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Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering
Series Editor: J. Paulo Davim

M. S. Shunmugam
M. Kanthababu Editors

Advances in
Simulation,
Product Design
and Development
Proceedings of AIMTDR 2018
Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial
Engineering

Series Editor
J. Paulo Davim , Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro,
Aveiro, Portugal
“Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering” publishes special
volumes of conferences, workshops and symposia in interdisciplinary topics of
interest. Disciplines such as materials science, nanosciences, sustainability science,
management sciences, computational sciences, mechanical engineering, industrial
engineering, manufacturing, mechatronics, electrical engineering, environmental
and civil engineering, chemical engineering, systems engineering and biomedical
engineering are covered. Selected and peer-reviewed papers from events in these
fields can be considered for publication in this series.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15734

M. S. Shunmugam M. Kanthababu
•

Editors

Advances in Simulation,
Product Design
and Development
Proceedings of AIMTDR 2018

123
Editors
M. S. Shunmugam M. Kanthababu
Manufacturing Engineering Section Department of Manufacturing Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering College of Engineering, Guindy,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras Anna University
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

ISSN 2522-5022 ISSN 2522-5030 (electronic)

Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering
ISBN 978-981-32-9486-8 ISBN 978-981-32-9487-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9487-5
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
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Singapore
AIMTDR 2018 Conference’s Core Organizing
Committee

Patrons

Dr. M. K. Surappa, Vice Chancellor, Anna University

Dr. J. Kumar, Registrar, Anna University

President (NAC-AIMTDR)

Mr. P. Kaniappan, Managing Director, WABCO India Ltd.

Vice-President (NAC-AIMTDR)

Dr. Uday Shanker Dixit, Professor, IIT Guwahati, India

Co-patrons

Dr. A. Rajadurai, Dean, MIT Campus, Anna University

Dr. T. V. Geetha, Dean, CEG Campus, Anna University
Dr. L. Karunamoorthy, Chairman, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Anna University
Dr. S. Rajendra Boopathy, Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Anna University

v
vi AIMTDR 2018 Conference’s Core Organizing Committee

Chairman

Dr. S. Gowri, Honorary Professor, Department of Manufacturing Engineering,

Anna University

Co-chairman

Dr. P. Hariharan, Professor, Department of Manufacturing Engineering,

Anna University

Organizing Secretary

Dr. M. Kanthababu, Professor and Head, Department of Manufacturing

Engineering, Anna University

Joint Organizing Secretaries

Dr. M. Pradeep Kumar, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Anna University
Dr. A. Siddharthan, Associate Professor, Department of Production Technology,
Anna University

International Scientific Committee

Prof. Abhijit Chandra, Iowa State University, USA

Prof. Ajay P. Malshe, University of Arkansas, USA
Prof. Andrew Y. C. Nee, NUS, Singapore
Prof. Chandrasekar S., Purdue University, USA
Prof. Dean T. A., University of Birmingham, UK
Prof. Hong Hocheng, National Tsing Hui University, Taiwan
Prof. John Sutherland, Purdue University, USA
Prof. Kamlakar P. Rajurkar, University of Nebraska, USA
Prof. Kornel Ehmann, Northwestern University, USA
Prof. Liao Y. S., National Taiwan University, Taiwan
Prof. McGeough J. A., University of Edinburgh, UK
Prof. Mustafizur Rahman, NUS, Singapore
AIMTDR 2018 Conference’s Core Organizing Committee vii

Prof. Philip Koshy, McMaster University, Canada

Prof. Rakesh Nagi, University of Buffalo, USA
Prof. Shiv Gopal Kapoor, University of Illinois, USA
Prof. Srihari Krishnasami, Binghamton University, USA
Prof. Tae Jo Ko, Yeungnam University, South Korea
Prof. Tugrul Ozel, University of New Jersey, USA

National Advisory Committee

Prof. Ahuja B. B., Government College of Engineering Pune

Prof. Amitabha Ghosh, BESU
Prof. Bijoy Bhattacharyya, Jadavpur University, Kolkata
Prof. Biswanath Doloi, Jadavpur University, Kolkata
Prof. Chattopadhyay A. K., IIT Kharagpur
Prof. Deshmukh S. G., IIT Gwalior
Shri. Dhand N. K., MD, Ace Micromatic, Bangalore
Prof. Dixit U. S., IIT Guwahati, Guwahati
Prof. Jain P. K., IIT Roorkee, Roorkee
Prof. Jain V. K., IIT Kanpur
Prof. Jose Mathew, NIT Calicut
Shri. Lakshminarayan M., WABCO India Pvt. Ltd.
Prof. Lal G. K., IIT Kanpur
Prof. Mehta N. K., IIT Roorkee
Prof. Mohanram P. V., PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research
Shri. Mohanram P., IMTMA, Bangalore
Dr. Mukherjee T., Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur
Shri. Muralidharan P., Lucas TVS Ltd., Vellore
Prof. Narayanan S., VIT University, Vellore
Mr. Niraj Sinha, Scientist ‘G’, PSA, GOI
Prof. Pande S. S., IIT Bombay, Mumbai
Dr. Prasad Raju D. R., MVGREC
Prof. Radhakrishnan P., PSG Institute of Advanced Studies, Coimbatore
Prof. Radhakrishnan V., IIST, Trivandrum
Prof. Ramaswamy N., IIT Bombay (Former)
Prof. Ramesh Babu N., IIT Madras
Shri. Rangachar C. P., Yuken India Ltd., Bangalore
Prof. Rao P. V., IIT Delhi
Dr. Santhosh Kumar, IIT BHU
Dr. Sathyan B. R., CMTI, Bangalore
Prof. Satyanarayan B., Andhra University (Former)
Prof. Selvaraj T., NIT Trichy
Prof. Shan H. S., IIT Roorkee (Former)
Prof. Shunmugam M. S., IIT Madras
viii AIMTDR 2018 Conference’s Core Organizing Committee

Shri. Shirgurkar S. G., Ace Designers Ltd., Bangalore

Dr. Sumantran V., Celeris Technologies
Dr. Suri V. K., BARC, Mumbai
Shri. Venu Gopalan P., DRDL Hyderabad
Prof. Vinod Yadav, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad
Foreword

It gives us immense pleasure to present the Advances in Manufacturing Technology

and Design—Proceedings of All India Manufacturing Technology, Design and
Research (AIMTDR) Conference 2018.
We would like to express our deep gratitude to all the members of Organizing
Committee of AIMTDR 2018 Conference and also to authors, reviewers, sponsors,
volunteers, etc., for their wholehearted support and active participation. Our special
thanks to Mr. P. Kaniappan, Managing Director, WABCO India Ltd, Chennai, who
kindly agreed to act as President of National Advisory Committee (NAC) of the
AIMTDR 2018 Conference. We also express our sincere thanks to Chairman
Dr. S. Gowri, Honorary Professor, and Co-chairman Dr. P. Hariharan, Professor,
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, for their
wholehearted support. We would like to express our sincere thanks to Research
Scholars Mr. K. R. Sunilkumar, Mr. U. Goutham, Mr. V. Mohankumar and
Mr. R. Prabhu and also UG/PG students of the Department of Manufacturing
Engineering, Anna University, for their contributions in the preparation of this
volume.
High-quality papers have been selected after peer review by technical experts.
We hope you find the papers included in the Proceedings of AIMTDR 2018
Conference are interesting and thought-provoking.
We also like to express our gratitude for the support provided by WABCO India
Ltd., Chennai; Kistler Instruments India Pvt. Ltd., Chennai; AMETEK Instruments
India Pvt. Ltd., Bengaluru; Central Manufacturing Technology Institute,
Government of India, Bengaluru; Defence Research and Development Organisation,
Government of India, New Delhi; and Ceeyes Engineering Industries Pvt Ltd.,
Trichy.

ix
x Foreword

Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to the National Advisory

Committee (NAC) members of AIMTDR 2018 Conference for providing the
necessary guidance and support.

Guwahati, India Uday Shanker Dixit

Vice-President
National Advisory Committee
AIMTDR
Preface

All India Manufacturing Technology, Design and Research (AIMTDR) Conference

is considered globally as one of the most prestigious conferences held once in two
years. It was started in 1967 at national level at Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India,
and achieved the international status in the year 2006. It was organized by various
prestigious institutions such as Jadavpur University, IIT Bombay, IIT Madras,
CMTI Bangalore, PSG iTech, IIT Kanpur, CMERI, IIT Delhi, NIT Warangal, IIT
Kharagpur, BITS Ranchi, VIT Vellore, IIT Roorkee, Andhra University, IIT
Guwahati and College of Engineering Pune.
The recent edition of the AIMTDR Conference, 7th International and 28th All
India Manufacturing Technology, Design and Research (AIMTDR) Conference
2018, was jointly organized by the Departments of Manufacturing Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering and Production Technology during 13–15 December 2018
at College of Engineering Guindy, Anna University, Chennai, India, with the theme
‘Make in India – Global Vision’. A major focus was given on recent developments
and innovations in the field of manufacturing technology and design through
keynote lectures. About 550 participants registered for the conference. During the
conference, researchers from academia and industries presented their findings and
exchanged ideas related to manufacturing technology and design.
Of the 750 papers received initially, 330 papers were finally selected after rigorous
review process for publication in the Springer Proceedings. Selected papers from the
conference are being published by Springer in the series Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary
Industrial Engineering in five volumes, namely Volume 1—Additive Manufacturing and
Joining, Volume 2—Forming, Machining and Automation, Volume 3—Unconventional
Machining and Composites, Volume 4—Micro and Nano Manufacturing and Surface
Engineering and Volume 5—Simulation and Product Design and Development.

Chennai, India M. S. Shunmugam

May 2018 M. Kanthababu

xi
Contents

Part I Simulation
1 Some Investigations on Drilling of Aluminium Alloy
from FEA-Based Simulation Using DEFORM-3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
R. Sreenivasulu and Ch. Srinivasa Rao
2 Self-Organizing Migrating Algorithm to Minimize Module
Changes at Machine-Level in Reconfigurable Manufacturing . . . . . 17
L. N. Pattanaik
3 Modelling and Simulation of Deep Drawing Process of Circular
Cup on AL1200 Using Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Y. K. Sahu and M. K. Pradhan
4 Numerical Investigation on Single Point Incremental Forming
(SPIF) of Tailor Welded Blanks (TWBs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Jeet Raut, Shalin Marathe and Harit Raval
5 Force and Thermal Variational Analysis by FE Approach
on Dry Turning of Inconel 718 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Bishal Das, Jibin T. Philip, Kore Mahesh and Basil Kuriachen
6 Experimental Investigation and Finite Element Modelling
of Electrical Discharge Machining Using Hollow Electrodes
and Injection Flushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Tony M. Shaju and G. L. Samuel
7 Experimental and Numerical Characterization of Residual
Stresses in Tailor Welded Blanks After Springback . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Vijay Gautam, D. Ravi Kumar and Subhajit Konar
8 Prediction of Cutting Forces in Micro-milling of P-20 Steel
by TiAlN-Coated WC Tool: An Analytical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . 93
P. Sahoo, T. Pratap and K. Patra

xiii
xiv Contents

9 Effect of Mechanical Constraints on Thermo-Mechanical

Behaviour of Laser-Welded Dissimilar Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Bikash Kumar, Rachit Nawani and Swarup Bag
10 Thermal Modeling and Simulation of Crater Generation
on Wire Electrode During Wire EDM Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Sanghamitra Das and Shrikrishna N. Joshi
11 Optimal Vendor-Managed Inventory Models for Single-Vendor
Multiple-Retailer Supply Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Narayan C. Nayak and Amar C. Mohanty
12 Simulation of Torsional–Axial Chatter Vibrations in Indexable
Drilling for Noise Generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Pavan Joshi, Mahesh Todkar, B. S. Suresh and Ravi Halasur
13 Finite Element Analysis of Sheet Thickness and Force Variation
in AA6063 During Single Point Incremental Forming . . . . . . . . . . 165
Saurabh Rai, Hreetabh Kishore, Harish Kumar Nirala
and Anupam Agrawal
14 Analysis and Prediction of Electrical Discharge Coating Using
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
R. Tyagi, S. Kumar, V. Kumar, S. Mohanty, A. K. Das
and A. Mandal
15 Machining Performance Prediction for Zirconia Toughened
Alumina Insert in Machining of High Carbon Steel Using
Computational Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Subhrojyoti Mazumder and N. Mandal
16 FEM Approach to Predict Three Jaw Chuck Stiffness
and Its Effect on Gripping Force for High Speed Turning
and Experimental Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
K. S. Karthik, Aslam Pasha Taj and S. R. Chandramouli
17 Experimental Investigation and Numerical Analysis of Thermal
Fields and Residual Stresses in Multi-pass GTA Welding of AA
6061T6 Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Narender Kumar and H. Chelladurai
18 Effect of Johnson–Cook Material Model Constants on Predicted
Chip Morphology and Forces in FE Simulations of Machining
Operation for 93% WHA Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Chithajalu Kiran Sagar, Amrita Priyadarshini and Amit Kumar Gupta
19 Numerical Simulation of Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
in Co-axial Laser Cladding of Ti6Al4V Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Vijay Mandal, Shashank Sharma and J. Ramkumar
Contents xv

20 FEA of Electrical Discharge Machining on the Particle Metal

Matrix Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
K. Benarji, Y. Ravi Kumar and S. Kanmani Subbu
21 Development and Analysis of a Discrete Particle Swarm
Optimisation for Bi-criteria Scheduling of a Flow Shop
with Sequence-Dependent Setup Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
V. Anjana, R. Sridharan and P. N. Ram Kumar
22 A MATLAB-Based Application to Solve Vehicle Routing
Problem Using GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Nikki Rathore, P. K. Jain and M. Parida
23 On Modeling the Thermal Behavior of Single and Quad Laser
Melting of Powdered Nickel Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Hemnath Anandan Kumar and Senthilkumaran Kumaraguru
24 Numerical Analysis of Cutting Modes in High-Speed Machining
of Aluminum Alloys with PCD and CBN Tool Inserts . . . . . . . . . . 313
I. Sri Phani Sushma and G. L. Samuel
25 Design of Row-based Machine Layout—A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . 327
Chandanam Srinivas, Ravela Naveen and Bijjam Ramgopal Reddy
26 Optimization of Tool and Process Parameter for Injection
Molded Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Pratyush Kar, G. Rajesh Babu and P. Vamsi Krishna
27 Flow Path Optimization of Pneumatic Valves Through
CFD Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
N. Prabhakar, G. Gopinath, S. Bharathiraja, M. Praveen
and V. R. SwaroopRaj
28 Virtual Simulation with Statistical Approach on Performance
Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
V. Hudson, R. Vinoth Kumar, S. Vivek and G. Anbarasu
29 Design, Development, and Modeling of EMLA-Based Wheel
Brake Actuation System for an UAV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
D. Satish Babu, P. N. Vijay Vittal, Pollov Sarmah
and Veena G. Dikshit
30 Design, Fabrication and Simulation of Micro-EDM Machined
AISI 316 SS Micro-channel Heat Sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
H. S. Mali, Vivek Baghela and Siddhartha Kr. Singh
31 Geometrical Modeling and Performance Analysis of Textile
Composites Using Python Scripted Software Platforms . . . . . . . . . 395
Pragati Priyanka, H. S. Mali and Anurag Dixit
xvi Contents

32 Electromagnetic Transient-Thermal Modeling

of High-Frequency Induction Welding of Mild Steel Plates . . . . . . 407
Ankan Mishra, Sukhomay Pal and Swarup Bag
33 Prediction of Machining Responses in Wire EDM
on Stainless Steel-316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
G. Ugrasen, D. Rakesh, H. V. Ravindra, K. Guruprasad
and Sivanaga Malleswara Rao Singu
34 Knowledge Discovery by Decision Tree Using Experimental Data
in High-Speed Turning of Steel with Ceramic Tool Insert . . . . . . . 427
A. R. Dhar, N. Mandal and S. S. Roy
35 Decision-Making System for Accepting/Rejecting an Order
in MTO Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
C. H. Sreekar, K. Hari Krishna and P. Vamsi Krishna
36 Numerical Simulation of Channel Angles and Their Combination
Influence on Plastic Deformation Behaviour of Pure Al Processed
by Equal Channel Angular Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Ramulu Malothu and Krishnaiah Arkanti
37 Teeth Wear Enhancement Along the Tooth Profile of Spur
Gear Drive by Balancing the Fillet Stress Through Positive
Correction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
R. Ravivarman, K. Palaniradja and R. Prabhu Sekar
38 A Coupled Thermal-Structural Model for Welding
of Aluminium Alloy Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Tapas Bajpai, H. Chelladurai and M. Zahid Ansari
39 Numerical Modelling and Simulation of Single and Multi-spark
Impacts in Electrical Discharge Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Jibin T. Philip, Basil Kuriachen and Jose Mathew
40 Finite Element Simulation and Experimental Investigations
to Predict Tool Flank Wear Rate During Microturning
of Ti–6Al–4V Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Jiju V. Elias, S. Asams and Jose Mathew
41 Analysis of a Few Heuristics Proposed Based on Slope Indices
to Solve Simple Type—I Assembly-Line Balancing Problems . . . . . 499
A. Baskar, M. Anthony Xavior, N. Nithyanandan
and B. Dhanasakkaravarthi
42 A Thermo-Mechanical Finite-Element Analysis of Resistance
Spot Welding of Dual-Phase Steel and Austenitic
Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Sagar Rathod, Sunil Ghunage and B. B. Ahuja
Contents xvii

43 The Effect of Process Parameters on Pulsed Through

Transmission Laser Welding of Acrylic and Polycarbonate
Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Nitesh Kumar, Nikhil Kumar and Asish Bandyopadhyay

Part II Product Design and Development

44 Design and Development of Combination Tool for Drilling
and Tapping Operation on PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Yogesh G. Kamble, P. D. Pantawane, B. Rajiv and B. B. Ahuja
45 Processing and Characterization of a High Entropy Alloy
in Application to Golf Club Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
N. A. Srinidhi and M. Ramachandra
46 Design and Development of Improved Ball End
Magnetorheological Finishing Tool with Efficacious
Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
D. A. Khan, Z. Alam, F. Iqbal and S. Jha
47 Analyzing Enablers of Emission Reduction Strategies
of Cement-manufacturing Industry of India under Fuzzy
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Sachin Balsara, P. K. Jain and Anbanandam Ramesh
48 Role of Product Development Process for NPD Success in Indian
Manufacturing Industries: Quality, Cost and Technological
Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Sudeshna Roy, Nipu Modak and Pranab K. Dan
49 Design of Open Battery Pack Interface for Electric Vehicle
Personalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
F. Chen, J. Zhang, M. Wu, X. Chu and Uday Shanker Dixit
50 Enhancement of Static and Dynamic Characteristics
on Micro-lathe Bed by the Use of Alternate Form Design
and Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
N. Mahendrakumar, P. R. Thyla, P. V. Mohanram, M. Ramu,
V. Prabhu Raja, C. Raja Kumaran, K. N. Manojkumar
and A. Siddarth
51 Development of Indigenous Direct Drive Rotary Guide Bush
Device and Establishment of Three-Spindle Synchronization
for Sliding Headstock Automat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
S. Deepak, Nagesh Nadig and S. R. Chandramouli
52 Development of 3-Axis Micro-Step Resolution Desktop CNC
Stage for Machining of Meso- and Microscale-Features . . . . . . . . . 637
Shweta Patil and Sandip S. Anasane
xviii Contents

53 Design and Development of a Pump-Driven Variable Buoyancy

Engine (VBE) for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles/Gliders . . . . . 653
B. K. Tiwari and R. Sharma
54 Application of Value Analysis and Value Engineering for Cost
Reduction of Global Pumping Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Aniket Bhosle, Avinash Sah and D. K. Shinde
55 Development of Prototype Variable Geometry In-Pipe Robot
for Reconfigurable Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
S. Pon Vignesh Pappu, M. Ajin and Gopal Satheesh Kumar
56 Six Sigma in Battery Assembly of Skid-Steer Loader . . . . . . . . . . . 685
R. Kaja Bantha Navas, S. Prakash, M. Mithun and Abhishekshivram
57 Concept Design and Development of Position Sensor in Door
Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
G. Dinesh Kumar, L. Ragunathan and A. N. Rajaraman
58 Remote Monitoring of Axle Loads for Heavy Commercial
Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
M. Richard Alexander, V. Hudson and Pozhilan
59 Influence of TMTM as the Secondary Accelerator on Blooming
Resistance of NBR-PVC Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
R. Ananthanarayanan and S. Shanmugham
60 Rapid Product Development from an Existing Product Using
Reverse Engineering Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
G. Sen and B. Doloi
61 Productivity Improvement by Reduction of Cycle Time Through
Implementing Clustering: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Satbir Singh and Sandeep Singhal
62 Experimental Investigation of Core Shear Properties and Facing
Sheet Fracture Stress of Spherical Sandwich Structure . . . . . . . . . 753
V. Pandyaraj and A. Rajadurai
63 Design Analysis of Brass Cartridge Case for Water Disruptor
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Bhupesh Amabadas Parate, Sharad S. Khandagale, Sunil Chandel
and Himanshu Shekhar
64 Design and Analysis of Hydraulic Fixture for WABCO Body
Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
Govindu Vamshikrishna, Koppaka Shesha Sai Gurudatta,
Pranav Ravindrannair and Md Israr Equbal
Contents xix

65 Development of Alignment Fixture for Precision Assembly

of Aerospace Control Surfaces Incorporating Process
and Assembly Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
N. Sankaranarayanan, Ch. Venkateswarlu, G. Ravinder
and Shivpal Singh
66 Product Design Development and Structural Stress Analysis
of Chain Cutting and Riveting Tool for Automotive Vehicle
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
G. Ponsanjay, M. V. Tamilselvaa, R. Ramanathan
and K. Ganesh Babu
67 Design and Development of Cartridge-Based Automated Fluid
Delivery System for Ball End Magnetorheological Finishing
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Z. Alam, D. A. Khan, F. Iqbal, A. Kumar and S. Jha
68 ARM Controller Based Smart Loom for Generating Basic
Weaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
R. Kumaravelu and S. Poornima
69 Manufacturing of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC): Present
Status and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Amit Raj, Arun Chandra Borsaikia and Uday Shanker Dixit
70 Influence of Flow Domain Parameters on Hot Water Actuation
of Shape-Memory Alloy Spring for Barrier Gate System . . . . . . . . 835
R Mithun, Tameshwer Nath, S. S. Mani Prabu and I. A. Palani
71 A New Approach to Control the Position of Joint Arm Robot
Using Image Background Subtraction Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
Pramod Kumar Thotapalli, CH R Vikram Kumar
and B Chandra Mohana Reddy
About the Editors

M. S. Shunmugam is a Professor (Emeritus) in the Manufacturing Engineering

Section in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT) Madras. After receiving his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from
IIT Madras in 1976, he has worked in IIT Bombay (from 1977 to 1980) and in IIT
Madras from 1980 onwards. He was a visiting faculty member at Michigan
Technological University during 1989-1991 and was a member in the board of
governors of IIT Madras during 2012-2013. Dr. Shanmugam’s research interests
include metrology, machine tools, manufacturing, gears, micro-machining and
computer applications in manufacturing. He has published about 130 peer-reviewed
international journal papers, 15 peer-reviewed national journal papers, 75 interna-
tional conferences and about 80 national conferences.

M. Kanthababu is a Professor in the Department of Manufacturing Engineering in

Anna University, Chennai, India and the Director of the Centre for Intellectual
Property Right and Trade Marks in Anna University. He has completed his MS in
Mechanical engineering and PhD in Advanced Manufacturing Technology from IIT
Madras. Prof Kanthababu's research interests include manufacturing technology,
composite materials and machining, and automation in manufacturing. He has
published more than 30 peer reviewed international journal papers and 2 books, and
holds one patent.

xxi
 Part I
Simulation
Chapter 1
Some Investigations on Drilling
of Aluminium Alloy from FEA-Based
Simulation Using DEFORM-3D

R. Sreenivasulu and Ch. Srinivasa Rao

Abstract The production of holes is one of the most common operations among
all the machining processes and is more complex than the other metal removal pro-
cesses. During the drilling, burrs form on both the entry and exit side of the hole as
a result of plastic deformation of the material. In order to investigate the burr height,
finite element analysis (FEA)-based DEFORM-3D simulations are performed during
drilling of aluminium 6061 and 7075 alloys. The influence of variable drill geometry
and machining conditions on burr height, thrust force, stresses and strain rates apart
from thermal aspects between the drill bit and work pieces are examined. Simu-
lated results analyse the reduction in burr height which can be achieved using the
selection of input parameters to attain multiple performance characteristics of output
responses, will have a wide range of application prospects saving time and cost of
post finishing operation of a drilled hole.

Keywords Thermal effect · Thrust force · Effective stress and strain rates · Burr
height · FEA-based DEFORM-3D

1.1 Introduction

Manufacturing sector facing lot of problems due to abrupt changes in the design
from day to day changes in taste of customers in their modern life in every aspect.
Entrepreneurs who are entered newly in the competitive market were faced by a
problem with capital investment incurred on development of design, data analysis
followed by testing through experimentation. For conducting experimental tests, it
takes more investment and wasting of time once it fails in testing. So, traditional

R. Sreenivasulu (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.R. and J.C. College of Engineering, Guntur,
Andhra Pradesh 522019, India
e-mail: rslu1431@gmail.com
Ch. Srinivasa Rao
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 3

M. S. Shunmugam and M. Kanthababu (eds.), Advances in Simulation, Product Design
and Development, Lecture Notes on Multidisciplinary Industrial Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9487-5_1
4 R. Sreenivasulu and Ch. Srinivasa Rao

manufacturing support systems are not sufficient to meet the above-stated problems.
Simulation, modelling and analysis help to fulfil the drawbacks of conventional sys-
tems by reducing experimental tests, flexibility in design of products according to
customers satisfaction with less capital investment. This is possible only by adopt-
ing design software, controlled machining parameters using sensor-based technol-
ogy with feedback system and optimizes the entire processes at every stage using
advanced optimization techniques. Guo and Dornfeld stated in their work by con-
trolling persuade of process parameters such as feed, depth of cut and tool geometry,
then only optimization of output responses can be possible [1, 2]. The finite ele-
ment modelling of machining was published by Strenkowski and Carroll [3], and a
comprehensive review of general FEM code as applied towards machining has been
reported by Marusich and Ortiz [4]. The author works reveal the detail improvements
in the mathematical theory and how to apply them towards machining. DEFORM
applies FEM theory in a user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) that is very
robust when compared to many custom FEM codes. DEFORM-3D software is a
FEM-based system which works on simulation of manufacturing process, especially
in designing and analysing the three-dimensional material flow in forming processes.
The DEFORM-3D software club the automatic framework regenerator that can acti-
vate without human intervention, producing optimized network. The best choice of
lattice system can be separated in the more accurate requisite areas; thus, the level
of issue is compact and computation is noticeably enhanced [5]. However, this soft-
ware is limited to guide template of turning and boring simulation in cutting aspects
until now. Drilling and other kind of machining simulations have to be built up by
individual. Hence, with the aid of this platform, its pre-processing unit is used to
simulate the drilling operation with HSS twist drill and process the information data
with the post-processing section [6]. In this paper, a FEM-based DEFORM-3D for
drilling of aluminium alloys is first constructed, and then, simulations are drawn
under different drilling speeds and feed rates in order to analyse and compare the
influence of drilling parameters on drilling thrust force, torque, stresses, strain rates
and temperature.

1.2 Modelling of Drilling Process

The work piece is modelled after assuming the material as perfectly plastic material
where the material constitutive model of this deformable body is represented with
Johnson–Cook material flow model. In the present analysis, Al 6061 and Al 7075
alloys are selected as work piece materials, and its properties are widely estimated in
the literature. The parameters of Johnson–Cook model (JC model) obtained from the
literature related to the same material during drilling operation under similar cutting
conditions [7, 8]. JC model is one of the most extensively employed in a wide
variety of manufacturing processes and engineering materials and a benchmark for
comparison of different constitutive models. The original JC constitutive model, i.e.
the combined form considering the strain, strain rate and temperature effect on flow
1 Some Investigations on Drilling … 5

stress, can be mathematically expressed with the relation as presented in Eq. 1.1.
  .   m 
  ε T − T0
σ = A + B(ε) n
1 + C ∗ ln . 1− (1.1)
ε0 Tmelt − T0

. .
where σ is the flow stress, ε is the plastic strain, ε is the plastic strain rate, ε0 is the
reference plastic strain rate (0.001 s−1 ), T is the temperature of the work piece, T melt
is the melting temperature of the work piece material and T 0 be the room temperature
(293 K); material constant A is the yield strength, B is the hardening modulus, C be
the strain rate sensitivity, ‘n’ is the strain-hardening exponent and ‘m’ is the thermal
softening exponent. Although a more realistic simulation model for the machining
process should also take, the parameters for Al 6061 alloy are A = 304.1 MPa, B =
113.8 MPa, n = 0.42, C = 0.002, m = 1.34 and T melt = 785 K, and values for Al
7075 alloy are A = 317.37 MPa, B = 166.95 MPa, C = 0.00736 n = 0.5091 and m
= 1.5724 and T melt = 900 K. The work piece is represented by a cylindrical model
of 10 mm radius, where the twist drill bit is modelled as a rigid body, which rotates
at the specified spindle speed. A fine mesh density is defined with an input size of
0.075 mm and size ratio 2 for work piece. Thermal boundary conditions are defined
keeping in view that it will allow heat transfer from work piece to cutting tool. Heat
transfer between the work piece and the tool is dependent on the pressure developed
during machining.

1.2.1 Set the Characteristics of Tool and Work Piece Model

The geometric model of drill is imported from CATIA V5 R19 package, and then, the
high-speed steel twist drill is set as adamant with respect to work piece. DEFORM-3D
V11.0 can create a simple work piece model. In this software package, the adaptive
meshing grid (AMG) technology is used to separate the grids. The framework of
drill bit and work piece utilize the fixed type. The element size is set to 0.25 mm, the
scale ratio of drill bit as set to 0.25 mm, the parent material web frame scale is set
to 5, the side length is set to 0.25 as minimum and the web framework at the part of
the parent material (Fig. 1.1).
Aluminium 6061 and 7075 alloy materials are chosen as work piece model
includes 100,000 elements of polygon shape with 20,000 nodes. The bottom sur-
face of the work piece is fixed in all directions. The twist drill bit is modelled as a
rigid body using 30,000 (polygon) elements with 20,000 ports which move at the
specified rotational speed. The work piece is represented by a cylindrical model of
10 mm diameter, where the cutting tool is modelled as a rigid body which moves
at the specified cutting speed. A fine mesh density is defined with an input size of
0.075 mm and size ratio 2 for work piece. Thermal boundary conditions are defined
keeping in view that it will allow heat transfer from work piece to the cutting tool.
6 R. Sreenivasulu and Ch. Srinivasa Rao

Fig. 1.1 FEA model of twist drill with work piece [9, 10]

Heat transfer between the work piece and the tool is dependent on the pressure
developed during machining.

1.2.2 Boundary Conditions Setting to the Work Piece

and Drill Bit

The initial setting of boundary conditions between the work piece especially at the
bottom side and the drill bit along X, Y and Z directions assumed to be zero. Drill bit
feeds along the Z-direction and rotates about Z-axis. Surrounding surfaces of parent
work material and drill bit are set to heat dissipation into atmosphere, and the work
piece dimensions’ reparation is activated. When the networks are reseparated, the
volume of deformable body will be altered. The reparation of volumetric change
is utilized to compensate the loss of volume of material. The reparation volume of
material is relative to two segments of volume fractions, one is the factual volume of
the parent work piece and the other is the equivalent network fraction of volumetric
change.

1.3 Simulation Using DEFORM-3D

1.3.1 Set the Relations Between the Tool and the Objects

The relationship between master servant and workbench of DEFORM-3D software

package is taken as the objects which are rigid (drill bit) are master parts and the
distortable objects (parent work piece material) are servant parts. The heat transfer
coefficient is set as 45 W/(m2 K), coefficient of friction is taken as 0.6 constant
throughout simulation by chosen shear friction and can be adopted in the simulation.
However, the utmost spoil of the material arrived to a critical value to identify the
1 Some Investigations on Drilling … 7

Fig. 1.2 Twist drill 3D model developed in CATIA

fracture or not, the Johnson–Cook convergence principle is applied, which can be

predicted the critical situations in the deformation of work piece materials. Hence,
the settings of simulation data parameters are tested. All developed simulations in
this section are generated by running the programme from DEFORM-3D software
at the similar conditions for machining of aluminium 6061 and 7075 alloys.

1.3.2 Import the Drill Bit from Modelling Software

The twist drill 3D model developed in CATIA-V5R-19 (shown in Fig. 1.2), which
is saved as a standard template library format and imported to DEFORM-3D. The
data is set to zero for drill bit flute height and helix angle, and then, the file is saved
in the subroutine program.

1.3.3 Selection of Data Set-Up for Simulation Control

The menu command provides in the selection of various control set-ups such as
100,000 simulation steps with a step size of 0.02 because a number of steps are
more, then better simulation results obtained. But step size selection is more as it
reduces the accuracy and the network frame collapses rapidly without any notice.
The menu stop command is used to stop the simulation according to our requirement.
At every 20 steps, the increment in the simulation took the new value up to depth of
the material which is set to 5 mm, either the depth of parent work material reached or
8 R. Sreenivasulu and Ch. Srinivasa Rao

total steps meet then the simulation stops automatically. The atmosphere temperature
is set to 293 K, and the heat transfer convection coefficient selected as 0.03 W/(m2 K)
from menu set-up. The SI system of units are considered for selection of magnitudes
of numerical data required to run the simulation from menu set up.

1.4 Results and Discussion

Simulation of drilling of aluminium alloys (6061 and 7075 series) using DEFORM-
3D V11.0 is applied and data as acquired, viz. stresses, strain rates, thrust force and
torque.

1.4.1 Simulation Results of Al 6061 Alloy

Effective Stress and Strain Rates The effective stress and strain rates are acquired
from the simulation at a simulation step of 2886 for Al 6061 alloy which is plotted
in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 with respect to time in steps. The obtained value of effective
stress is 216 MPa and effective strain at the rate of 0.461 mm/mm. At the beginning
of drilling operation the initial stress is more, once it attains yielding point then
material plastically deformed, indicates that no noticeable influence on burr height
by variation of input parameters.

Fig. 1.3 Effective stress

variation in drilling [9, 10]

Fig. 1.4 Strain variation in

drilling
1 Some Investigations on Drilling … 9

Fig. 1.5 Thrust and torque in drilling of Al 6061 alloy

Thrust and Torque During Drilling From Fig. 1.5, it is revealed that load (thrust
force) prediction during drilling of aluminium 6061 alloy at the simulation step 2886
interval is obtained as the maximum of 319 N and maximum torque is obtained as
268 N mm at the same step interval. From the simulation, it is observed that burr
height is minimum at minimum thrust load exerted between the drill bit and parent
material. Also, little bit influence of point and clearance angles on drill geometry
observed on burr height corresponding to thrust load.

Thermal Effect During Drilling At the step interval of 2886, generation of heat
occurs between tool and work piece in the shear deformation zone, which leads to
enhance the temperature in the range of 31–304 °C during drilling of Al 6061 alloy,
depicted in Fig. 1.6. There is no significant effect of temperature on burr height by
variation of input parameters while drilling, observed in the simulation steps.

Fig. 1.6 Thermal variation in drilling of Al 6061 alloy

10 R. Sreenivasulu and Ch. Srinivasa Rao

1.4.2 Simulation Results of Al 7075 Alloy

Effective Stress and Strain Distribution From the simulation, it reveals that burr
height is increased for Al 7075 compared with Al 6061, and reason may be that
the influence of composition elements in Al 7075 alloy. Stresses and strain rates are
also proportionally increased. The effective stress and strain data acquired from the
simulation based on finite element analysis using DEFORM-3D at a simulation step
of 2981 for aluminium 7075 alloy and are captured an image shown in Figs. 1.7 and
1.8 with respect to time in seconds. The obtained value of effective stress is 378 MPa
and effective strain at the rate of 0.347 mm/mm.

Thrust Force and Torque Prediction Figure 1.9 shows Al 7075 alloy load (thrust
force) prediction of the drilling process at 2981 simulation step interval. The maxi-
mum load observed is 251 N, and maximum torque obtained is 143 N mm at 2981
step interval. Both thrust and torque are suddenly increased at the middle of the

Fig. 1.7 Effective stress variation in drilling

Fig. 1.8 Effective strain variation in drilling

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Tropical American region, 233
Trout, 644
Trubu, 660
Trumpeter, 412
Trumpet-fish, 509
Trunk, 39
Trygon, 343
Trygonidæ, 342
Trygonorhina, 338
Trypauchen, 489
Tunny, 458
Turbinal, 57, 91
Turbot, 555
Twaite Shad, 659
Tyellina, 326
Tylognathus, 596
Typhlichthys, 618
Typhlonus, 548

Uaru, 536
Ulna, 59
Umbra, 429, 619
Umbrina, 428
Umbrine, 429
Undina, 365
Upeneichthys, 404
Upeneoides, 404
Upeneus, 404
Upokororo, 652
Uraleptus, 543
Uranoscopus, 462
Urinary organs, 155
Urocampus, 681
Urocentrus, 498
Uroconger, 674
Urogymnus, 343
Urohyal, 58, 91
Urolophus, 343
Uronectes, 538
Uronemus, 360
Urosphen, 507
Urosthenes, 370
Useful fishes, 189

Vaillant, 31
Valenciennes, 18
Vandellia, 581
Velifer, 397
Vendace, 649
Ventral fins, 42
Vertebral column, 51
Vertical fins, 40
Villiform teeth, 126
Viviparous Blenny, 497
Vogt, 32
Vomer (bone), 56, 89
Vomer (gen.), 441
Vulsus, 489

Wallago, 566
Wardichthys, 370
Weever, 464
Wels, 565
Whiff, 555
White-bait, 658
White-fish, 599, 648
Whiting, 541
Whiting-pout, 541
Willughby, 8
Wrasses, 525

Xenocephalus, 553
Xenocharax, 612
Xenocypris, 598
Xenodermichthys, 664
Xenomystus, 576
Xenopterus, 688
Xiphias, 431
Xiphidion, 496
Xiphiidæ, 431
Xiphochilus, 530
Xiphopterus, 434
Xiphorhampus, 611
Xiphostoma, 611

Yarrell, 27
Yellow-tail, 444

Zanchus, 449
Zaniolepis, 491
Zärthe, 603
Zebra-Shark, 327
Zeus, 451
Zoarces, 497
Zope, 603
Zuzuki, 378
Zygaena, 318
Zygapophyses, 52
Zygobatis, 346
 THE END.

Printed by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh.

 FOOTNOTES:
[1] From ιχθυς, fish, and λογος, doctrine or treatise.
[2] Down to this period the history of Ichthyology is fully
treated in the first volume of Cuvier and Valenciennes “Hist. nat.
d. Poiss.”
[3] Description of Ceratodus. “Phil. Trans.,” 1871, ii.
[4] In the formula generally preceding the description of a fish,
“L. lat. 40,” would express that the scales between the head and
caudal fin are arranged in 40 transverse series; and probably, that
the lateral line is composed of the same number of scales. “L.
transv. 8/5” would express that there are eight longitudinal series
of scales between the median line of the back and the lateral line,
and five between the lateral line and the middle of the abdomen.
[5] Pterotic of Parker.
[6] C. Hasse has studied the modifications of the texture of the
vertebræ and the structure of the Chondropterygian skeleton
generally, and shown that they correspond in the main to the
natural groups of the system, and, consequently, that they offer a
valuable guide in the determination of fossil remains.
[7] The Ganoids formed at former epochs the largest and most
important order of fishes, many of the fossil forms being known
from very imperfect remains only. It is quite possible that not a few
of the latter, in which nothing whatever of the (probably very soft)
endoskeleton has been preserved, should have to be assigned to
some other order lower in the scale of organisation than the
Ganoids (for instance, the Cephalaspidæ).
[8] As first proposed by Huxley.
[9] Stannius (pp. 60, 65) doubts the pure origin of these two
bones from membranous tissue, and is inclined to consider them
as “the extreme end of the abortive axial system.”
[10] Parker’s nomenclature is adopted here.
[11] According to Langerhans “Untersuchungen über
Petromyzon planeri” (Freiburg, 1873) an optic chiasma exists in
that species.
 [12] This nerve is not shown in the figure of the brain of the
Perch (Fig. 41), as reproduced above from Cuvier.
[13] Müller considers a nerve rising jointly with the Vagus in
Petromyzon to be this nerve (Fig. 45, hy).
[14] On the development and structure of the dentition of
Scarina, see Boas, “Die Zähne der Scaroiden,” in Zeitschr. f.
Wiss. Zoolog. xxxii. (1878).
[15] This applies to individuals only growing up under normal
conditions. Dr. H. A. Meyer has made observations on young
Herrings. Individuals living in the sea had attained at the end of
the third month a length of 45 to 50 millimetres, whilst those
reared from artificially-impregnated ova were only from 30 to 35
millimetres long. When the latter had been supplied with more
abundant food, they grew proportionally more rapidly in the
following months, so that at the end of the fifth month they had
reached the same length as their brethren in the sea, viz. a length
of 65 to 70 millimetres.
[16] Ray Lankester considers it to be a portion of the long
denticulated cornua of a genus Eukeraspis allied to Cephalaspis.
[17] Ekström, Fische in den Scheeren von Mörkö.
[18] Will probably be found.
[19] We distinguish these sub-regions, because their
distinction is justified by other classes of animals; as regards
freshwater fishes their distinctness is even less than that between
Europe and Northern Asia.
[20] Martens (Preuss. Exped. Ostas. Zool. i. p. 356), has
already drawn attention that a Barbel, said to have been obtained
by Ida Pfeiffer in Amboyna (Günth. Fish. vii. p. 123), cannot have
come from that locality.
[21] In the following and succeeding lists, those forms which
are peculiar to and exclusively characteristic of, the region, are
printed in italics; the other regions, in which the non-peculiar
forms occur, are mentioned within brackets [].
[22] Lates calcarifer in India as well as Australia.
[23] One species (Arius thalassinus) found in Indian and
African rivers.
[24] This species extends from India into East Africa.
 [25] We have left out from these considerations the Ariina and
Cyprinodonts, which can pass with impunity through salt water,
and are spread over much larger areas.
[26] Cope has discovered in a tertiary freshwater-deposit at
Idaho an extinct genus of this group, Diastichus. He considers
this interesting fact to be strongly suggestive of continuity of
territory of Asia and North America.—“Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 1873,”
p. 55.
[27] Leidy describes a Siluroid (Pimelodus) from tertiary
deposits of Wyoming Territory. “Contrib. to the Extinct Vert. Fauna
of the Western Territ. 1873,” p. 193.
[28] The genera peculiar to the Equatorial zone are printed in
italics.
[29] Number of species uncertain.
[30] See p. 151, Fig. 67.
[31] See p. 128, Fig. 55.
[32] See p. 104.
[33] See p. 167, Figs. 79, 81.
[34] See p. 136, Fig. 58.
[35] See p. 167, Fig. 78.
[36] The cartilaginous jaws of Sharks shrink at least a third in
drying, and, therefore, cannot be kept at full stretch without
tearing.
[37] This exception is a Ray obtained during the “Challenger”
expedition, and said to have been dredged in 565 fathoms.
[38] See pp. 73 and 74, Figs. 35 and 36.
[39] For other illustrations see p. 73, Fig. 35 (palatal view of
head); p. 74, Fig. 36 (pectoral skeleton); p. 141, Fig. 60 (gills); p.
148, Fig. 65 (lung); p. 151, Fig. 67 (heart); p. 134, Fig. 57
(intestine); p. 165, Fig. 77 (ovary).
[40] See p. 97, Fig. 41; and p. 152, Fig. 68.
[41] The Acanthopterygians do not form a perfectly natural
group, some heterogeneous elements being mixed up with it.
Neither are the characters, by which it is circumscribed,
absolutely distinctive. In some forms (certain Blennioids) the
structure of the fins is almost the same as in Anacanths; there are
 some Acanthopterygians, as Gerres, Pogonias, which possess
coalesced pharyngeals; and, finally, the presence or absence of a
pneumatic duct loses much of its value as a taxonomic character
when we consider that probably in all fishes a communication
between pharynx and air-bladder exists at an early stage of
development.
[42] In this instance, one may entertain reasonable doubts as
to the usefulness of the Pilot to the Shark.
[43] Mackerel, like other marine fishes, birds, and mammals of
prey, follow the shoals of young and adult Clupeoids in their
periodical migrations; on the British coasts it is principally the fry
of the Pilchard and Sprat which wanders from the open sea
towards the coast, and guides the movements of the Mackerel.
[44] The systematic affinities of these extinct genera are very
obscure. Cope places them, with others (for instance
Protosphyræna, which has a sword-like prolongation of the
ethmoid), in a distinct family, Saurodontidæ: see “Vertebrata of
the Cretaceous Formations of the West,” 1875.
[45] For specific characters and detailed descriptions we refer
to Günther, “Catal. of Fishes,” vol. vi.
[46] The names “Bull-trout” and “Peal” are not attributable to
definite species. We have examined specimens of S. salar, S.
trutta, and S. cambricus and S. fario, to which the name “Bull-
trout” had been given; and that of “Peal” is given indiscriminately
to Salmon-grilse and to S. cambricus.
[47] Fig. 317 is taken from a specimen in which the horny
covers of the dentition were lost, hence it does not represent
accurately the shape of the teeth.
[48] This name is two years older than Amphioxus.

Transcriber’s Notes:

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silently.

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3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
been retained as in the original.
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