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Advances in Waste-to-­
Energy Technologies
Advances in Waste-to-­
Energy Technologies

Edited by
Rajeev Pratap Singh, Vishal Prasad, and
Barkha Vaish
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

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This book is dedicated to our parents and other family members.
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................xi
Editors..................................................................................................................... xiii
Contributors.............................................................................................................. xv

Chapter 1 Solid Waste: Characterization, Assessment, Monitoring, and

Remediation..........................................................................................1
Tansukh Barupal, Deepali Chittora, and Mukesh Meena

Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges in Sustainable Solid Waste Management:

Global and Asian Perspective.............................................................. 21
Agamuthu Pariathamby and Mehran Sanam Bhatti

Chapter 3 Cairo’s Zabaleen Garbage Collectors: Sustainable Practices and

the Right to Waste Resources.............................................................. 41
Wael Fahmi

Chapter 4 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Two Cities of Palestine:

A Comparative Study.......................................................................... 63
Ammar Al-Khateeb, Issam A. Al-Khatib, Majed I. Al-Sari, and
Fathi Anayah

Chapter 5 3E (Energy, Economic, and Environmental) Analysis of Waste

Management Strategies....................................................................... 81
Laith A. Hadidi and Qusay Mhmoud ALTamimi

Chapter 6 Biological Treatment of Waste: An Overview.................................... 95

Andleeb Zehra, R. S. Upadhyay, and Akbar Ahmad

Chapter 7 Biological Systems of Waste Management and Treatment............... 115

Rym Salah-Tazdaït and Djaber Tazdaït

Chapter 8 Biogas Potential From Cabbage and Lettuce Residuals: Effect

of Organic Load and Co-digestion.................................................... 131
Spyridon Achinas

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 9 Hydrothermal Liquefaction: A Sustainable Solution to the

Sewage Sludge Disposal Problem..................................................... 143
Saqib Sohail Toor, Federica Conti, Ayaz Ali Shah, Tahir
Hussain Seehar, and Lasse Aistrup Rosendahl

Chapter 10 GIS Spatial Distribution of Industrial Hazardous Wastes:

A Case Study from Hebron City, Palestine....................................... 165
Maher Al-Jabari, Mai Anati, Nancy Arman, Ghaydaa
Shakarnah, Doaa Natsheh, and Issam Al-Khatib

Chapter 11 Opportunities for Sustainable Energy Future by Integrating

Biotechnological Approaches............................................................ 179
Ana Carolina Maia Angelo and Lino Guimarães Marujo

Chapter 12 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Approach to Evaluate Different

Waste Management Opportunities.................................................... 195
Ashkan Nabavi-Pelesaraei, Ali Kaab, Fatemeh Hosseini-
Fashami, Fatemeh Mostashari-Rad, and Kwok-Wing Chau

Chapter 13 Life Cycle Assessment: Methods and Opportunities........................ 217

Lineker Max Goulart Coelho and Liséte Celina Lange

Chapter 14 LCA of a Representative Municipal Effluent Treatment Plant:

Comparative Evaluation of Activated Sludge Versus Membrane
Bio-reactor Processes........................................................................ 235
Saurabh N. Joglekar, Pratik D. Solankey, Sachin A.
Mandavgane, and Bhaskar D. Kulkarni

Chapter 15 Composting and Anaerobic Digestion of Organic Urban

Waste: A Systematic Literature Review of Life Cycle
Assessment Case Studies.................................................................. 249
Eliana Mancini, Ioannis Arzoumanidis, and Andrea Raggi

Index....................................................................................................................... 265
Preface
Continuous increase in the human population, indiscriminate growth of urban cities,
industrialization, and agricultural practices have led to an increased accumulation of
solid organic waste materials in the environment. Owing to the enormous amount of
solid waste, its management is currently a major worldwide issue, reaching critical
levels in numerous areas of the world. Many developing countries and countries in
transition still miss basic waste management infrastructure and awareness. Owing
to this, numerous solid waste management problems and challenges are currently
being faced. As such, different waste-to-energy (WTE) conversion technology and/
or integrated with modern biotechnological approaches consists of a proven and
continuously developing spectrum in a number of (mostly) developed countries.
However, its integration in developing countries and systems in transition is often
faced with skepticism and a complex set of barriers which are quite unique and dif-
fer greatly from those where modern waste management practices, WTE conversion
technologies and/or integrated with biotechnology has been validated and applied
over the years. Advances in Waste to Energy Technologies addresses this issue both
theoretically and using concrete examples, including: contributions from numerous
scholars and practitioners in the field; useful lessons and rules of thumb; real-life
examples and developments. This book covers in detail about solid waste manage-
ment practices and technologies for converting traditionally landfilled solid wastes
into energy through recent advances in biotechnological projects. Modern WTE
plants are being built around the world to reduce the levels of solid waste going into
landfill sites and thus contribute to renewable energy and carbon reduction targets.
Integrating environmental biotechnology is also a way to deal with these changes
and can assist to restore environmental quality. The advantage of environmental
biotechnology methods comes from their evolution resulting in biological systems
that are more efficient than other methods, produce less secondary waste and use
less energy. Biotechnology has a key role in removing organic solids from waste-
water and is also used to control the remaining contaminants, such as phosphorous
and nitrogen from fertilizers that are discharged into rivers where these chemicals
disrupt the delicate ecological balance. With a discussion of cases around the world,
this book provides an insight into the global challenges that are being faced during
planning and implementing solid waste management programs. This book builds
upon this locus with an original approach based on considering modern integra-
tive tools for analyzing and curbing the menace of solid waste. This book will give
the readers a comprehensive, bird’s-eye view of the numerous waste management
practices and methods for recovering resources from waste by combining several
available approaches individually, as well as through integration. This book will
further prove to provide a critical resource for those involved in cross-disciplinary
and trans-disciplinary research programs and educational courses.

ix
Acknowledgments
The editors are eternally grateful to all the contributing authors for their valuable
contribution in the form of chapters focusing on current solid waste management
practices and technologies for converting traditionally landfilled solid wastes into
energy through advances in biotechnological approaches. We would like to extend
our sincere gratitude to all the reviewers who provided their insightful suggestions in
improving the quality, coherence, and content presentation of the chapters. We would
also like to express our special thanks to all the members of the Editorial Advisory
Board for their guidance and support in the compilation of this book.
The editors are extremely grateful to the Director, Dean and Head, Department
of Environment and Sustainable Development, Institute of Environment and
Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, for their constant
support and encouragement.

Rajeev Pratap Singh, Vishal Prasad, and Barkha Vaish

Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi, India

xi
Editors
Dr. Rajeev Pratap Singh is an assistant ­professor
at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu University
(India), and has completed his Ph.D. from Banaras
Hindu University, India. His major research
­interests are – solid waste management, bio-
composting, and green technologies. He has
received several International awards, including
the “Green Talent” award from Federal Ministry
of Education and Research (BMBF), Germany;
Prosper.Net Scopus Young Scientist award, DST
Young Scientist Award, etc. Dr. Singh is serving
as a member of the reviewer and editorial team of
several important scientific journals. Also, Dr. Singh has co-authored 5 books and
more than 40 highly cited research and review articles on solid waste manage-
ment. Dr. Singh also availed Water Advanced Research and Innovation (WARI)
Fellowship, a fellowship ­supported by the Department of Science and Technology
(DST), Govt. of India, the Indo-US Science and Technology Forum (IUSSTF),
University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) and the Robert Daugherty Water for Food
Institute (DWFI).

Dr. Vishal Prasad, working as assistant ­professor

in the Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Development, Banaras Hindu University, is work-
ing in the area of microorganisms mediated man-
agement of environmental problems. Management
of organic solid waste is one of his areas of concern
and work on beneficial microbes producing useful
products from such waste using potential biotech-
nological tools is being carried out. Dr. Prasad is
a member of several scientific societies and also
serves as a reviewer and member of several scien-
tific journals.

xiii
xiv Editors

Ms. Barkha Vaish is working as a CSIR-SRF,

at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India. Ms. Vaish has done her M.Sc. in
Environmental Science from Babasaheb Bhimrao
Ambedkar University (a central university) and
is pursuing her Ph.D. at IESD, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India. She is a budding
researcher devoted to the field of waste-to-energy
conversion technologies, solid waste management,
and sustainable agricultural practices.
Contributors
Spyridon Achinas
Faculty of Science and Engineering
University of Groningen
Nijenborgh, Groningen, the Netherlands
Akbar Ahmad
Department of Electrical Engineering
K. K. Wagh Institute of Engineering,
Education and Research
Nasik, Maharashtra, India
Ayaz Ali Shah
Department of Energy Technology
Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
Maher Al-Jabari
Department of Environmental
Engineering Technology
Palestine Polytechnic University
Hebron, Palestine
Ammar Al-Khateeb
Faculty of Graduate Studies
Birzeit University
Birzeit, West Bank, Palestine
Issam A. Al-Khatib
Institute of Environmental and Water
Studies, Birzeit University
Birzeit, West Bank, Palestine
Majed I. Al-Sari
Universal Institute of Applied and
Health Research
Nablus, West Bank, Palestine
and
The Joint Services Council for Solid
Waste Management for Hebron and
Bethlehem Governorate (JSC-H&B)
Hebron, Palestine
Qusay Mhmoud ALTamimi
Department of Engineering
Management
King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Mai Anati
Department of Environmental
Engineering Technology
Palestine Polytechnic University
Hebron, Palestine
Fathi Anayah
College of Engineering and Technology
Palestine Technical University –
Kadoorie (PTUK)
Tulkarm, Palestine
Ana Carolina Maia Angelo
Industrial Engineering Department,
EEIMVR/UFF
Fluminense Federal University – UFF
Volta Redonda, Brazil
Nancy Arman
Department of Environmental
Engineering Technology
Palestine Polytechnic University
Hebron, Palestine
Ioannis Arzoumanidis
Department of Economic Studies
University “G. d’Annunzio”
Pescara, Italy
Tansukh Barupal
Department of Botany
Mohanlal Sukhadia University
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
xv
xvi
Mehran Sanam Bhatti
Faculty of Science
Institute of Biological Sciences
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Kwok-Wing Chau
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Deepali Chittora
Department of Botany
Mohanlal Sukhadia University
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Lineker Max Goulart Coelho
Department of Civil Engineering
Centro Federal de Educação
Tecnológica de Minas
Gerais – CEFET-MG
and
Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais – UFMG
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Federica Conti
Department of Energy Technology
Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
Wael Fahmi
Department of Urbanism
Helwan University
Helwan, Cairo Governorate, Egypt
Laith A. Hadidi
Department of Engineering
Management
King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Contributors
Fatemeh Hosseini-Fashami
Department of Mechanics of Biosystem
Engineering
Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Resources University
Sari, Iran
Saurabh N. Joglekar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Laxminarayan Institute of
Technology
Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Ali Kaab
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology
Department of Agricultural Machinery
Engineering
University of Tehran
Karaj, Iran
Bhaskar D. Kulkarni
Chemical Engineering
CSIR- National Chemical
Laboratory
Pune, Maharashtra, India
Liséte Celina Lange
School of Engineering
Department of Sanitary and
Environmental Engineering
Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais – UFMG
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Eliana Mancini
Department of Economic Studies
University “G. d’Annunzio”
Pescara, Italy
Sachin A. Mandavgane
Department of Chemical
Engineering
Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Technology
Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
Contributors xvii

Lino Guimarães Marujo Andrea Raggi

Production Engineering Program Department of Economic Studies
Federal University of University “G. d’Annunzio”
Rio de Janeiro – COPPE/UFRJ Pescara, Italy
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Lasse Aistrup Rosendahl
Mukesh Meena Department of Energy Technology
Department of Botany Aalborg University
Mohanlal Sukhadia University Aalborg, Denmark
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Rym Salah-Tazdaït
Fatemeh Mostashari-Rad Faculty of Biological and Agronomical
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences Sciences
Department of Agricultural Department of Biochemistry and
Biotechnology Microbiology
University of Guilan Mouloud Mammeri University of
Rasht, Iran Tizi-Ouzou
Hasnaoua, Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria
Ashkan Nabavi-Pelesaraei
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering Tahir Hussain Seehar
and Technology Department of Energy Technology
Department of Agricultural Machinery Aalborg University
Engineering Aalborg, Denmark
University of Tehran
Karaj, Iran Ghaydaa Shakarnah
and Department of Environmental
Coordination Affairs Expert Engineering Technology
Management of Fruit and Palestine Polytechnic University
Vegetables Organizations Hebron, Palestine
Tehran Municipality
Tehran, Iran Pratik D. Solankey
Department of Chemical Engineering
Doaa Natsheh Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Department of Environmental Technology
Engineering Technology Nagpur, India
Palestine Polytechnic University
Hebron, Palestine Djaber Tazdaït
Faculty of Biological and
Agamuthu Pariathamby Agronomical Sciences
Faculty of Science, Institute of Department of Biochemistry and
Biological Sciences Microbiology
and Mouloud Mammeri University of
Faculty of Science, Center for Research Tizi-Ouzou
in Waste Management Hasnaoua, Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
xviii Contributors

Saqib Sohail Toor Andleeb Zehra

Department of Energy Technology Laboratory of Mycopathology and
Aalborg University Microbial Technology
Aalborg, Denmark Department of Botany
Banaras Hindu University
R. S. Upadhyay Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Laboratory of Mycopathology and
Microbial Technology
Department of Botany
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
 1 Characterization,
Solid Waste

Assessment, Monitoring,
and Remediation
Tansukh Barupal, Deepali Chittora, and
Mukesh Meena*
Mohanlal Sukhadia University

CONTENTS
1.1 I ntroduction.......................................................................................................1
1.2 Solid Waste Characterization............................................................................3
1.2.1 Composition and Properties..................................................................3
1.2.2 Generation and Storage..........................................................................3
1.3 Assessment of Solid Waste................................................................................4
1.4 Objectives of Solid Waste Management Assessment........................................ 8
1.5 Monitoring of Solid Waste.................................................................................8
1.5.1 Tracking and Monitoring Solid Waste – Municipal
Corporation Chandigarh��������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
1.6 Solid Waste: Remediation................................................................................ 11
1.7 Discussion and Conclusion.............................................................................. 14
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 15
Conflict of Interest Statement................................................................................... 15
Author Contributions................................................................................................ 15
References................................................................................................................. 16

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Solid waste may be defined as any solid matter which is discarded as no longer
useful in financial aspects. Solid waste includes any garbage (food waste and other
degradable organic wastes), rubbish (combustible and non-combustible solid wastes),
refuse (both garbage and rubbish), litters (paper bits, discarded wrappings, bottles,
etc.), water supply treatment plant, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, or air
­pollution control facility and other discarded materials (Tchobanoglous & Kreith,
2002). The sources of solid waste incorporate residential, institutional, commercial,

* Email address: mukeshmeenamlsu@gmail.com; drmukeshmeena321@mlsu.ac.in

1
2 Advances in Waste-to-Energy Technologies

TABLE 1.1
Various Types of Solid Waste
Solid Waste
Municipal Solid Waste
Construction
Domestic Waste Commercial Waste Industrial Waste Waste Special Waste
• Household • Bulky waste • Bulky waste • Demolition • Animal
• Bulky waste • Shops, Offices, • Industrial waste carcasses
• Institutional Hotels, activities • Excavation • Abattoir waste
(Schools, Non-government • Textile mills waste • Asbestos
Government markets, etc. • Food processing • Renovation • Chemical
offices, • Hospitals waste industries works waste waste
Government • Restaurants • Dairy industries • Road works • Clinical waste
markets, etc.) waste • Slaughterhouses waste • Stabilized
• Public • Veterinary • Paper waste • Site clearance residue
cleansing clinics waste • Leather waste waste • Dredged mud
• Animals bones • Building and excavated
waste materials materials
• Wool waste (Insulation, • Condemned
• Synthetic fibers Nails, Paint goods
waste thinners, • Livestock
• Glass objects Electrical waste
waste wiring, Rebar, • Sewage
• Silver foil waste Wood, Plaster, treatment and
• Plastics waste Scrap metal, waterworks
• Radioactive Cement, • Sewage works
wastes Bricks, screenings
• Fly ash waste Strippers, etc.) • Waste tyres
• Gypsum waste • Dredging • Furnace
materials bottom ash
• (Tree stumps, • Pulverized
rubble, dirt, fuel ash
rocks, etc.)

industrial, mining, agricultural operations, and community activities (Table 1.1).

Solid waste, if it is not handled properly, is the source of land, water, and air pollution.
The municipal authority should accomplish a critical appraisal of the present
­situation of the solid waste management in the city as per the appropriate National,
State, and Local level guidelines, rules, policies, and strategies for Municipal Solid
Waste Management (Shah & Shah, 2019). Other measures of the assessment con-
sider the waste quantification and characterization. This is essential as quantities
and compositions of waste differ widely. The assessment should strongly identify the
deficiencies (lacks)/gaps (holes) that are essentially to be linked to encounter authen-
tic requirements (Ahluwalia & Patel, 2018). Gaps in regard to human resources,
infrastructure, institutional capacity, and inclusiveness in service provision, ­financial
resources, conductive regulatory framework, land availability, stakeholder willing-
ness, awareness levels, availability of essential data, and IEC (Information, Education,
Characterize, Assess, Monitor, Remediate SW 3

and Communication) needs of the community should also be identified. The monitor-
ing programs permitted for a solid waste competence must be accomplished to detect
any changes in the area of the solid waste facility (Sharma et al., 2019). Biological
processing of solid waste is well-organized by the manner of composting (Yerraboina
et al., 2018). This remediation process may be recycled for many further purposes
such as plant nutrient, soil stabilization, or soil amendment for recovery of poor soils.
This article includes the characterization, assessment, monitoring, and remediation
of solid waste through various aspects.

1.2 SOLID WASTE CHARACTERIZATION

1.2.1 Composition and Properties
Solid wastes are classified as hazardous and non-hazardous. Hazardous wastes are
categorized on the basis of their physical, biological, and chemical properties. It
includes poisons, corrosive wastes (alkaline or strong acidic substances), and infec-
tious wastes including used hypodermic needles, bandages, and other resources from
biological research facilities or hospitals, as well as some industrial and radioac-
tive waste. All non-hazardous solid wastes of a community that requires collection
and transport to dealing out or dumping site are called municipal solid waste or
refuse. Refuse includes rubbish and garbage and is mostly dry material such as glass,
clothes, paper, or wood. Garbage is generally decomposable food waste. It is highly
decomposable or putrescible as compared to rubbish. Trash is equivalent to rubbish
that comprises bulky items such as old refrigerators, couches, or large tree stumps.
Another type of solid waste in many developed countries is e-waste or electronic waste,
which includes discarded electrical appliances, computer equipment, mobile phones,
­televisions, alarm clocks, telephones watches, and various other electronic devices
(Table 1.2). (www.britannica.com/technology/solid-waste-management#ref593297).

1.2.2 Generation and Storage

The amount of solid waste is expanding due to economic growth and rapid urbaniza-
tion (Ilyas et al., 2017). Solid waste generation is affected by various factors such
as geographical conditions, seasons, collection repetition, cycle of utilizing kitchen
sustenance waste, on location handling, economic conditions, laws on waste man-
agement, local culture and convictions, population development, climate conditions,
and size of households (Abdoli et al., 2012; Safari, 2013). It appears that the rate
of solid waste generation is very different in socioeconomic groups, and the extent
of household salary and the quantity of family individuals are significant factors
(Senzige et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2016). In the United States, for instance, municipal
refuse is produced at an average rate of approximately 2 kg (4.4 lb) per individual
per day. Japan generates roughly half this amount, yet in Canada the rate is 3 kg
(approximately 7 lb) per individual per day. In some developing countries (e.g., India)
the average rate of solid waste generation per day can be lower than 0.5 kg (1 lb) per
individual. These data include refuse from commercial, industrial, and institutional
as well as residential sources. The actual rates of refuse generation must be carefully
determined when a community makes a solid waste management project.
4 Advances in Waste-to-Energy Technologies

TABLE 1.2
Devices Used in Solid Waste Disposal Monitoring System
Equipment/Device
GPS Device
RFID Tag
RFID Tag
RFID Readers/Antenna
GPS enabled Hand Held
Device/Personal Assistance
Device (PDA) with a position
identification feature
Bluetooth Printer
Fitted On
Auto trippers and trucks
Loaders and trucks
Dhalao Ghar/dust bin/open
site
Entry/exit points of vehicle
parking depot and on
weighbridge of secured
landfill facility (SLF)
Loaders
Loaders
Purpose
To continuously update the location of
these vehicles and help in the
identification and reduction of
malpractices
To have a unique identification for each
of these and help in monitoring entry
and exit of this vehicle from the depot
To have a unique identification
To read RFID tags installed on the
vehicle
To read RFID tags installed on Dhalao
Ghar/dustbin/open site and take
snapshots and update the location of
loader vehicles when necessary
To print receipt

Most communities require domestic refuse to be stored in durable, easily cleaned

containers with tight-fitting covers in order to diminish rodent or insect infestation
as well as offensive odors. Plastic containers or galvanized metal of about 115-L
(30-gallon) capacity are commonly used, while certain communities employ bigger
containers that can be mechanically lifted and emptied into collection trucks. Plastic
bags are frequently used as liners or as disposable containers for curbside collection.
Where massive quantities of refuse are generated, such as hotels, shopping centers,
or apartment buildings—dumpsters may be used for temporary storage until the
waste is collected. Some office and commercial buildings use on-site compactors to
decrease the waste volume (Jerry A Nathanson: www.britannica.com/technology/
solid-waste-management#ref593297).

1.3 ASSESSMENT OF SOLID WASTE

The assessment of solid waste is carried out during the construction step. This
process needs an evaluation of the quantities and amount of excavated materials
and waste which will require disposal in a correct and environmentally acceptable
method. Formalized assessment tools provide a comprehensive method for data col-
lection, analysis, and help to ensure an ordered way of thinking. Furthermore, by
using an organized and clear methodology they can ensure scientific objectivity,
reproducibility, and replicability in forecasting research (Zurbrügg et al., 2014).
Two main reasons can be recognized for further developing assessment m ­ ethods
for decision support: (1) Well-defined assessment method using existing cases can
Characterize, Assess, Monitor, Remediate SW 5

help evaluate their performance and impact. (2) Using assessments for prospective
analysis of project scenarios can help evaluate and compare alternative options; these
are financing models, technical elements, and organizational setups.
Common factors regarding the management of solid waste include rising quanti-
ties and increasing types of waste produced by the current patterns of consumption
in all economic sectors. The goals of sustainable solid waste management are to
preserve the health of living beings and maintain an ecological balance for the con-
servation of resources. The attainment of these goals needs decision makers for the
application of integrated strategies. It contains a multitude of connected processes,
such as assortment, treatment, transportation, recycling, and disposal (Allesch &
Brunner, 2014). Decision makers work under two groups, the first one are under a
force of different stakeholder groups that ask for more sustainability, advanced tech-
nologies, or for cheaper waste management (Wilson et al., 2007). The second one is
that the decision makers experience the methodological problem in the choice of the
evaluation tool to assess present and new waste administration. This problem may
challenge the diverse approaches that promise and support strategic or policy deci-
sions for the planning of waste management and for optimization of waste manage-
ment on all levels (companies, municipalities, and governments) (Finnveden et al.,
2007). Decision support models were first applied to waste management in the late
1960s (Karmperis et al., 2013; Allesch & Brunner, 2014).
Recently published assessment methods are relatively advanced and sophisticated
because waste management is considered a strategic sector of public service (Coelho
et al., 2012). The goal is to provide sustainability as a balance between society, econ-
omy, and ecology. Hence, for an evaluation of the many effects of waste management
systems, it is necessary to consider all of the existing assessment methods and pro-
cesses (Diaz & Warith, 2006). However, new approaches have also been developed
to evaluate waste management systems, and often, existing assessment methods have
been modified or supplemented (Table 1.3).
The main purpose of assessment is to assess the impacts of waste management on
air, soil, and water, as well as on the utilization of resource (Su et al., 2010). These stud-
ies using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology for an assessment often e­ valuate
environmental impacts by examining the following categories: global ­warming poten-
tial; stratospheric ozone depletion; acidification; terrestrial e­ utrophication; aquatic
eutrophication; photochemical ozone formation; human toxicity; and e­ cotoxicity.
To categorize the reviewed studies depending on the economic, environmental, and
social impacts, a modified classification of the “Impact Assessment Guidelines” that
was provided by the European Commission (2009) was used (Table 1.4).
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report involves an assessment of
the potential impacts of the environment from solid and building waste streams
(Peirce et al., 1998). The disposal strategy is based upon the principle of waste man-
agement, reducing the amount of final disposal through the development of outlined
plans for waste avoidance, material re-use, and recycling. Most of the burrowing
and residual wastes may impact during their handling, temporary supply or storage
on site, moving and final dumping of disposal. The main aim of this waste man-
agement assessment is to find out the kind of, and wherever possible, estimate the
quantities of all solid waste that was generated. Furthermore, disposal handling and
6 Advances in Waste-to-Energy Technologies

TABLE 1.3
Detail of the Reviewed and Modified Assessment Methods
Assessment Methods Description References
Bench marking Benchmarking is a repeated evaluation and comparison Gabler (2014)
of products, services, methods, or processes to identify
performance gaps, with the goals to learn from the best
and to note out possible improvements.
Cost-benefit analysis The essential hypothetical fundamentals of CBA are Pearce et al. (2006)
(CBA) defining profit as increases in human welfare utility and
cost as a decrease in human health. All remuneration is
converted to financial units.
Cost-effectiveness CEA assess substitute according to both their cost and Levin and McEwan
analysis (CEA) some outcome. CEA allows the consideration of (2000)
intangible effects.
Eco-efficiency Eco-efficiency analysis (Eco-Eff) indicates the Saling et al. (2002)
analysis (Eco-Eff) ecological optimization of overall systems while
regarding economic factors. The Eco-Eff analysis by
BASF quantifies the sustainability of goods and
processes, considering the environmental impacts and
financial data relating to a business or national
economic level.
Emergy analysis (EA) Emergy is the total amount of available energy that is Song et al. (2012);
used up in conversion, directly and indirectly for a Yuan et al. (2011)
service or product. The EA is an assessment method
that considers both environmental and economic values.
Environmental impact EIA is a process that has to be performed earlier than Peirce et al. (1998)
assessment (EIA) approval is given to a project. Significant effects on the
environment by virtue, interior, of their nature, size, or
site are made subject to a necessity for development
consent and for an assessment concerning their effects
(Directive 2011/92/EC).
Exergy analysis The exergy method evaluates the qualitative change from Hiraki and Akiyama
the available energy to the unusable one in the form of (2009)
work.
Life cycle assessment LCA addresses the natural aspects and latent ISO (2006)
(LCA) environmental impacts all over a product’s life cycle,
from raw material possession through fabrication, use,
end-of-life treatment, recycling, and final discarding.
Life cycle costing LCC is an economic analysis method in combination. It Carlsson Reich
(LCC) works in combination with LCA. This method is a key (2005); Langdon
for accounting the total costs of manufactured goods or (2007)
service over a long life period.
Multi-criteria- MCDM is a decision-making tool to facilitate choosing Hermann et al.
decision-making the best option among different alternatives. This tool (2007); Hung et al.
(MCDM) assesses trouble by comparing and standing different (2007); Karmperis
options and by evaluating their consequences according et al. (2013)
to the criteria recognized.
(Continued)
Characterize, Assess, Monitor, Remediate SW 7

TABLE 1.3 (Continued)

Detail of the Reviewed and Modified Assessment Methods
Assessment Methods Description References
Risk assessment (RA) RA is an essential part of the overall organization’s ISO (2009)
presentation assessment and measurement system for
departments and for persons. The goal is to provide an
inclusive, fully distinct, and fully accepted
responsibility for risks.
Strategic The SEA is a scheme that quantifies the power of a Rechberger and
environmental scheme to concentrate or to dilute substances. SEA is Brunner (2002);
assessment (SEA) a method to provide a high level of protection to the Brunner and
ecosystem and to contribute to the incorporation of Rechberger (2004)
environmental considerations into the preparation and
acceptance of strategy and programs, with an
objective to promote sustainable growth through
ensuring that an environmental assessment of certain
strategy and programs, which are likely to have
important effects on the environment, is carried out
(Directive 2001/42/EC).

TABLE 1.4
Economic, Environmental, and Social Impacts of Waste Management, Based
on European Commission (2009)
Economic Impacts
The function of the internal
market
Investment costs
Operating costs
Administrative burdens
Public authorities
Property rights innovation
and research
Consumers and households
Economic effects on
industry and business
Environment Impacts
Climate
Energy
Air quality
Biodiversity, flora, fauna,
and landscapes
Water quality and resources
Soil quality or resources
Renewable or non-renewable
resources
Environmental consequences
of firms and consumers
Likelihood or scale of
environmental risks
Animal welfare
Social Impacts
Employment and labor markets
Social inclusion and protection of
particular groups
Non-discrimination
Individuals, private and family life,
personal data
Governance, participation, good
administration, access to justice, media,
and ethics
Public health and safety
Security
Access to and effects on social
protection, health, and educational
systems
Culture
8 Advances in Waste-to-Energy Technologies

deactivation of potential waste by laboratory workers are also factors to consider

in order to c­ onclude the most appropriate methods of treatment. Wastes generated
through these operational phases have also been considered within this assessment.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSESSMENT

The assessment of solid waste management has been carried out in accordance
with the settled methodology offered in the Working research Paper WP II – EIA
Methodology and Assessment Report.
The overall objectives for the solid waste management assessment are s­ ummarized
below:
(1) To assess the construction actions concerned for the planned job and
­determine the type, nature, feasibility, and estimation of the amount of waste to
be generated. (2) To identify any possible ecological hazard from the creation of
waste associated with the works. (3) To sort waste materials on the basis of practical
suitability for recycling, discarding to public filling areas, dumping to landfill, and
any pre-­treatment requirements prior to disposal. (4) To suggest appropriate waste
management selection processes including waste minimization on-site, recycling
opportunities, and off-site disposal options. (5) To identify the site of administration
and measures that should be implemented to minimize any potential impacts from
the generation, handling, storage and disposal routings of waste, in accordance with
the current legislative and administrative requirements, and (6) To assess handling
and discarding necessity of bentonite slurries in accordance with the Practice Note
for Professional Persons ProPECC PN 1/94.

1.5 MONITORING OF SOLID WASTE

In many countries, a solid waste related problem is the most severe environmental
issue (Hassan et al., 2000). Necessities of solid waste monitoring are determined
by the design of the facility and the type of waste received. Solid waste disposal
facilities are well designed and operated to prevent the release of contaminants (haz-
ardous microbes) to the environment that may impact individuals’ and ecological
health. Monitoring programs are constructed to evaluate the efficacy of these efforts
and should be conducted with care to ensure that all information is provided to make
informed management and regulatory decisions (Sharma et al., 2019).
Several other issues that have received extensive public attention are the smog
and air emissions. Haphazard dumping of toxic and dangerous wastes generated
anthropogenic issues, which raised susceptible issues both in terms of the magni-
tude and the value of the environment (World Bank, 1993). The solid waste planner,
monitor, and management require wide-ranging, reliable data, and information on
solid waste. However, the solid waste database is limited to managing the data by
individual local authorities or waste contractors (Latifah et al., 2009). In order to
deal with data management, advanced information technologies solutions such as
RFID, GPRS, and GPS must be utilized (Ali et al., 2012). Figure 1.1 displays the
solid waste monitoring via a web-based online system using GPS, GIS, GSM, and
HHT (Yerraboina et al., 2018).
Characterize, Assess, Monitor, Remediate SW 9

FIGURE 1.1 The solid waste monitoring via a web-based online system using GPS, GIS,
GSM, and HHT is shown.

The corporations of solid waste management have been focusing on advanced

technologies to solve a few problems related to solid waste collection. For example,
the municipality truck’s drivers may make a mistake or leave out some i­ nformation
due to a few factors such as the driver’s thoughts and tiredness. The main diffi-
culties of the existing solid waste collection process and management system are
summarized as follows (Hassan et al., 2000; Chandravathani, 2006; Ping & Yang,
2006): the absence of data about the gathering time and region; the absence of the
best possible framework for observing, monitoring, tracking the trucks and a waste
receptacle that has been collected in actual time; there is no evaluation for the assess-
ment of solid waste within the storage bin and the neighboring area appropriate for
dispersion of waste; there is no quick reaction to immediate cases like a truck acci-
dent, breakdown, longtime idling; there is no quick system to respond to the client’s
complaints about uncollected waste.
To resolve the problems, RFID, GPRS, and GPS technologies could be used to
decrease the driver’s workload and validate the position of the trucks (Johansson,
2006). These types of technologies used in the routing system are developed, which
ensures that the structure is realistic, worldwide, and with perfect function (Thomas,
2003; Padmapriya & Kumar, 2014). Besides, with the existing system, it is hard to
develop all the facilities in time. Solid waste monitoring and management need accu-
rate information to make a good decision. To stimulate all these services, an efficient
and forceful system is needed (Pardini et al., 2019).
The plan, “Tracking and Monitoring of Municipal Solid Waste” has been applied
with the objective of (1) Moving of garbage storage bins in a time-bound manner
from the different areas in the city. (2) Monitoring the moving garbage vehicle and
in turn tracking the lifting and transportation of municipal solid waste in the city.
(3) Reducing cost in terms of the amount of fuel consumed via reducing the number
10 Advances in Waste-to-Energy Technologies

FIGURE 1.2 The E-municipal solid waste disposal monitoring system is represented.

of visits to the vehicles. (4) A decrease in repair and maintenance of the vehicles, and
(5) Improving the satisfaction of the general public. Figure 1.2 shows the E-municipal
solid waste disposal monitoring system.
The challenge faced before the use of the project was to have a complete track of
the lifting and transportation of solid waste in the city. The challenge was to ensure
that the lifting should be carried out in a time-bound manner.

1.5.1 Tracking and Monitoring Solid Waste –

Municipal Corporation Chandigarh
A recent example is that of the Municipal Corporation of Chandigarh which has
started the monitoring of garbage storage bins with an online application. The appli-
cation of this advanced technology has been developed with the help of the National
Informatics Centre (NIC), Chandigarh, India. In this technology, unique identifica-
tion code numbers have been provided to bins, locations, drivers, and vehicles. Each
and every vehicle has been mapped to the locality assigned to it. Moreover, bins have
also been assigned a particular group of localities within the city. The Municipal
Corporation of Chandigarh has developed a channel of entry at the dumping ground,
wherein each and every dumper has to trace before taking the garbage to either the
processing plant or the dumping ground. The web-based online application is smart
enough to display the location of the bin from where it has been taken through the
existing database. The proposal has led to significant improvements in the lifting of
garbage bins in a well-timed manner. This has resulted in improvement of overall
cleanliness in the city (Rana et al., 2015).
Prior to the execution of this program, some of the drivers used to lift bins
­according to their convenience, while in some areas wastes were left. It was difficult
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