Problem B UILD B UILD
For anFor aqueous
Foraqueous
an an aqueous
solution solution solution
of Problem
of sodium
of sodium
sucrose (C
chloride
chloride (NaCl),
(NaCl),
the Sample and12H 22O11), determine
Practice Problem A, (a)but
the everywhere
molarity of possible;
5.00 L ofPractice
a Prob-
determinedetermine (a) the (a)molarity
the molarity of 3.75 of 3.75
L of La of a solution
solution that that contains
contains 155 155
g of g of sodium
sodium
tion that contains 235 g of sucrose, (b) the volume lemofBthis cannot solution that would
be solved using contain
the same 1.26 mol ofused
Strategy sucrose, andSample
for the (c) the Problem
number and for
chloride,the (b) the volume of solution
this solution that would contain
4.58 4.58 mol of sodium
moles ofchloride,
sucrose (b) in 1.89volume L of this of solution.
this that would contain mol of sodium
Practice Problem A. This provides the student an opportunity to develop a strategy
chloride,chloride, and (c) andthe (c)numberthe number of moles of moles of sodium of sodium chloride chloride in 22.75
in 22.75 L of L of solution.
this this solution.
independently, and combats the tendency that some students have to want to apply a
ctice Problem B UILD For an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (NaCl),
rmine (a)Practice Practice
the molarity Problem Problem
of 3.75 C L of
Ca solution
ONCEPTUALIZE ONCEPTUALIZE “template” approach
that containsThe
The diagrams
155diagrams
g of sodium
to solving
represent
represent chemistry
solutions problems. Practice Problems “Attempt” and
solutions
of two different concentrations. What “Build”
volume have
of been
solution incorporated
2 contains into
the the
same problems available in Connect (R) and can be
ride, (b)ofthetwo different
volume of this concentrations.
solution that What wouldvolume containof 4.58solution
mol of2 sodiumcontains the same
ride, andamount amount
(c) theofnumber
of
solute of solute
as moles as
5.00 mL 5.00
of sodium
mL of
of solution solution
chloride
used
1? What in
1?
in 22.75
online
What
volume homework
volume
L of of
of and/or
solution
thissolution
solution.
quizzing.
1
1 containscontains
the same the same amount amount of solute of solute as 30.0 as 30.0
mL of mLsolution of solution 2? 2? solution
solution 1 1 solution
solution 2 2
Practice Problem C (or “Conceptualize”) provides an exercise that probes the student’s
ctice Problem C ONCEPTUALIZE The diagrams represent solutions Questions and Problems 191

conceptual understanding of the material. Practice Problems C often include concept

wo different concentrations. What volume of solution 2 contains the same
Questions and Problems and molecular art.
unt of solute as 5.00 mL of solution 1? What volume of solution 1 contains
same amount Applying of solute as 30.0
What You’ve Learned mL of solution 2? Each chapter’s end-of-chapter
solution 1 questions and problems
solution 2 begin with
Sports drinks typically contain sucrose (C H O ), fructose (C H O ), sodium citrate (Na C H O ), potassium
12 22 11
citrate (K C H O ), and ascorbic acid (H C H O ), among other ingredients. (a) Classify each of these ingredients
3 6 5 7 2 6 6 6
6 12 an
6 ­
I ntegrative Problem,
3 6 5 titled
7 Applying What You’ve Learned. These
as a nonelectrolyte, a weak electrolyte, or a strong electrolyte [|◂◂ Sample Problem 4.1]. (b) If a sports drink is 0.0015 M in
_ch04_140-201.indd
_140-201.indd 169 citrate
both potassium 169 and potassium phosphate, what is the overall concentration of potassium in the drink [|◂◂ Sample
integrative problems incorporate multiple concepts from the chapter, 05/08/21
05/08/21 10:46 AM
10:46 AM
Problem 4.11]? (c) The aqueous iodine used to determine vitamin C content in sports drinks can be prepared by combining
aqueous solutions of iodic acid (HIO ) and hydroiodic acid (HI). (The products are aqueous iodine and liquid water.) Write
3
with each step of the problem providing a specific reference to the
a balanced equation for this reaction [|◂◂ Sample Problem 3.3]. (d) Write the net ionic equation for the reaction [|◂◂ Sample
Problem 4.3]. (e) Determine the oxidation number for each element in the net ionic equation [|◂◂ Sample Problem 4.5]. appropriate Sample Problem in case the student needs direction.

169 Key Skills 05/08/21 10:46 AM

SECTION 4.1: GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Review Questions
Newly located immediately before the end-of-chapter problems, Key Skills pages are
4.1 Define solute, solvent, and solution by describing modules that provide a review of specific problem-solving techniques from that particu-
the process of dissolving a solid in a liquid.
4.2 What is the difference between a nonelectrolyte
and an electrolyte? Between a weak electrolyte and
lar chapter. These are techniques the author knows are vital to success in later chapters.
4.3
a strong electrolyte?
What is the difference between the symbols
The Key Skills pages are designed to be easy-to-find touchstones to hone specific skills
fromfollowingearlier
substances as chapters—in the context of later chapters. The answers to the Key Skills
and in chemical equations? (a) (b) (c)
4.4 Water, which we generally consider to be a 4.8 Identify each of the
nonelectrolyte, is actually an extremely weak
Problems can be found in the Answer Appendix in the back of the book.
a strong electrolyte, weak electrolyte, or
electrolyte and therefore cannot conduct electricity. nonelectrolyte: (a) H O, (b) KCl, (c) HNO
2 , 3
Why are we often cautioned not to operate electrical (d) HC2H3O2, (e) C12H22O11.
appliances when our hands are wet? Identify each of the following substances as a
4.9
4.5 Lithium fluoride (LiF) is a strong electrolyte. What strong electrolyte, weak electrolyte, or nonelectrolyte:
species are present in LiF(aq)? (a) Ba(NO3)2, (b) Ne, (c) NH3, (d) NaOH.
4.10 The passage of electricity through an electrolyte
Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
solution is caused by the movement of (a) electrons
KEY SKILLS
Conceptual Problems
only, (b) cations only, (c) anions only, (d) both
4.6 The aqueous solutions of three compounds are Enthalpy of Reaction cations and anions.
By definition, the standard enthalpy of formation for an element in its standard state is zero. In addition, many tables
of thermodynamic data, including Appendix 2, do not contain values for aqueous strong electrolytes such as barium
shown in the diagrams. Identify each compound 4.11 Predict and explain which of the following systems hydroxide. However, the tables do include values for the individual aqueous ions. Therefore, determination of this enthalpy
as a nonelectrolyte, a weak electrolyte, or a strong are electrically conducting: (a) solid NaCl, of reaction is facilitated by rewriting the equation with Ba(OH)2 written as separate ions:
electrolyte. (b) molten NaCl, (c) an aqueous solution of NaCl.
Using tabulated ΔH°f values, we can calculate the standard enthalpy of reaction (ΔH° xn) using Equation 5.19: X. Describe Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) Ba2+(aq) + 2OH – (aq) + H2(g)
4.12 You are given a rwater-soluble compound
how you would determine whether it is an electrolyte
ΔH°rxn = ΣnΔH°f (products) − ΣmΔH°f (reactants) 0 – 285.8 – 538.4 – 229.94 0 ΔH f° (kJ/mol)
or a nonelectrolyte. If it is an electrolyte, how would
This method of calculating thermodynamic quantities such as enthalpy youofdetermine
reaction iswhether it is not
important strong
onlyorinweak?
this chapter, but H2(g) 0
the useExplain
also in Chapters 19 and 20. The following examples illustrate4.13 why a5.19
of Equation solution of HCl
and data fromin Appendix
benzene does not
2. Each OH– (aq) –229.94
example provides a specific reminder of one of the important facets conduct electricity but in water it does.
of this approach.
Ba2+(aq) –538.4
(a) (b) (c)
SECTION 4.2: PRECIPITATION REACTIONS H2O(l) –285.8
Look up ΔH f° values for Sum all ΔH f° valuesReview Questions
Sum all ΔH f° values Subtract reactant sum
4.7 Which of the following
reactants anddiagrams
best
products. represents
for products. for reactants. from product sum. Ba(s) 0
the hydration of NaCl when dissolved in water? 4.14 Describe hydration. What properties of water enable
The Cl− ion is larger in size than the Na+ ion. its molecules to interact with ions in solution?
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
ΔH f° = [(–538.4) + 2(–229.94) + (0)] – [(0) + 2(–285.8)] = –426.7 kJ/mol
–1206.9 – 635.6 – 393.5 ΔH °f (kJ/mol)
You will find more than one tabulated ΔH°f value for some substances, such as water. It is important to select the value
CO2(g) –393.5 that corresponds to the phase of matter represented in the chemical equation. In previous examples, water has appeared in
CaO(s) –635.6 the balanced equations as a liquid. It can also appear as a gas.
bur8577x_ch04_140-201.indd 191 05/08/21 10:47 AM
CaCO3(s) –1206.9 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)

– 124.7 0 – 393.5 – 248.1 ΔH f° (kJ/mol)

ΔH f° = [(– 635.6) + (– 393.5)] – (–1206.9) = +187.8 kJ/mol H2O(l) –285.8
H2O(g) –248.1
CO2(g) –393.5
Each ΔH°f value must be multiplied by the corresponding stoichiometric coefficient in the balanced equation. O2(g) 0
C4H10(g) –124.7
N2H4(l) + 2N2O4(g) 6NO(g) + 2H2O(l)
ΔH f° = [8(–393.5) + 10(–248.1)] – [2(–124.7) + (0)] = –5379.6 kJ/mol
50.4 9.66 90.4 – 285.8 ΔH °f (kJ/mol)
H2O(l) –285.8
NO(g) 90.4 Key Skills Problems
N2O4(g) 9.66
5.1 5.3
N2H4(l) 50.4 Using data from Appendix 2, calculate the standard enthalpy Using data from Appendix 2, calculate the standard enthalpy
of the following reaction: of the following reaction (you must first balance the equation):
Mg(OH)2(s) MgO(s) + H2O(l) P(red) + Cl2(g) PCl3(g)
ΔH f° = [6(90.4) + 2(–285.8)] – [(50.4) + 2(9.66)] = –53.92 kJ/mol (a) –608.7 kJ/mol (b) –81.1 kJ/mol (c) –37.1 kJ/mol (a) –576.1 kJ/mol (b) –269.7 kJ/mol (c) –539.3 kJ/mol
(d) +81.1 kJ/mol (e) +37.1 kJ/mol (d) –602.6 kJ/mol (e) +639.4 kJ/mol

5.2 5.4
Using data from Appendix 2, calculate the standard enthalpy Using only whole number coefficients, the combustion of
of the following reaction: hexane can be represented as:
4HBr(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + 2Br2(l) 2C6H14(l) + 19O2(g) 12CO2(g) + 14H2O(l)
(a) –426.8 kJ/mol (b) –338.8 kJ/mol (c) –249.6 kJ/mol ΔH° = −8388.4 kJ/mol
(d) +426.8 kJ/mol (e) +338.8 kJ/mol Using this and data from Appendix 2, determine the standard
enthalpy of formation of hexane.
(a) –334.8 kJ/mol (b) –167.4 kJ/mol (c) –669.6 kJ/mol
238 (d) +334.8 kJ/mol (e) +669.6 kJ/mol 239

ISTUDY
bur8577x_ch05_202-253.indd 238 05/08/21 10:57 AM bur8577x_ch05_202-253.indd 239 05/08/21 10:57 AM
 PREFACE xxix

New to the Sixth Edition

∙ Updated periodic-table numbering scheme.
∙ New chapter openers, with emphasis on the chemistry associated with global
climate change.
∙ New End-of-Chapter Problems have been added in response to user comments. These
include additional conceptual problems, and updates of information in topical questions.
∙ Specific references to Key Skills pages in the “Before You Begin, Review These
Skills” sections.
∙ New figures to help students develop conceptual understanding.
∙ Continued development of truly comprehensive and consistent problem-solving.
Hundreds of worked examples (Sample Problems) help students get started learning
how to approach and solve problems.
New and updated chapter content includes:
Incorporation of essential information from student notes into the main flow of text in
each chapter. The remaining student notes are designed to help students over a variety
of stumbling blocks. They include timely warnings about common errors, reminders of
important information from previous chapters, and general information that helps place
the material in an easily understood context.
Chapter 1—New and updated end-of-chapter problems and a new figure
illustrating intensive and extensive properties
Chapter 2—Updated end-of-chapter problems
Chapter 4—New and updated conceptual end-of-chapter problems
Chapter 5—New and updated conceptual end-of-chapter problems
Chapter 7—New conceptual checkpoint questions
Chapter 9—New chapter opener and Applying-What-You’ve-Learned problems
Chapter 10—Updated end-of-chapter problems
Chapter 11—New Sample and Practice Problems
Chapter 13—New chapter opener and new end-of-chapter problems
Chapter 14—New and updated conceptual end-of-chapter problems
Chapter 17—New conceptual end-of-chapter problems
Chapter 19—New conceptual end-of-chapter problems

Instructor and Student Resources

Instructor Resources

ALEKS (Assessment and LEarning in Knowledge Spaces) is a web-based system

for individualized assessment and learning available 24/7 over the Internet. ALEKS
uses artificial intelligence to accurately determine a student’s knowledge and then
guides her to the material that she is most ready to learn. ALEKS offers immediate
feedback and access to ALEKSPedia—an interactive text that contains concise entries
on chemistry topics. ALEKS is also a full-featured course management system with
rich reporting features that allow instructors to monitor individual and class perfor-
mance, set student goals, assign/grade online quizzes, and more. ALEKS allows
instructors to spend more time on concepts while ALEKS teaches students practical
problem-solving skills. And with ALEKS 360, your student also has access to this
text’s eBook. Learn more at www.aleks.com/highered/science.
Instructors have access to the following instructor resources:
∙ Instructor’s Manual This supplement contains Learning Objectives; Applications,
Demonstrations, Tips and References; a list of End-of-Chapter Problems sorted by dif-
ficulty; and a list of End-of-Chapter Problems sorted by type for each chapter of the text.

ISTUDY
Another random document with
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and 2 in. thick, was used as a lever. One end of this piece had a U-
shaped notch cut in it to straddle the supports under the projecting
ends. A board was attached to the table top, having one straight
edge set where the knife edge would just pass it.
If the knife has a good sharp edge it will do very satisfactory work.
When the edges are trimmed the knife can be removed and used for
its original work.—Contributed by E. S. Mundell, Lowpoint, Ill.
 How to Repair Rubber Gloves
While making a bunglesome job of patching a pair of rubber
gloves, which I used to keep the stains from my fingers while
developing photographic plates, a physician friend happened along
and told me how to do it properly. The method is as follows: Procure
a piece of card, such as heavy Bristol board used for filing cards;
spread it on one side, rather thick, with ordinary library paste and
stick it to the rubber tissue, preferably dentists’ rubber dam of light
weight; smooth it flat, and let the paste dry. When a patch is needed
cut one out, rubber and card together, and fit it to the cut in the
glove. Put the glove on the hand inside out, moisten the patch with
cement, let it dry for a few seconds and then press it in place hard. If
the tear is large, it is easier to lay the moistened patch down and fit
the edges of the tear to it, then press hard in place. After the cement
has thoroughly dried out, soak the patch in water and remove the bit
of card. This gives a patch fastened securely to the extreme edges;
flat, water-tight, and as fit to stand boiling as any patch, for
sterilizing. After removing the card, the glove is dusted with talcum.
—Contributed by J. S. Hogans, Uniontown, Pa.
 Miniature Metal-Bound Chests
By F. E. TUCK

B oys in a manual-training class became very enthusiastic over the

making of small chestlike boxes, bound with ornamental metal,
and adapted them to a great variety of uses. The boxes were
designed to suit the taste of the maker and for use as glove,
handkerchief, jewelry, toilet, treasure and other boxes, lined with silk,
and finished in wax and varnish, in various stains. Oak was used for
most of them, and the metals employed were largely copper and
brass, although silver is suitable for small boxes. They are simple in
construction, as shown in the working drawings, and can be made in
the home workshop. The photograph reproduced shows a group of
boxes, for various purposes, and in several styles of metal binding.
The long box at the top is for gloves or ties; the larger ones are for
the boys’ personal use, caring for collars, handkerchiefs, etc.; the
smaller boxes are for the dresser, providing for the care of jewelry
and similar small articles. The boxes proved great favorites as gifts,
and the monogram of the recipient may be etched into the metal.
 These Gift Boxes, Trimmed with Ornamental Metal, were Made by Boys in a
Manual-Training Class. A Long Glove Box is Shown Above; the Larger Boxes
Are for Handkerchiefs, and the Smaller Ones for Jewelry and Trinkets

Well-seasoned oak is the most suitable material for the making of

the boxes, as it harmonizes well with the plain metal trimmings. The
quarter-sawed variety is preferable, being more ornamental, and less
likely to warp or twist. For most of the boxes, stock ³⁄₈ in. thick is
suitable, although this may be cut down to ⁵⁄₁₆ in. for the smaller
boxes, if convenient. The method of joining the pieces is similar in all
the varieties of boxes, and the jewel box illustrated in the working
drawings will be taken as a specimen. The sides of the box are
butted against the ends, lapping over them, flush, and nailed with
small brads. The bottom is fitted between the sides and ends, and
nailed so that the nails are concealed by the metal bands, at the four
corners, and at other points, if bands are placed near the middle.
The stock for the box is cut and finished on all sides to the following
dimensions: all pieces to be ³⁄₈ in. thick; top, 4¹⁄₂ by 7¹⁄₂ in.; two
sides, 1⁷⁄₈ by 7 in.; two ends, 1⁷⁄₈ by 4 in.; bottom, 3¹⁄₄ by 6¹⁄₄ inches.
All the pieces should be scraped carefully to a smooth finish, and
the nails started with an awl, or a slightly flattened nail of the same
size, fitted into a hand drill. Extreme care must be taken, in nailing,
that the surface of the wood is not marred, which is likely to occur if
the nails are driven into the wood too rapidly, or without starting
holes for them. The feet are cut from a strip, ³⁄₈ in. thick and ³⁄₄ in.
wide, the cut edges being sandpapered smooth without destroying
the squareness and the sharp corners. They are nailed to the bottom
of the box with brads, care being taken to have the end grain of each
block at the end of the box, particularly if the metal trimmings do not
cover the blocks.
The cover is fixed in place with small plain butts, countersunk into
the wood, one leaf into the top and the other into the back of the box.
A simpler method is to set both leaves of the hinge into the edge of
the back. Care must be taken in fitting the hinges that they are set in
line with the back of the box, and holes for the screws should be
made before driving them into place. Too much care cannot be taken
with the fitting of the hinges, as the proper fitting of the lid, both as to
resting level and being in line with the edges of the box, depends on
the fitting of the hinges.
After the construction work and nailing is completed, the box may
be sandpapered carefully, rubbing in the direction of the grain, and
being careful not to round off the edges unduly. The
oversandpapering of woodwork marks the work of the careless
novice. The box should be handled as little as possible while the
metal trimmings are being fitted, and, before the finish is applied,
should be gone over lightly with sandpaper to remove dirt. When the
metal pieces are fitted, and ready to be fastened in place, the finish
may be applied to the box. Warm browns or other dark-oak finishes,
are best suited to the simple style of chest, and the metal fittings. A
coat of stain should be applied, and this followed, when dry, by a
coat of filler, rubbed well into the pores of the wood. The filler should
be permitted to dry hard and the surface is then sandpapered very
lightly with a fine grade of paper—No. 00 is best. Do not rub through
the filler or stain, particularly at the corners. Wax is the most readily
applied outer finish. Several coats may be used to give a substantial
finish. A coat of shellac, followed by coats of rubbing varnish, dried
well and rubbed between coats with No. 00 sandpaper may be
applied for a high-gloss finish. This is a more involved process and
requires that the varnish be rubbed down with pumice stone and
water, and finished with an oil polish.
Copper or brass, of No. 20 gauge or lighter, is suitable for the
making of the trimmings. The details of the handles are shown in the
sketch, at the right. Cut a back plate, ⁷⁄₈ in. by 1¹⁄₄ in., and fit the
handle of wire to it by means of a strap, bent from a strip of metal, ³⁄₈
in. by ⁷⁄₈ in. The other bands are merely strips, ¹⁄₂ to ³⁄₄ in. in width
and fitted to the size of the box, where applied. Strap hinges of the
same metal may be made, but the most convenient method for the
amateur is to fit the metal strips into place at the hinges, merely as
ornamental features. Various types of locks may be fitted into the
box, and for the worker having the necessary skill, it is interesting to
make a hasp, as indicated in the sketch.
The designing and making of the metal trimmings affords unlimited
opportunity for originality, and a good plan is to fit the desired strips,
cut from paper, to the box before making them of the metal. It is well
to remember, in this connection, that the simple bands and forms are
better suited to the plain box than ornate trimmings. Having
determined upon suitable patterns for the metal strips, cut them from
the sheet with snips, or tinner’s shears, care being taken to produce
a smooth edge. A file may be used to remove roughnesses and to
round the edges of the metal slightly. The metal is fastened with
escutcheon pins, which add to the ornamental effect if properly
spaced. Holes for them must be drilled, or punched, through the
metal.
The Construction of the Jewelry Box Is Typical of the Others. The Handle is
Shown in Detail. The Nailing of the Bottom and the Fitting of the Lining are
Shown at the Right

The metal may be left smooth and polished, or hammered with the
round end of a ball-peen hammer, to produce the dented effect
shown on several of the boxes in the group. This, as well as other
finishing of the metal, must be done before it is fixed in place.
Beautiful colors may be given to the metal by heating it, and
observing the colors as they “run.” A trial will enable one to judge the
proper heat for the various colors, which “run” from a light straw to a
deep purple, with various reddish intermediate tones. A brown
oxidized finish, or a verd-antique—greenish—finish may also be
obtained. The metal should be polished with wax to preserve the
finish if other than the latter type is used.
The boxes are lined with silk or other suitable material. The
method is as follows: Cut cardboard pieces to fit against the inner
sides of the bottom, sides, and ends. Pad one side of them with
cotton batting, and cover with silk, gluing the edges of it on the back
of the cardboard, as shown in the sketch. By bending the pieces
slightly, they may be inserted and glued in place. Care must be taken
in handling the glue, that the silk is not soiled. Pads of felt, or
chamois skin, may be glued to the bottom of the feet of the box, so
as not to mar the surface upon which it rests.
The most popular boxes, which are especially suitable for gift
purposes, are the jewelry, glove, and handkerchief boxes. Their
dimensions are: jewelry box, 2³⁄₄ by 4 by 7¹⁄₂ in.; glove box, 3¹⁄₄ by 5
by 13 in.; handkerchief box, 4 by 6 by 10 in. Other sizes suited to
special purposes may, of course, be designed readily, and made in
walnut, mahogany, or other cabinet woods.
A Piano or Reading Lamp
By WILLIAM E. FINKERNAGEL
This Lamp of Substantial Construction and Pleasing Design may be
Made at Small Cost. The Pedestal Assembled is Shown at the Left and
Details of the Parts and of the Metal Frame for the Shade, Above
Thehand
lamp illustrated was designed for use in reading, the doing of
work at which one is seated in a chair away from a table
lamp, or for lighting a piano rack. It is light, readily moved about,
easily made, and of pleasing design. It combines construction in
wood and metal, is inexpensive, and within the range of a careful
amateur craftsman. The pedestal is shown assembled at the left,
and above are detailed sketches of the parts. The construction of the
shade, which is 18 in. square, is shown at the right. The central post
is 40 in. long and 2 in. square, and the base measures 16 in. on the
arms.
The stock bill for the lamp is as follows:
1 piece, 2 by 2 in., oak, for post.
2 pieces, 1 by 3 by 16 in., oak, for base.
1 piece, 1 by 6 by 6 in., oak, for cap.
1 piece, 1 by 4 by 4 in., oak, for column base.
1 piece, 1 by 2 by 3 in., oak, for braces.
Copper or brass strip, 1 in. wide and ³⁄₃₂ in. thick, for shade frame. Wire
braces for shade.

Make all the pieces, smoothing and finishing their surfaces with a
scraper, before assembling the parts. The cap A may be made first.
Square the piece to 6 in. and cut a ¹⁄₄-in. chamfer around the upper
edge. Cut the 2 by 3-in. block on one of its diagonals and smooth it
to form the braces B. Square the ends of the post C to a length of 40
in., and smooth up the sides. Square the column base D to 4 in. and
cut a ³⁄₁₆-in. chamfer around its upper side.
Square up and smooth the cross arms E and F, for the base, to a
width of 3 in. and a length of 16 in. Bevel the upper corners 1 in., at
an angle of 45°. Bore holes with a ¹⁄₂-in. bit to form the rounded ends
of the portions cut out from the lower sides of the cross braces.
Chisel the wood away between the holes and smooth the resulting
surfaces. The half-lap joint, by which the cross braces are joined,
may then be made. It should not be made until the lower portions are
cut out of the cross braces, and the remaining portions are made of
exactly the same width, 2¹⁄₂ in., according to the drawing. The joint
must be fitted tightly in what is termed a driving fit, or it will not be
strong enough.
The construction may be assembled as follows, although several
methods may be adopted that will prove satisfactory: Fix the cap A to
the top of the post with glue and ¹⁄₂-in. dowels, bored not quite
through the cap. Screws may be used for this purpose, but they mar
the finish of the upper surface of the cap. Glue the braces B into the
corners to support the cap. They should be warmed before applying
the glue and rubbed slightly to bring them into place tightly and to
distribute the glue evenly. Small brads may be used to nail them in
place, but care must be taken not to mar the finish.
The column base D may be fixed to the bottom of the post in the
same way that the cap was fixed at the upper end. The cross braces
E and F, forming the base, should be glued in the half-lap joint and
fixed to the column base with glue and dowels, or screws sunk into
sockets from the lower side of the braces.
When the glue has dried, the pedestal should be scraped and
cleaned preparatory to a final sandpapering before applying the stain
and varnish.
The arms G for the shade holder are made of strips of brass or
copper, 1 in. wide and 8³⁄₄ in. long, bent to the proper form, as shown
in the sketch. The straight end, 2 in. long, is provided with two holes
through which screws are fixed into the top of the cap.
The shade is constructed as follows: Make a 4-in. square, H, of
brass strip, 1 in. wide, and solder or rivet it at the joint. Make the
lower square J of the same material and in the same way, 18 in. on
each side. Solder ¹⁄₈-in. wire, of a length that will give the desired
slant to the shade, at the corners of the squares, forming a rigid
frame for the covering. Cloth or silk may be used to cover the frame.
The braces for the shade may then be fastened to the top of the
cap, as shown in the assembly sketch, and their ends shaped to hold
the frame firmly. The pedestal should be smoothed off immediately
preparatory to finishing, and the sharp edges removed slightly. Care
should be taken in sandpapering, since rubbing across the grain is
ruinous, as is too much sandpapering. The latter particularly smacks
of the novice. A coat of stain, one of filler rubbed in thoroughly, a
coat of shellac, and a finish coat of wax or varnish will give a
satisfactory finish. The shellac and varnish coats should be permitted
to dry thoroughly and should then be sandpapered lightly before
applying other coats.
The electrical connections for the lamp may be made from a cord
extension to a socket fixed in the center of the cap. In some
instances it may be desirable to connect the cord from a floor socket.
In that case the post should be built up of two pieces of 1-in.
thickness, and a groove to admit the cord made in the center of it.
 Sewing Rack Attached to Rocker

The Swinging Rack Folds under the Arm of the Chair When Not in Use
 A rack like that shown in the illustration is convenient as a support
for articles being sewed or repaired by the home worker. It was
made by fastening two bars from a towel rack to the arm of the
rocker by means of a bolt. When not in use, the bars are folded back
under the arm of the chair. One of the bars may be provided with
hooks so that scissors and other sewing requisites may be placed on
them.—Mrs. J. E. McCoy, Philadelphia, Pa.
 Glass Bottle as a Candle Lamp

A candle may be carried in a glass bottle, as shown in the sketch,

with little danger of setting fire to surrounding objects, and without
permitting the melted wax to leak upon the floor. The bottom of the
bottle is cut off and the candle inserted as shown, the neck affording
a convenient handle.—Stanley Radcliffe, Laurel, Md.
 A Folding Wall Desk

Tolimited,
provide an inexpensive desk in a shop, where space was quite
the folding wall desk shown in the sketch was devised. It
was cut from a packing box and the hinged lid built up of boards of
better quality. To give a good writing surface, a piece of heavy
cardboard was fastened to the writing bed with thumb tacks and may
be renewed whenever necessary. The inside of the desk was fitted
with filing compartments arranged to care for a large variety of shop
forms and stationery. An inkwell holder made of a strip of sheet metal
was fixed to the end of the desk and the bottle suspended in it, there
being space for additional bottles also. The hinged lid is provided
with a hasp and padlock. When not in use the desk may be tilted
upward and locked against the wall with small catches. By using a T-
square against the left edge of the writing bed, a convenient drafting
table for shop sketching is provided.
 Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 4
Fig. 5 Fig. 3

The Packing Box from Which the Desk was Made is Shown in Fig. 1. The
Dotted Lines Indicate Where It was Cut to Give the Slanting Writing
Surface. The Device in Its Normal Position is Shown in Fig. 2; Hooked
against the Wall, in Fig. 3, and with the Lid Raised, Showing the
Compartments, in Fig. 5.
 The detailed construction, for the making of the desk from stock
lumber, by boys, or amateur workers with tools, may be carried out
as follows: Determine upon the size of the proposed desk.
Convenient dimensions are 30 in. long, 18 in. wide, 7 in. high at the
back, and 4 in. high at the front. Use ⁷⁄₈-in. soft wood; pine and
poplar are suitable. Cut and shape all the pieces before beginning
the assembling of the parts. The wood should be planed smooth and
may be sandpapered lightly when the construction is completed,
before applying a finish. A simple arrangement of the pieces so they
can be nailed together is that shown in the sketch, which was used
in making the box. First shape the pieces for the sides, 5¹⁄₄ in. wide
at the larger end, 2¹⁄₄ in. wide at the smaller, and 16¹⁄₄ in. long.
Clamp the boards together, or tack them with two wire nails while
shaping them, so that they will be exactly alike. Make a piece 5¹⁄₂ in.
wide and 30 in. long for the back, and one the same length and 2¹⁄₂
in. wide for the front. Nail them to the ends, as shown, permitting the
slight excess material to project over the upper edges of the
sidepieces. Trim off this extra stock with a plane so that the upper
surfaces of the front and back conform to the slant of the sidepieces.
Make a strip 4 in. wide for the upper edge of the desk, to which the
writing bed is hinged. Cut pieces for the bottom and nail them in
place.
Before nailing down the upper hinge strip the interior fittings
should be made. Use wood not thicker than ¹⁄₂ in., and fit the pieces
into place carefully, nailing them firmly through the outer faces of the
desk. A better method is to make the pigeonholes or compartments
with a piece of the thin stock on the ends of the partitions, so that the
compartments are built up as a unit and slid into the desk, no nails
being necessary to hold them.
The lid should be made of sound, dry stock and glued up of strips
about 3 in. wide, to prevent it from warping or twisting easily. If the
person making the desk has the necessary skill, it is best to fix a
strip, 2 in. wide, at each end of the writing bed, to hold the pieces
together and to keep the bed in shape.
 The holder for the inkwell is made of a 1-in. strip of metal, bent to
the shape shown in Fig. 4, and drilled to fit small screws. A can is
supported in the holder and the bottle rests in it.
The desk may be finished by painting it or giving it a coat of
shellac and one of varnish, either after it has been stained to match
adjoining woodwork, or in the natural color.