CURRICULUM GRADE 10 -12 DIRECTORATE

NCS (CAPS) SUPPORT

JUST IN TIME LEARNER SUPPORT DOCUMENT

GEOGRAPHY

TERM 2

GRADE 10

2022

1
 FOREWORD

This resource pack was prepared and completed by the KZN Provincial
Geography Subject Advisors. The intention is to prepare Grade 10 educators
and learners for the 2nd term - 2022. It is hoped that educators will find this
document useful for better learner performance in 2022 and that learners will
benefit by using this workbook.

The booklet comprises notes and informal activities that the educator will
need for the 2022 academic year from pages 4 – 43 the document deals with
the 2nd term work for Grade 10. It is suggested that educators use relevant
parts of the documents to enhance Teaching and Learning in the classroom.

Provincial Geography Subject Advisors are to be commended for their

contributions and cooperation during the preparation and production of this
booklet.

2
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. Cover Page 1

2. Foreword 2

3. Table of content 3

11. Lesson plans, Notes and assessment Activities 4-43

3
 GEOMORPHOLOGY
GRADE 10: TERM 2
WEEK: 1
MINDMAP:

Crust
Structure of the Earth
Mantle
Core
Sedimentary
Classification of rocks Metamorphic
Igneous

Plate tectonics Evidence

Asymmetrical
Geomorphology

Folding
Symmetrical
Overfold
Overt thrust
Normal
Reverse
Faulting
Transform
Parallel
Earthquakes

Volcanoes

4
TERMINOLOGY
Geomorphology Is the study of earth’s physical features and the processes that
Active volcano: formed them.
Volcano which still erupts.
Anticline: Upward fold
Batholith: Very large igneous intrusion which forms deep in the Earth’s crust.
Block Mountain/Horst: Block of land uplifted between two parallel faults.
Butte: Flat topped hill with a small top, eroded from a mesa
Cinders: Fine fragments of hardened lava
Continental Drift: Theory that continents were one landmass but have drifted apart
over time.
Continental Plate: Crust under land mass
Converging Boundaries: Plates moving towards each other.
Core: Central extremely hot layer of the Earth.
Crust: Outer layer of the earth.
Cuesta: Ridge with a gentle angle of 10° - 25°
Diverging Boundaries: Plates are moving apart.
Dormant volcano: Has not erupted for many years.
Dyke: Forms when magma intrudes vertically between layers of rock.
Earthquake: Vibration/shaking in earth’s crust.
Epicentre: Point on the Earth’s surface immediately above the focus of an
earthquake.
Erosion: The process of moving weathered material by wind, water, and ice.
Extinct volcano: Has stopped to erupt, scientists don’t expect it to erupt ever again.
Extrusive igneous rock: Rocks forming from lava on the surface of the Earth
Fault line: Line along the surface of the earth where a fault occurs.
Faulting: Cracks in rocks formed due to tension and compression forces.
Focus: Point in the earth’s crust where an earthquake begins.
Folding: Bending of rocks into folds due to strong compressional forces
from the side.
Fossils: Remains of a dead plant or animal which have been preserved in
rock.
Gondwanaland: Supercontinent.
Hogsback: Dipping strata of more than 45°.

5
Homoclinal Ridge: Angle of dipping strata 25° - 45°
Horizontal Strata: Sediments laid down in layers.
Igneous Rock: Forms when magma cools and solidifies

Inclined Strata: Landscape tilted at an angle

Intrusive igneous rock: Rocks forming from magma below the surface of the Earth.
(INSIDE the earth)
Laccolith: Mushroom shaped intrusion which forms when magma forces the
overlying strata upwards.
Lava: Liquid rock that flows on the surface of the Earth.
Lithosphere: The crust and upper part of the mantle.
Lopolith: Saucer shaped intrusion.
Magma: Rock in a liquid form inside the Earth.
Mantle: A hot plastic layer of the Earth located beneath the crust.
Mesa: Large, flat topped hill.
Metamorphic Rock: Rocks changed by heat or/and pressure.
Moho/ mohorovisic A boundary between earth’s crust and mantle
discontinuity
Oceanic Plate: Crust under sea mass
Plate boundary: The edge of a tectonic plate.
Plateau: Flat topped landform formed when horizontal strata was uplifted.
Rift Valley/Graben Block of land which slips down between parallel faults.
Rock cycle: Process that results in rocks to form by means of weathering and
erosion resulting in deposition of sediments and formation of new
rocks.
Sea floor spreading: Along middle of ocean ridges where new crust is being formed due
to volcanic activity.
Sedimentary Rock: Forms from layers of compressed sediments.
Sill: When magma intrudes horizontally between layers of rock along a
bedding plane.
Strata: The horizontal layers of sedimentary rock.
Syncline: Downward fold
Tectonic plate: Section of the Earth’s crust that can glides over the mantle.
Transforming: Plates slide/grind past one another in opposite directions.

6
Tsunami: Series of huge sea waves caused by an earthquake in the sea
floor.

Volcanic pipe: Deep vent which allows magma to rise to the crater of a volcano.
Weathering: The process of breaking down rocks into smaller stones, pebbles,
and sand.

7
WEEK: 1 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
You must study with these questions in mind.

What does it look like? What is it? Where is it?

Layers of the Earth Earth is made up of four distinct layers: Name the layers of the Earth in the following
• A solid outer crust diagram.
• A solid mantle
• A liquid outer core
• A solid inner core

THE CONTINENTAL CRUST:

The structure of the Earth resembles the layers
of an orange. The Moho is the boundary that
separates the crust from the mantle
• The outermost layer of solid rock, on
which we live.
• Thicker under the continents and thinner
under the oceans.
• Broken into smaller segments, called
plates, which float on the mantle.
Scan the QR quodes supplied in the
• It is 6-90 km thick (solid rock) summaries to see videos on the topic.
THE MANTLE:
• Beneath the crust.
• 2 900 km thick, consisting of hot, plastic
rock.
• Temperatures may reach up to 5 000˚C.

THE OUTER CORE:

• Very dense but liquid due to extremely
high temperatures.

8
• 2 250 km thick and consists of nickel (Ni)
and iron (Fe) known as NiFe.

THE INNER CORE:

• Is extremely hot.
• Solid because of extreme pressure.
• 1 200 km thick.

9
ACTIVITIES: INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

1.1 Study the illustration FIGURE 1.1 of the internal structure of the 1.2 Study FIGURE 1.2 and answer the following questions on the
earth below, structure of the Earth.
and answer the following questions.

1.1.1 Give the name of the layer at 2. 1.2.1 In what state does material in each of the layers labeled
A-D (4 x 1) (4)
1.1.2 Give the name of the layer at 3. 1.2.2 Name TWO layers of the Earth which are in solid form?
(2 x 1) (2)
1.1.3 Name the main rocks that are found in the following:
(a) sial (continental crust) 1.2.3 Which layer of the Earth experiences the highest
(b) sima (Oceanic crust temperature? Motivate your answer. (1 + 2)
1.1.4 Identify the layer of the earth that is in a semi-molten state. (3)
1.1.5 Name the layer inhabited by humans. 1.2.4
In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines discuss the
1.1.6 Identify the boundary that separates layer 1 and 2. (7 x 1) (7) characteristics of layer D that are important to sustain life
on earth. (4 x 2) (8)

10
WEEK: 2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Type 1. IGNEOUS
it look like?
What does
• From molten minerals
• Magma wells up from the
How do they form?
mantle
• Magma cools below or on top
of the Earth’s surface
• Deep cooling results in the
formation of crystals
• Fine to coarse crystalline rock
characteristics
What are the
• Made up of different minerals
• Jointed when exposed
?
• colorful
You must study with these questions in mind
2. SEDIMENTARY 3. METAMORPHIC
• From pre-existing rocks and sediments • Sedimentary and Igneous rocks that are
• Contains organic material
subjected to high temperatures and/or
• Weathered sediments are deposited by wind, pressure
ice and water • Physical and chemical changes take
• Material deposited in horizontal layers place
• Sediments are compressed over time and form • Folding and faulting exerts extreme
sedimentary rocks pressure
• Molten magma intrusions cause
extreme heat and pressure
• Layered in appearance • Brittle
• Coarse- or fine-grained texture • Streaky in appearance
• Can contain fossils
• Each layer is called a stratum
• Bedding plane separates different types of
rock
11
 • Basalt layer in the • Sandstone made from sediments • Sandstone becomes Quartzite
Examples

Drakensberg • Shale made from finer sediments • Granite becomes Gneiss

• Dolerite sills and dykes in the • Coal made from plant material • Shale becomes Slate
Karoo • Conglomerate made from larger pebbles • Limestone turns to Marble
• Granite domes cemented together
• Monuments / Tombstones • Dolomite for cement • Flooring
What are they

• Counter tops • Building blocks • Slate for roof tiles

used for?

• Floor covering • Source of crude oil and coal • Marble for statues
• Valuable minerals and ores
• Weathered rock produces
fertile soil

ACTIVITIES 2: CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

2.1 Match the following statements in Column A with the terms or 2.2. Complete the table below by indicating to which rock type,
examples in Column B. Write down only the question number Sedimentary, Igneous or Metamorphic, the statement refers to.
and correct letter. e.g. 2.1.8 P. 2.2.1 The rocks are made up different minerals.

Column A Column B
2.2.2 Rock formation which are used as flooring.
Rocks formed when magma
2.1.1 A Quartzite 2.2.3 There rocks are used for monuments and tombstones.
solidifies

This rock type occurs as layers or 2.2.4 Rock formation which is a source of crude oil and coal.
2.1.2 B Fossils
strata
Rocks formed when heat or 2.2.5 Statues are created from this rock type.
2.1.3 C Marble
pressure is added
2.2.6 The type of rock that is used as counter tops.

12
 Recognizable remains of plants and 2.2.7 The type of rocks used as building blocks.
2.1.4 D Metamorphic
animals preserved in rocks.
2.2.8 Builders use their rocks for roof tiles.
Granite change under heat and (8 x 1) (8)
2.1.5 E Gneiss
pressure to…

Sandstone change under heat and

2.1.6 F Igneous
pressure to …

Limestone turns to … under heat

2.1.7 L Sedimentary
and pressure

M Shale

(7 x 1) (7)

13
3.1 Read the case study “Paarl Rock” below and answer the 2.4 Study FIGURE 2.4 to answer the following questions.
following questions:
Case Study on the Paarl Rock
Paarl Rock or Paarl Mountain in the Western Mountain glistens
(shinning) like a diamond or a pearl in the Sun after the rain. Its
three granite domes are part of a huge underground granite intrusion
that extends from Saldanha in the north to George in the east.
Millions of years ago, Paarl Rock did not exist. Over time, the Berg
River, and wind and rain have exposed the rock and layers have
peeled off – a bit like the layers of an onion.
As a giant rock outcrop, Paarl Rock is often compared with Uluru (also
known as Ayers Rock) in Australia. Uluru means “Island mountain”
and it is the largest single rock in the world. But the geology of Paarl
Rock and Uluru is very different. Paarl Rock is an igneous intrusion,
while Uluru is a sedimentary remnant.

14
3.1.1 List the three major rock types that make up the earth’s crust (3 x 1) (3)
3.1.2 How can one distinguish between igneous rock and sedimentary rock with naked eye (2 x 2) (4)
3.1.3 Briefly explain how igneous rock and sedimentary rock can be changed into metamorphic rock (2 x 2) (4)
3.1.4 Outline how metamorphic rocks can be changed back into sedimentary rock (2 x 2) (4)
3.1.5 Give one way in which humans can make use of metamorphic rock (1 x 2) (2)

Refer to FIGURE 4

15
 4.1.1 Is the rock type visible in figure 4 metamorphic or sedimentary? Give evidence from figure 4 to support your answer (1 x 2) (2)
4.1.2 Explain what a fossil is? (1 x 2) (2)
4.1.3 Describe the process of formation of the type of rock identified in question 4.1.1 (1 x 2) (2)
4.1.4 Crude oil and coal forms over time in this rock type. Identify the original source from which crude oil and coal (2 x 2) (4)
respectively form

Figure 5.2

Google image

16
5.2.1 Refer to the diagram 5.2 showing world plate boundaries

5.2.1 What name did Alfred Wegener give to the one large supercontinent that existed before the continents broke up? (1 x 1) (1)
5.2 2 All the continents and adjacent water masses are divided into tectonic plates. What is a tectonic plate? (1 x 2) (2)
5.2.3 Name the plates found on either side of the boundary of South America? 2 x 1) (2)
5.2.4 Name this type of plate boundary (1 x 1) (1)
5.2.5 Briefly explain how the tectonics move. (1 x 2) (2)
5.2.6 Summarize, in a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines, evidence that scientists use to prove the continents of Africa, (4x 2) 8)
Antarctica and South America were once joined.

17
WEEK: 3 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

• Scientists believe that the earth was once a single supercontinent called Pangaea.
• This continent first split into two called Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the
south
• These further split into the continents as we see them today (North America and Asia
in the north, South America, Africa, India, Australia, Antarctica)
• This theory was postulated by the German called Alfred Wegner in 1912
• Scientists confirm that continents are still moving today and estimate of such
movements around 2 centimeters per annum.

18
DIAGRAM OVER TIME EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT

CONTINENTAL FIT
• Coastlines of South America and West Africa fit together like a jigsaw puzzle
• Rocks of similar age and sequence are found on both continents
• Mountain belts are the same on both continents
• Ore reserves match up across continents

FOSSIL MATCH
• Fossils of the same animals are found in South America and Africa,
• Some fossils are only found in Antarctica, India, South America, South Africa, and Australia
• Some of the fossils can only be found in Antarctica, India, and South Africa

SEA FLOOR SPREADING

• The age of the seafloor rocks is younger than the age of the continental rocks
• Ocean floor is new and is being added to on a regular basis
• Age of rocks on either side of the mid oceanic ridge mirror each other
• The youngest rocks are found closest to the ridges and the oldest rocks closest to the
continents
GLACIAL DEPOSITS
• Similar glacial deposits are found in Antarctica, Africa, South America, India, and Australia
• Glacial striations show the direction of movement from the continents

19
 CONVERGING DIVERGING TRANSFORMING
What is the plate boundary
types?

• Plates move towards each other
• One plate is forced beneath the other
into the mantle and melts
• Activities: Earthquakes and
volcanoes
• Plates move away from each other
• Molten material forced up from mantle
• Creates new crust
• Activities: Earthquakes and
volcanoes
• Plates move past each other
• No new crust is made or destroyed
• Conservative boundary
• Activities: Earthquakes

Activity 5
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

20
5.1.1 Who is the ‘’ father’’ of the continental drift theory? (1 x 1) (1)
5.1.2 Recall the large water mass that existed 250 million years ago (1 x 1) (1)
5.1.3 Name the large landmass that existed 250 million years ago. (1 x 1) (1)
5.1.4 Name the TWO landmasses found in the north and south respectively when this large landmass split. (2 x 1) (2)
5.1.5 Locate any TWO of the present-day continents that use to be part of Gondwanaland (2 x 1) (2)

21
WEEK 4 & 5: FOLDING AND FAULTING
You must study with these questions in mind
Type FOLDING FAULTING
WHAT IS THE
STRUCTURE

DIAGRAM TYPE TYPE OF STRESS? DIAGRAM TYPE TYPE OF

STRESS?
SYMMETRICAL Equal pressure from NORMAL Tension
both sides Hanging wall
drops relative
IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT TYPES

to foot wall
ASYMMETRICAL Pressure greater from REVERSE Compression
one side Hanging wall
Fold leans to one side is pushed up
over the
footwall

OVER FOLD Pressure even greater TRANSFORM Shear

on one side Movement in
One limb very steep the opposite
direction

OVER THRUST Pressure from one side PARALLEL Tension

results in a break in the
Earth’s crust

22
 Fold mountains: At these colliding,
LANDFORMS
compressing boundaries, rocks and
debris are warped and folded into
rocky outcrops, hills, mountains,
and entire mountain ranges.
23
Horst and Graben are always
formed together. Graben are
usually represented by low-lying
areas such as rifts and river
valleys whereas horsts
represent the ridges between or
on either side of these valleys.
ACTIVITIES: 6 FOLDING AND FAULTING

6.1 Study the illustration in FIGURE 6.1 showing different types of

folding that 6.2 Study FIGURE 6.2 and then answer the questions that follow.
can occur if crustal layers of the earth bend or fold.

6.1.1 Which letter on the diagram represents an over thrust fold? 6.2.1 Name the fault labelled A.
(1 x 1) (1)
6.1.2 Write the letter on the diagram which represents an over fold. 6.2.2 Recall the part of the fault labelled B.
(1 x 1) (1)
6.1.3 Which letter represents an asymmetrical fold? 6.2.3 State the feature labelled C.
(1 x 1) (1)
6.1.4 The force which forms folds is (compressional / tensional). 6.2.4 Identify the land formation illustrated at D on the diagram.
(1 x 1) (1)
6.1.5 The part of the fold indicated by letter ‘A’ represents a/an 6.2.5 Give TWO use of the landform labelled D.
(anticline / syncline). (2 x 2) (4)

6.1.6 Find the letter which indicates the fault line? 6.2.6 Differentiate between feature C and D
(2 x 2) (4)
6.1.7 A Monocline is indicated by letter …
(7 x 1) (7)

24
The East African Rift valley is 500 km long. It extends from the Syria to the Zambezi valley. There are many large lakes in the Rift Valley, the
largest of which is Lake Tanganyika. The lake’s surface is 760 m above the sea level and the bottom is 670 m below sea level. The eastern part
of the African plate is breaking away from the western part. Many millions of years from now, the two parts will be separated by sea. The eroding
highlands filled the valley with sediments. This created a good environment for the preservation of fossils. The bones of several hominid ancestors
of modern humans have been found in the Rift valley, dating back over 3 million years. Many rift valley have steep sides called fault scarps.

25
7.1.1 What is the largest lake in the Rift African Valley (1 x 1) (1)
7.1.2 Why are terraces necessary for crop farming in areas with steep slopes. (1 x 2) (2)
7.1.3 Why are mountainous areas important tourist destinations? (2 x 2) (4)
7.1.4 Why does deforestation cause soil erosion (2 x 2) (4)

You must study with these questions in mind

WEEK 6 &7 Earthquakes
HOW DOES IT OCCUR? HOW IS IT MEASURED? WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF A TSUNAMI?

A Sudden and violent movement of the • RICHTER SCALE: Method to allocate a

Earth’s crust because of a sudden release magnitude number to qualify the energy
of energy. released by an earthquake.
• SEISMOGRAPH: Instrument used to
measure and record an earthquake.
SEISMOGRAM: A graph output from a
ECONOMIC: PEOPLE:
• seismograph. • Results in flooding
• Injuries to people
• Destroys infrastructure
WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF AN • Contaminates food and water
FOCUS: • Waterborne diseases develop
EARTHQUAKE?
Exact point beneath the Earth’s surface
where the plates shift ENVIRONMENT:
PEOPLE:
• Injuries and/or death of people and • Salinization of rivers, lakes and
EPICENTER:
animals groundwater
Point directly above the focus on the Earth’s
• Destruction of infrastructure e.g. roads, • Flooding causes sewerage contamination
surface.
houses of fresh water resources
FAULT SCARP: • Transport and communication disrupted • Pollute wetlands, coastal areas,
The steep exposed rock face. • Landslides flatten and destroy buildings agricultural fields and forests
• Burst water pipes reduce availability of • Deposition of sediments lead to changes
FAULT: fresh water in habitats and species
26
Crack in the Earth’s crust resulting from the
movement of rock.
WAVE FRONTS:
Seismic waves releasing energy through the
crust.
SEISMIC WAVES:
A wave of energy generated by an
earthquake.
WHAT CAUSES EARTHQUAKES?
• DIVERGENT PLATE boundaries
cause tension to build up in crust.
• VOLCANOES: The sudden release of
molten minerals through a crack in the
earth’s crust
• Contaminated water cause health issues
e.g. cholera
• Gas pipe leaks cause fires
ENVIRONMENT:
• Disruption of habitat
• Destruction of vegetation
• Landslides, mudslides
• Soil liquefaction
• Contamination of natural
resources e.g. water, soil
• Businesses destroyed
• Reduce employment
• Expenses to rebuild/fix damages to
infrastructure
• Developing countries are more affected
because of lower economic growth
• A TSUNAMI can develop. A large wave
produced by an Earthquake under the
ocean
27
What strategies can be implemented to
reduce the impact of Earthquakes and
Tsunamis’?
• Develop early warning systems e.g.
electronic media
• Upgrade the infrastructure e.g. buildings,
sea walls
• Improved communication systems must be
in place
• Disaster management program must be in
place
• Coordinated rescue teams
• Unified plan of action for local services e.g.
army, medical personnel, police
• Education of the population
WEEK 8 AND 9 Earthquakes

WEEK 8 and 9

TOPIC EARTHQUAKES
SUB-TOPICS/ CONTENT
RELATED CONCEPTS
• How and where earthquakes occur
• Measuring and predicting earthquakes
• How earthquakes and tsunamis affect
people and settlements
• Strategies to reduce the impact of
earthquakes
• Seismograph – the instrument that
records earthquakes
• Seismogram – is the record or graph
obtained from the seismograph
• Richter scale – used to compare the size
and severity of earthquakes.
• Focus – the point in the earth’s crust here
the earthquake begins
• Epicentre – the point on the earth’s
surface immediately above the focus.
• Seismic waves – are the waves of energy
caused by the sudden breaking of rock
within the earth or an explosion.
• Tsunamis - huge sea waves caused by
earthquakes in the sea floor.

PRIOR BACKGROUND AND • Grade 7: Recent earthquakes in news.

KNOWLEDGE
RESOURCES • Atlases showing Aerial photographs
• Video clips
• Telematics broadcasts
• World maps showing the ring of fire and
location of earthquakes.

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT See the attached activities below

METHODOLOGY • Explain concepts - refer to the list above
• Explain the characteristics resulting in the
formation of earthquakes.

28
 • Activities to consolidate what the
educator taught to explain using sources
/ textbook and worksheets.

ERRORS/MISCONCEPTION/ • Differentiating between a seismogram

PROBLEMATIC AREAS and seismograph.
• Differentiating between the Epicentre and
the focus.
Differentiation
• Learners will be given more exercises for
enrichment across differentiation
EAC • Elaborate more on geographical terms,
EXAMPLE
✓ Fault planes
✓ Plate movements
• Writing Give the learners spelling
activities to consolidate the spelling
errors.
• Viewing and listening: Data projector
i.e. photos
• Glossary of geographical terms around
the classroom walls.

ACTIVITIES:

1. READ THE SOURCE BELOW AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS SET.

EARTHQUAKE IN SA A MATTER OF TIME

By Pouza van der Fort

A major earthquake in South Africa is a real possibility but there is no way of predicting
when it might occur. Durban has been singled out as the area of greatest concern in the
event of an earthquake on the continent.
A major fault line starts underground at Port Shepstone and runs north through KwaZulu-
Natal.
Dr. Hartnady from Umvoto Africa, a company that specialises in earth science research
and consultancy, said that earthquakes occur when the tectonic plates of the Earth's crust
move, slide, shear and grind against each other.
The intervals between major earthquakes of magnitudes greater than seven ranged
between 500 and 1 000 years, he said. In some parts of the East Africa rift system, the
last major quake might have occurred 1 000 years ago. The next time might be due
anytime soon.
'It is not a question of if, but when and it could even be tomorrow,' said Hartnady

29
ACITIVITY 8

8.1.1 Define the term earthquake (1x1) (1)

8.1.2 Name the instrument that is used to record earthquakes. (1x1) (1)
8.1.3 Durban has been singled out as the area of greatest concern in the event of
an earthquake on the continent. In a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines
discuss the social and economic consequences associated with an earthquake
in Durban
(4x2) (8)

ACTIVITY 8 .2:
Refer to the structure of an earthquake and answer the questions set

Source: Google images

8.2.1 Provide labels for A and B (2x1) (2)

8.2. 2 Differentiate between A and B (2x2) (4)
8.2.3 What type of boundary forms when two plates of the earth’s crust grinds (1x1) (1)
against each other
8.2.4 State TWO consequences of an earthquake with the magnitude of 7,9. (2x2) (4)

30
 10-11
WEEK
TOPIC VOLCANOES
• Types of volcanoes
SUB-TOPICS/ CONTENT • Structure of volcanoes
• Impact of volcanoes on people and the
environment
• Use of Case studies
RELATED CONCEPTS • Intrusive volcanism – the movement of
magma within the earth’s crust
• Extrusive volcanism – the movement of
magma from the crust to the earth’s
surface
• Batholith - Huge mass of igneous rock
linked directly to the source of magma.
• Laccolith - Dome shaped mass of
igneous rock
• Lopolith - Saucer shaped mass of
igneous rock
• Sill - magma penetrates horizontal
bedding planes and solidifies
• Dyke - Magma penetrates vertical joints
in cracks and solidifies
• Volcanic cone characteristics.
PRIOR BACKGROUND AND • Grade 7: Recent volcanic eruptions in
KNOWLEDGE news.
RESOURCES • Telematics broadcasts
• Video clips
• Climate maps in Atlas
• Windy TV
• Atlases showing Aerial photographs
• World maps showing the ring of fire and
location of volcanoes

ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT • TASK 3: A3 MAP WORK 60 MARKS

Orthophoto maps to be used in
conjunction with1:50000 maps and aerial
photos
• TASK 4: JUNE CONTROLLED TEST
METHODOLOGY • Explain concepts - refer to the list above
• Explain the difference in the
characteristics on each volcano type.

31

ERRORS/MISCONCEPTION/
PROBLEMATIC AREAS
Different teaching approaches/
progressed/ struggling learners
EAC
• Activities to consolidate what the
educator taught to explain using sources
/ textbook and worksheets.
• Differentiating between the different
types of volcanic cones.
• Discussing the characteristics of the
different volcanic cones.
• Difficulty classifying the different types of
volcanoes, i.e. dormant, active, extinct.
• More work to be given to all learners with
different cognitive levels, e.g.
• High flyers to be given extra and
challenging work.
• Elaborate more on geographical terms,
EXAMPLE
✓ Lava
✓ Magma
✓ Volcanic ash
✓ Intrusive and extrusive volcanism
• Writing Give the learners spelling
activities to consolidate the spelling
errors.
• Viewing and listening: Data projector
i.e. photos
• Viewing: glossary of geographical terms
around the classroom walls.
• Writing: Learners will write an activity
32
WEEK 8&9 VOLCANOES You must study with these questions

HOW DOES A VOLCANO FORM? IDENTIFY DIFFERENT TYPES OF VOLCANOES?

• Magma rises through cracks in the Earth's crust. • Extrusive volcano: When magma
• When pressure is released, e.g. as a result of plate pours
movement, magma explodes to the surface causing onto the Earth’s surface as lava.
a volcanic eruption. • Intrusive volcano: When magma
• The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust. cools
• Over time the rock builds up and a volcano form. and solidifies within the Earth’s
crust.
• Active volcano: Volcano that erupt
regularly.
• Dormant volcano: Volcano that is not
currently erupting but is still capable of
erupting.
• Extinct volcano: Volcano that has not
erupted in recorded history.

SHIELD VOLCANO COMPOSITE/STRATOVOLC CINDER CONE

ANO VOLCANO
• Wide with gentle
slopes • Tall steep sided • Smaller than
• Low viscosity, lava • Alternating layers of lava stratovolcano
flow slow and far and ash • Steep sides
before it hardens • Explosive volcanoes • Mainly rock and ash
• Forms a shield-like • Small crater deposits, less lava
mound • Lava highly viscous does flow
• Volcanic islands not flow far before it • Large, bowl shaped
hardens crater

33
WHAT IS A VOLCANO’S STRUCTURE?
ADVANTAGES’
• Ash and lava weather to form
fertile soil
• Tourist attraction
• Hot springs
• Generation of geothermal
energy
• Produce minerals e.g.
diamonds, gold, copper, zinc
34
DISADVANTAGES
• Lava burns property and destroys
farmland
• Pyroclastic flows kills living creatures
• Can triggers thunderstorms, floods,
mudflows
• Blasts of eruptions are dangerous
• Emits greenhouse gasses
• Ash clouds block sunlight and
influences growth of crops and disrupts
air traffic
35
Activity 9

Refer to figure 2 showing a volcanic feature and answer the questions set

Google image

9.1.1 Identify the structure of volcano shown in figure 9. (1x1) (1)

9.1.2 Give a reason for your answer in question 9.1.1 (1x2) (2)
9.1.3 Does the volcanic feature form as a result of intrusive or extrusive (1+2 (2)
volcanism? Give a reason for your answer.
9.1.4 Volcanic ash can be a threat to people. Support the statement (2x2) (4)

9.1.5 Name the rock type that will form after the volcano erupts. (1x1) (1)
9.1.6 Volcanic eruptions are important as they bring to the surface important
minerals and they create more land, however they can be very destructive.
In a paragraph of 8 lines discuss the negative environmental impacts that
volcanoes can have. (4x2) (8)

36
 Aerial Photographs

Map: a graphic representation on the real world portraying natural and man-made features made to scale.

. FIG 1
Types of aerial photographs

• These are photographs that are captured

with a camera above the surface of the
Earth.
• Word “aero-” means air.
• Therefore, aerial photographs are
photographs of the Earth features captured
(taken) from the air.
• There are Three types of aerial
photographs used in geography.
i.e.

• Low Oblique aerial photographs

• High Oblique aerial photographs
• Vertical aerial photographs

FIG. 2
Low Oblique aerial photographs

• These are aerial photographs taken

(captured) from above the surface of the
Earth with a camera angled at 30o to the
vertical (optical) axis.
• They do not show the horizon (skyline)
Disadvantages

• They capture (cover) a small defined area.

• Features (objects) in the foreground are
distorted (inaccurate), which means they
appeared larger than those in the
background.
• Objects on the foreground obscure (hide)
objects in the background.
• It is difficult to apply scale to the
photograph; objects are distorted
High Oblique aerial photographs (represented inaccurately).
Advantages
• These are aerial photographs taken
(captured) above the surface of the Earth • Features (objects) are more recognisable.
with a camera angled at 60o to the • Heights of objects can be compared.
vertical (optical) axis.
• The horizon (skyline) can be seen.
3
Disadvantages

• Features (objects) in the foreground are

distorted (inaccurate), which means they
appeared larger than those in the
background.
• Objects on the foreground obscure (hide)
objects in the background.
• It is difficult to apply scale to the
photograph; objects are distorted
(represented inaccurately).
Advantages

• The area photographed is large.

• Features (objects) are more recognisable. 37
• Heights of objects can be compared.
• They represent features on Earth with a bird’s
eye view (view of objects from above).
Vertical aerial photographs

• IG.These
4 are aerial photographs taken with a
camera vertically directly above the surface at
90o to the vertical (optical) axis.
• They are taken between 10:00 am to 11:30 am
and 13:30 to 14:00 when the sun is at the
horizon.
• But it is usually recommended to take vertical
aerial photographs as close as possible to 12:00;
to ensure that shadows of tall objects are not cast
over shorter objects to obscure surface details
needed on the photograph.
• Vertical aerial photographs are NOT taken at
12:00 midday; the sun is overhead:
o The shadow of an aeroplane will fall
over objects.
o Shining effect of objects will affect the
resolution of an image/picture.
NB:

- If vertical aerial photographs are taken

between 10:00 and 11:30 shadows of tall
objects are elongated and fall south-west
of objects.
- If vertical aerial photographs are taken
between 13:30 to 14:00, shadows of tall
objects are elongated and fall south-east
of objects.
- If shadows of tall objects are short and too
close to objects, the vertical aerial
photograph has been taken close to or
shortly after 12:00 midday.
FIG.5
Vertical aerial photographs
• Vertical aerial photographs are usually black
and white, at times in colour (panchromatic).
• The aeroplane with a mounted camera follows
a planned flight path.
• Each photograph overlaps the other by 60% in
the front and back on the flight strip (forward
overlap).
• The overlaps are 30% next to each other on
the return direction of flight in the next strip
(lateral overlap).
o Overlaps are done to reduce
distortions.
o So that vertical aerial photographs can
be used in stereoscopy*.
Disadvantages

• Objects look unfamiliar from the bird’s eye

view.
• The black and white nature of vertical aerial
photographs makes it difficult to identity
objects.
FIG. 6 • Shadows of tall objects obscure much details if
the vertical aerial photograph was taken early
or late in the day.
• The resolution of the camera used might affect
the details and definition of a vertical aerial
photograph.
Advantages

- It is easy to apply scale to the photograph;

objects are not distorted (represented
accurately).
- Can perform calculations and measurements.
- They cover a large mapped area.
- They can be used for map updates (i.e.
topographic and orthophoto maps).
- Can be used to compare changes on the
surface of the Earth.
- They are used by different fields (i.e. military,
38 urban planning, census applications,
geological, engineering, disaster (risk)
management and tourism industry.)
 Orthophoto Map

Grid Code
FIG. 7
and Orthophoto map
Less

than photo number • It is a rectified vertical aerial photograph.

Scale • The mapped area is formed of 25 vertical
3’x3’ aerial photographs.
• It is a large scale vertical aerial photograph.
• It is a photographic map with additional
information.
• It is a black, white or grey photographic
image (black and white or grey).
• It is a photograph with useful additional map
information such as grid code*, names of
roads, places, route numbers and scale.
• It has contour lines with 5 metres interval
(NB: check the legend information at the
bottom of the orthophoto map for
assurance),
• Trigonometrical stations and spot heights
and benchmarks and contour lines show
relief.
• The scale is 1:10 000 which means one
centimetre on a map represents ten
thousand centimetres in reality.
• An orthophoto map represents 3 minutes’
latitude by 3 minutes’ longitude – a full
orthophoto map. It can be 55 cm x 50 cm
excluding the border information.
• This represents a ground distance of 5,5 km
x 5 km or just an area of 25km2.
• 25 orthophoto maps cover one
Index to sheets topographic map sheet (a full
2230 AC 6 FIRST EDITION topographic map).
• Orthophoto maps cover metropolitan
1988
(urban areas) and peri-urban (edge of the
urban areas) areas of the mapped area of
the topographic map.
NB:

An extract orthophoto map will cover less than

3’ latitude x 3’ longitude.

Advantages

• It is a rectified* image.
• It has a standardised* scale.
• It is easy to read and interpret; they are
photographic representations of the reality.
• Useful in planning new developments, they
cover the metropolitan and peri-urban.
• It has a large scale, much details of the
natural and constructed features are shown,
39
it complements other maps.
Map Scale

Map scale is the degree (size) to which the reality features are reduced on a map.

The scale determines the size of features or amount of details a map can show.

A large scale map – show large objects but few details and it covers a small area. e.g.

Orthophoto map with a 1: 10 000 scale

A small scale map – show small objects but more details and it covers a large area e.g. Topographic map with a
1: 50 000

NOTE WELL: A feature on a topographic map can be smaller in appearance at 1:50 000 scale, but larger on the
Orthophoto map at 1: 10 000 scale.

This means that a feature has been increased 5 times larger on an Orthophoto map or the feature has been
reduced 5 times smaller on the topographic map.

REPRESENTATION OF MAP SCALE

Map scales are represented in FOUR ways:

1. Ratio scale: where the reduced reality size is expressed in a numerical format i.e.
1:50 000 or 1: 10 000.

NB:

• The ratio scale’s numeric format has the same units therefore units are not necessary to be indicated.
• The ratio scale on the topographic map means
1 cm on a map represents 50 000 cm in reality.
• This means that a map distance of 1 cm on a topographic map represents 0.5 km or 500 m in reality
• The ratio scale on the Orthophoto map means
1 cm on a map represents 10 000 cm in reality.
• This means that a map distance of 1 cm on an Orthophoto map represents 0.1 km or 100 m in reality.

2. Statement or word scale: it is an expression of a scale in words or statement not in a numeric format.
e.g.: 1cm on a map represents 10 000 cm in reality.

3. Fractional/ Representative scale: it is where the scale in represented as a fraction with a denominator
and numerator. e.g.: 1 or 1
10 000 50 000

4. Line or Linear scale: it is where the scale is represented as a line scale (graphic scale).

• Scales are very useful tools for calculations on the map to portray reality. e.g. distance, area etc.
• Scales indicate the amount to which reality features are reduced on a map.
• Scales indicate the accuracy (correctness) of the map

40
 Orthophoto Map Topographic Map

• A map that accurately represents surface

features i.e. human/cultural and natural
(relief and drainage).
• It is a small scale map than the orthophoto
map, objects are smaller as it represents a
larger area.
CONCEPTS • It uses symbols (conventional signs) points,
lines and area symbols in colours:
Rectified: It is when a
o Blue: water and drainage
photographic image of an area o Black: constructed human features.
is scanned, digitised and o Red: main roads, arterial roads,
manipulated (changed) so that lighthouse and marine lights.
each pixel can be accurately o Green: vegetation, cultivation and
geo-referenced. recreational areas.
o Brown: slopes (contour lines),
Grid Code/Reference: a set soils/sand and rock outcrop.
of latitude and longitude • Features are generalised (reduced) to
degrees (numbers) with letters scale from the vertical aerial photograph or
(Big and Small block) orthophoto map
representing the exact location • It includes information such as names of
of the mapped area. places, route numbers, national and
provincial boundaries.
Standardised: To make it the
• Elevation (height above sea level) clues
same for every South African
are provided in contour lines (brown) with
map. an interval of 20 metres (NB: check the
notes on the bottom edge of the map for
Extract:exact
Locating A map that is less in
position. assurance)
size than a full map e.g. An
• Spot heights, trigonometrical stations
extract expresses
A degree orthophotothemap is less
exact position and bench marks are also used to
than 3’ latitude x3’ longitude.
of a point or place on the Earth’s portray elevation.
surface. A degree of latitude (or
longitude) is divided into 60 minutes. NB:
Minutes are divided into 60 seconds.
• New developments on updated topographic
The symbols used are: maps are represented in purple colour.
Degree; ⁰ • It has a 1:50 000 standardised scale -
which means one centimetre on the map
Minutes;’ represents fifty thousand centimetres in
reality.
FIG 8
Seconds; ‘’ • Each topographic map sheet covers 15’
latitude by 15’ longitude

41
 Grid
Reference/Code Ratio Scale

Latitude line

FIG. 13 Degrees (o), Minutes (‘)

Longitude line

Degrees (o), Minutes (‘)

1 2 3

NB
A A
This topographic map is an
extract it covers less than
15’x15’

Note the position of the

B B
orthophoto on the
topographic map.

The orthophoto is an
extract too it is less than
3’x3’
C C Alphanumeric
Reference

BLOCK C3

42
ACTIVITY

1. Define the following terms related

1.1 Map (1x2)(2)

1.2 Map scale (1x2)(2)

2. Name 4 types of scale (1x4)(4)

3. Match the concepts on the right with definition on the left. Write ONLY the letter

3.1 Minutes A. expresses the exact position of a point or place on the Earth’s surface.

3.2 Vertical aerial B. It is a rectified vertical aerial photograph.

photograph

3.3 Degree C. Are usually taken with a camera vertical directly above the surface at 90 o to the
vertical (optical) axis.

3.4 Orthophoto D. Divide minutes on a map.

3.5 Seconds E. Divides degree of latitude (or longitude).

(1x5) (5)

4. Identify and explain the two types of aerial photographs. (2x2) (4)

[17]

43
44
45
46