EARTH SCIENCE
FOURTH QUARTER EXAMINATIONS - SECOND SEMESTER
STEM 11 A.Y. 2022-2023
LESSON 1: WEATHERING AND
EARTH’S HEAT
WEATHERING
❖ Weathering describes the breaking
down or dissolving of rocks and
minerals on the surface of the
Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts,
plants, animals, and changes in
temperature are all agents of
weathering.
❖ Once a rock has been broken
down, a process called erosion
transports the bits of rock and
mineral away.
2 PROCESSES OF WEATHERING
Mechanical Weathering
❖ Mechanical weathering, also called
physical weathering and
disaggregation, causes rocks to
crumble.
❖ Temperature changes can also
contribute to mechanical
weathering in a process called
thermal stress. Changes in
temperature cause rock to expand
(with heat) and contract (with cold).
Chemical Weathering
❖ Chemical weathering changes the
molecular structure of rocks and
soil.
❖ Carbon dioxide from the air or soil
sometimes combines with water in
a process called carbonation. This
produces a weak acid, called
carbonic acid, which can dissolve
rock.
Earth’s Interior
❖ It takes a rather long time for heat
to move out of the earth. This
occurs through both the
"convective" transport of heat
within the earth's liquid outer core
and solid mantle and slower
"conductive" transport of heat
through non-convection boundary
layers, such as the earth's plates
at the surface.
JAN MANUEL PERIDO - STEM 11 J COLOSSIANS / ako nalang kasi
Three Main Sources of Heat Inside the
Earth
❖ Heat from when the planet formed
and accreted, which has not yet
been lost
❖ Frictional heating, caused by
denser core material sinking to the
center of the planet; and
❖ Heat from the decay of radioactive
elements.
LESSON 2: MAGMA AND
METAMORPHISM
Magma
❖ is the molten or semi-molten
natural material from which all
igneous rocks are formed. Magma
is found beneath the surface of the
Earth, and evidence of magmatism
has also been discovered on other
terrestrial planets and some
natural satellites. Besides molten
rock, magma may also contain
suspended crystals and gas
bubbles.
Metamorphism
❖ is a process of mineral
assemblage and texture variation
that results from the physical-
chemical changes of solid rocks,
caused by factors such as crust
movement, magma activity, or
thermal fluid change in the earth.
Types of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
❖ Contact metamorphism occurs
adjacent to igneous intrusions and
results from high temperatures
associated with the igneous
intrusion.
Regional Metamorphism
❖ Regional metamorphism occurs
over large areas and generally
does not show any relationship to
igneous bodies.
Cataclastic Metamorphism
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EARTH SCIENCE
FOURTH QUARTER EXAMINATIONS - SECOND SEMESTER
STEM 11 A.Y. 2022-2023
❖ Cataclastic metamorphism occurs
as a result of mechanical
deformation, like when two bodies
of rock slide past one another
along a fault zone.
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
❖ Rocks that are altered at high
temperatures and moderate
pressures by hydrothermal fluids
are hydrothermally
metamorphosed.
Burial Metamorphism
❖ When sedimentary rocks are
buried to depths of several
kilometers, temperatures greater
than 300°C may develop in the
absence of differential stress.
Shock Metamorphism (Impact
Metamorphism)
❖ When an extraterrestrial body,
such as a meteorite or comet
impacts the Earth or if there is a
very large volcanic explosion,
ultrahigh pressures can be
generated in the impacted rock.

manhid mo naman
Metamorphic Rocks
❖ Metamorphic rocks have been
modified by heat, pressure, and
chemical processes, usually while
buried deep below Earth's surface.
Exposure to these extreme
conditions has altered the
mineralogy, texture, and chemical
composition of the rocks.
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
❖ have a layered or banded
appearance that is produced by
exposure to heat and directed
pressure. Examples of foliated
rocks include: gneiss, phyllite,
schist, and slate
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
❖ do not have a layered or banded
appearance. Examples of non-
foliated rocks include hornfels,
marble, novaculite, quartzite, and
skarn.
LESSON 3: TYPES OF STRESS THAT
INFLUENCED ROCK BEHAVIOR,
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY & PLATE
TECTONICS
IG: @manuelperido
Stress
❖ is the force applied to a rock.
Compressional stress
❖ stresses that push toward each
other, causing a decrease in the
space a rock takes up.
Tensional stress
❖ Stresses that pull material in
opposite directions.
Shear stress
❖ Parallel stresses that move past
each other in opposite directions.
Confining stress
❖ Stress from the weight of material
above a buried object; reduces
volume.

JAN MANUEL PERIDO - STEM 11 J COLOSSIANS / ako nalang kasi 2

EARTH SCIENCE
FOURTH QUARTER EXAMINATIONS - SECOND SEMESTER
STEM 11 A.Y. 2022-2023
Kung nandiyan siya, nasaan ako? Ano'ng lugar
naming mga gustong magmahal sa ‘yo?
Pangaea
❖ an ancient Greek word meaning
“all land” or “entire earth”.
Continental Drift
❖ is the idea that the continents
move. From a single landmass
called Pangaea.
❖ In 1912, Alfred Wegener (1880-
1930) developed the concept and
hypothesized the continental drift
theory. He claimed that there used
to be only one supergiant
landmass (Pangea) where all the
continents came from.
❖ The two giant continents were
Laurasia (which comprised the
continents in the present-day
Northern Hemisphere), and
Gondwanaland (also Gondwana,
which comprised the continents in
the present-day Southern
Hemisphere).
Plate tectonics
❖ theory that Earth's outer shell is
divided into several plates that
glide over the mantle, the rocky
inner layer above the core.
The Eight Major Plates:
1. Pacific plate
2. Indian plate
3. Eurasian plate
4. North American plate
5. South American plate
6. Indo-Australian plate
7. Antarctic plate
8. African plate
Thermal convection
❖ the transfer of thermal energy
through the movement of a liquid
or gas.
Tectonic plate
❖ A massive, irregularly shaped slab
of solid rock, generally composed
JAN MANUEL PERIDO - STEM 11 J COLOSSIANS / ako nalang kasi
of both continental and oceanic
lithosphere.
Boundaries
❖ the edges where two plates meet.
Convergent (Collisional) Boundaries
❖ This is a boundary where plates
meet. This happens when two
tectonic plates move towards each
other brought by mantle
convection.
Divergent Boundaries
❖ the boundary where plates move
away from each other. Plates
move apart because of the magma
that is being pushed upward in the
boundaries of the plates
Transform Boundaries
❖ It is where the plates slide past
each other and neither plate get
subducted.
Subduction
❖ a geological process that takes
place at convergent boundaries of
tectonic plates where one plate
moves under another and is forced
to sink due to high gravitational
potential energy into the mantle.
LESSON 4: PLATE TECTONICS
(CRUSTAL DEFORMATION), SEAFLOOR
SPREADING AND OCEAN BASIN
FORMATION
Seafloor spreading
❖ is a process that occurs at mid-
ocean ridges, where new oceanic
crust is formed through volcanic
activity and then gradually moves
away from the ridge.
Folds
❖ ductile rocks behave plastically
and become folded in response to
stress.
❖ A bend or flexure in a rock can be
likened to waves in the ocean.
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EARTH SCIENCE
FOURTH QUARTER EXAMINATIONS - SECOND SEMESTER
STEM 11 A.Y. 2022-2023
IG: @manuelperido
Anticline
❖ is a structural trap formed by the
folding of rock strata into an arch-
like shape.
Syncline
❖ the youngest rock layers form the
core of the fold and outward from
the core progressively older rocks
occur
Domes
❖ Broad upwards in basement rock
may deform the overlying cover of
sedimentary strata and generate
large folds. When this up warping
produces a circular or elongated
structure, the feature is called a
dome.
Basins
❖ Basins are down warped
structures having a similar shape.
Joints and fissures
❖ A joint is a fracture or a little
separation between the rock walls
while fissures are cracks or actual
gaps between the rock walls.
Faults
❖ occur when rocks break due to the
forces acting on them.
Types of Faults
Thrust fault
❖ a low angle (45 or less) in which
the hanging wall is moved upward
in relation to the footwall. It is
characterized by the horizontal
compression rather than by vertical
displacement.
Normal fault
❖ also called gravity fault, is a dip-
slip fault in which the hanging wall
moves downward relative to the
footwall.
Reverse fault
❖ is the material above the fault
plane that moves up in relation to
the material below. It shows the
surface area of the crust.
JAN MANUEL PERIDO - STEM 11 J COLOSSIANS / ako nalang kasi
LESSON 5: STRATIFIED ROCKS,
RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING
"Huwag mo akong mahalin dahil mahal kita.
Mahalin mo ako dahil mahal mo ako, because
that is what I deserve."
Archeologist
❖ An archeologist is an expert on
history who gains expertise
through experience with historical
documents and artifacts.
Cementation
❖ In geology, hardening and welding
of clastic sediments (those formed
from preexisting rock fragments)
by the precipitation of mineral
matter in the pore spaces. It is the
last stage in the formation of a
sedimentary rock.
Fossils
❖ Fossils are the remains of plants,
animals, fungi, bacteria, and
single-celled living things that have
been replaced by rock material or
impressions of organisms
preserved in rock.
Lithification
❖ It is the process in which
sediments compact under
pressure, expel connate fluids, and
gradually become solid rock.
Essentially, lithification is a
process of porosity destruction
through compaction and
cementation.
Sedimentation
❖ Sedimentation is the process of
allowing particles in suspension in
water to settle out of the
suspension under the effect of
gravity.
Stratification
❖ Stratification is defined as the act
of sorting data, people, and objects
into distinct groups or layers. It is a
technique used in combination with
other data analysis tools.
palibhasa kasi alam na alm mo kung
paano ako kunin eh noh
Stratified Rocks
❖ Stratified rocks are layers of rocks
that compacted together.
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EARTH SCIENCE
FOURTH QUARTER EXAMINATIONS - SECOND SEMESTER
STEM 11 A.Y. 2022-2023
These are the four steps of
stratification:
1. Step 1: Weathering
a. Weathering is the
breakdown of rocks.
b. With the help of many
elements such as wind,
water, animals, gravity, and
heat.
2. Step 2: Erosion (Transport)
a. It moves the rocks to other
places usually and bodies
of water.
3. Step 3: Deposition
a. Deposition is when the
sediments broken down
into pieces of rocks go on
river beds, ocean floors,
and other land masses,
building up players.
4. Step 4: Compaction
a. Over time the weight of
sediments can press down
and squeeze layers into
smaller spaces this is
called compaction.
Principle of Original Horizontality
❖ The principle of original hortality
departs from the assumption that
most of the sedimentary rocks are
deposited under the action of
gravity, in approximately horizontal
layers, i.e. parallel to the surface to
which they deposit.
Principle of Superposition
❖ The principle of superposition is
based on the assumption that, in a
regular sequence of layers, the
oldest layer will be on the bottom
of the sequence, while all the other
layers are successively more
recent.
Principle of Cross-cutting
Relationships
❖ The principle of cross-cutting
relationships states that a pterodactyls of the Jurassic and
geological object (magmatic
intrusion) cutting other rocks must
be younger of the two features.
Paleontological Method (Index Fossils)
❖ The paleontological method is
based on the study and
JAN MANUEL PERIDO - STEM 11 J COLOSSIANS / ako nalang kasi
interpretation of animal and
vegetal organisms’ evolution
during geological history, and in
order to determine the relative age
of a rock, the principle of
superposition is used as a starting
point, as well as fossil deposits
preserved within a rock.
LESSON 6: RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE
DATING TO DETERMINE THE
SUBDIVISIONS OF GEOLOGIC TIME,
FOSSILS AND ITS USES IN HISTORY
Decay (for radioactive materials)
The process whereby a radioactive
isotope which means a physically unstable
form of some element — sheds energy
and subatomic particles. In time, this
shedding will transform the unstable
element into a slightly different but stable
element.
oh kay tagal kitang minahal
Epoch (in geology)
A span of time in the geologic past that
was shorter than a period (which is itself,
part of some era) and marked when some
dramatic changes occurred.
Geologic
An adjective that refers to things that are
related to Earth’s physical structure and
substance, its history and the processes
that act on it. People who work in this field
are known as geologists.
Pterosaur
Any of various extinct flying reptiles of the
order Pterosauria. These animals lived
245 million years ago to 65 million years
ago. Although not true dinosaurs, they
lived during the reign of dinosaurs. Among
members of this order were the
Cretaceous periods, which were
characterized by wings consisting of a flap
of skin supported by the very long fourth
digit on each forelimb.
Radioactive
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EARTH SCIENCE
FOURTH QUARTER EXAMINATIONS - SECOND SEMESTER
STEM 11 A.Y. 2022-2023
An adjective that describes unstable
elements, such as certain forms (isotopes)
of uranium and plutonium. Such elements
are said to be unstable because their
nucleus sheds energy that is carried away
by photons and/or and often one or more
subatomic particles.
Radiometric Dating
A means to measure geologic time. It
dates very old rocks by measuring the
share of one or more radioactive elements
in rocks that have decayed into their
“daughter” isotopes.
Fossilization
Fossilization is the process of remains
becoming fossils. Fossilization is rare.
Most organisms decompose
fairly quickly after they die.
Ammonites
Ammonites were marine animals
belonging to the phylum Mollusca and the
class Cephalopoda. They had
a coiled external shell similar to that of the
modern nautilus. In other living
cephalopods,e.g., octopus,
squid and cuttlefish, the shells are small
and internal, or absent. The body.
Jurassic ammonite showing
sutures.
masagasaan sana kayo ng bago moh
Fossils
The word fossil comes from the Latin word
fossus, meaning "having been dug up."
Fossils are often
found in rock formations deep in the earth.
Cenozoic Era
The Cenozoic Era meaning "new life" is
the current and most recent of the three
geological eras of the
Phanerozoic Eon. The Cretaceous–
Paleogene extinction event is the
boundary between the preceding
Mesozoic era and the Cenozoic, which
extends from 66 million years ago to the
present day.
JAN MANUEL PERIDO - STEM 11 J COLOSSIANS / ako nalang kasi
Megalodon
Megalodon, meaning "big tooth", is an
extinct species of shark that lived
approximately 23 to 3.6 million
years ago, from the Early Miocene to the
Pliocene. It was formerly thought to be a
member of the family
Lamnidae and a close relative of the great
white shark.
Amber (Fossil Resin)
Amber, a fossil tree resin that has
achieved a stable state through loss of
volatile constituents and chemical
change after burial in the ground. Amber
has been found throughout the world, but
the largest and most
significant deposits occur along the shores
of the Baltic Sea in sands 40,000,000 to
60,000,000 years old.
❖ The oldest and by far the longest is
called the Precambrian. It is
divided into Eons known as the
Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic.
After the Precambrian come the
Paleozoic Era and Mesozoic Era.
Last but not least is the Cenozoic
Era, the one in which we live.
Law of Superposition
❖ It allows geologists to compare the
age of one rock or fossil to
another.
❖ It makes the sequence of geologic
events clearer. It also gives clues
into how species evolved, and
what creatures co-existed or didn’t.
kaya nyo yan guys malapit na
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EARTH SCIENCE
FOURTH QUARTER EXAMINATIONS - SECOND SEMESTER
STEM 11 A.Y. 2022-2023
The word fossil comes from the
Latin word fossus, meaning "having been
dug up." Fossils are often found in rock
formations deep in the earth.

Paleontologists
❖ are people who study fossils.
Paleontologists find and study
fossils all over the world, in almost
every environment, from the hot
desert to the humid jungle.
Studying fossils

BODY FOSSILS
❖ Body fossils are the remains of the
body parts of ancient animals,
plants, and other life forms. They
tell us something about the
appearance of ancient life forms.

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