CIE Chemistry IGCSE

AO3 Practical Skills 1: Demonstrate

knowledge of how to safely use
techniques, apparatus and materials

Notes

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Techniques, Apparatus and Materials
The safe use of techniques, apparatus and materials is crucial to devising a​ safe and
reproducible ​experiment. If an experiment is not safe then it usually means it is ​not being carried
out correctly​, and therefore the ​data collected is not valid​.

Safe use of Techniques

Techniques used in an experiment must be carried out safely. If practical techniques are not
executed properly, the person conducting the experiment is at risk and the data from the
experiment must be discarded as being ​invalid​.
A wide ​range of experimental techniques​ are carried out in experimental procedures:
- Measurements
- Purification
- Synthesis
- Observation
- Analysis
For the techniques to be carried out safely, it is important that you have a ​solid understanding of
the method​ and what is actually ​occurring chemically​ in the reaction:

For example, for the experiment to measure the ​rate of reaction between sodium thiosulfate
solution and hydrochloric acid,​ a precipitate is produced so a black cross is observed under the
beaker until it disappears. For this observation technique, it is important that you are aware of the
reaction going on in the beaker because ​sulfur dioxide is produced​ which causes irritation to the
eyes and lungs. Therefore, to be safe during the observation, you must not breathe in too deeply
when looking down the beaker to observe the cross.

Safe use of Apparatus

There are a lot of ​hazards​ related to experimental apparatus. These must be considered and
recorded in a risk assessment when devising an experimental procedure. Apparatus must be used
carefully and treated well to ​prevent damage​. As well as damaged apparatus causing an expense,
it also ​corrupts data​. If damaged apparatus is used for an experiment then the data produced
must be discarded as ​invalid​ because it is unknown if the ​equipment has affected the results​.

Examples​ of where the safe use of apparatus needs to be considered:

● Bunsen burners ​- these must be left on the orange safety flame when not in use and the
gas tap must be turned off when the flame is not lit. All hair must be tied back and safety
goggles must be worn. Flammable substances must be kept away from the flame and the
room should be kept well ventilated to encourage complete combustion.
● Glassware​ - fragile glassware is used in the laboratory. This must be handled carefully to
prevent it smashing. If the glass smashes it can propose two possible dangers because as
well as producing broken glass, the chemical contents of the glassware will also be spilled.
● Collecting volumes​ - if a gas or liquid is produced as a product, it is important that the
container used for collection has been calculated to be big enough for the amount of
product that will be produced. For example, if a gas syringe is collecting a gaseous product,
ensure the syringe is big enough, otherwise the syringe stopper can get rapidly pushed out
which could damage the equipment.

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Safe use of Materials
Materials used in experiments often have a ​hazard symbol​ to indicate what precautions must be
taken. Common hazards seen in the laboratory are ​‘irritant’​, ​‘corrosive’​ and​ ‘hazardous to the
environment’​. The hazard symbols are often on the chemical bottle in a red diamond, similar to
the two below. It is important that the hazards of the materials are included in a ​risk assessment
when devising an experiment and within this, there should be a record of suitable actions to take.

For example:
Corrosive and/or irritant​ - these chemicals
must be handled carefully to avoid contact
with the skin. Safety glasses must be worn
and the skin should be washed immediately
if it comes into contact.

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 CIE Chemistry IGCSE

AO3 Practical Skills 2: Plan experiments

and investigations

Notes

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Planning an experiment

Devising a hypothesis
Before you can start to devise an experimental method, you must devise a ​hypothesis​. A
hypothesis​ ​is a ​prediction ​made before conducting an experiment about the results you expect to
collect. A hypothesis is often written as an if/then statement. For example:
● ‘If I drink more water, then I will lose weight faster.’
● ‘If you drink coffee before bed, then you will take longer to get to sleep.’
A hypothesis states a relationship between two variables - the​ independent ​and ​dependent
variables. The hypothesis ​cannot be proven as true​ but it can be supported by scientific data.

Devising a method
When devising a method you must include:
● What your​ independent, dependent ​and ​control variables​ are
● How to ​control ​the ​control variables ​to ensure the test is valid
● The ​range ​and ​intervals ​of your independent variable you will test
● If the experiment should be ​repeated
● Whether a ​control experiment​ is possible for comparison
● The required ​apparatus​ and how to ​set up​ the apparatus​ safely
● The ​techniques ​required
● A method that enables you to ​test the predictions​ you have made

Ultimately, the method must be ​clear, easy to follow ​and enable you to collect ​precise and
accurate data.

Risk assessment
It is important to carry out a ​risk assessment​ before you start the experiment. This must consider
all the ​chemicals​, ​conditions​ and ​apparatus​ being used. The assessment must evaluate the risk
and put in place safety precautions. An action should be in place which can be carried out if the
hazard arises.

Common risks in the laboratory:

● Glassware​ - Glassware is fragile so must be handled carefully. Sweep up any broken glass
immediately.
● Bunsen burners​ - Bunsen burners could cause flammable chemicals to ignite. Keep
windows open and flammable substances away from the Bunsen burner when in use.
● Corrosive chemicals ​- Corrosive chemicals can burn the skin so wear safety glasses and
handle with care. Wipe up any spilled chemicals immediately and wash your hands
immediately if you come into contact.
● Toxic chemicals​ - Chemicals like ammonia and chlorine have toxic vapours. Handle them
in a fume cupboard. Keep the laboratory well ventilated.

Suggesting suitable apparatus

When deciding what apparatus to use the ​precision ​and ​practicality ​of using a piece of apparatus
for a given task should be considered. A ​diagram ​is a useful way to show the initial setting up of
apparatus. An example is shown:

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Example of apparatus suitability for measuring volume:
Various apparatuses are suitable for different uses. To measure liquid volume there are several
options, each with a different use:
● Dropping pipette ​- Suitable for very small quantities of solutions, used to add drops to a
mixture. Not the most accurate.
● Measuring cylinder​ - Less accurate than a burette but simpler and quicker to use.
● Beaker​ - Low accuracy, often used to hold liquid but can be used to measure approximate
volumes.
● Volumetric pipette​ - Measures extremely accurate volumes. Often can only measure one
volume accurately. E.g. 25cm​3​ volumetric pipette.
● Burette​ - Measures extremely accurate volumes. It can measure a range of volumes.

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 CIE Chemistry IGCSE

AO3 Practical Skills 3: Make and record

observations, measurements and
estimates

Notes

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Measurements

Introduction
There are two types of data in chemistry: ​qualitative ​and ​quantitative​. Quantitative data is the
kind of data that can be ​measured​. It is important that these measurements are as ​accurate ​and
precise ​as possible, or the data will be corrupted which may lead to ​false conclusions​ to an
experiment.

Accuracy and precision

● Precision ​- Precision is ​how close a number of measurements are to one another​.
Some examples of how to take precise measurements include:
○ Use ​appropriate measuring instruments​, for example do not use a meter rule to
measure the width of a pencil.
○ Use a pH probe rather than universal indicator to measure pH because it will give
the pH to two decimal places.
● Accuracy ​- Accuracy is the​ closeness of the recorded data to the true value.​ To
increase accuracy, measurements should be ​repeated​, so it may be necessary to repeat
the same experiment several times to get reliable data. Using a ​pH probe​ to measure pH
also increases accuracy as matching the universal indicator colour to a value can be
subjective.

Taking and recording readings

There are several key skills required to take readings:
● Reading a scale with appropriate accuracy and precision:
○ In order to take an ​accurate ​reading you should position yourself at ​eye level​ with
the apparatus.
○ When taking readings from apparatus filled with liquid you must take the
measurement from ​the bottom of the meniscus. ​The meniscus is the curve of the
liquid.

PRHaney​,​ ​CC BY-SA 3.0​, ​(image altered from original)

● Interpolating between scale divisions:

○ It is rare that what you are measuring will fall exactly on a scale division, in this case
you can ​interpolate ​and ​estimate ​a more precise reading.
○ For instance, if you were measuring a distance with a ruler which had millimetre
divisions and the length fell evenly between 77 mm and 78 mm, then it could be
recorded as 77.5 mm.

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 ● Taking repeated measurements, where appropriate:
○ Taking repeated measurements improves the ​accuracy ​of the experiment because
it allows you to:
■ Spot and discard ​anomalous readings.​ Anomalous readings are readings
which​ deviate largely from the trend ​of the rest of the data; their
occurrence is most likely due to apparatus, method or human ​errors​.
■ Calculate a ​mean​. This helps to eliminate random errors that occur when
taking each of the individual measurements. Anomalous readings must not
be included in the mean calculation.

Types of measurements

Measuring mass
● Solids ​are usually weighed on a ​weighing boat​ using a mass balance, this is to prevent
contamination of the pan on the mass balance and contamination of the solid used. Solids
can be ​measured by difference​ to get a more accurate value. This means the weighing
boat is weighed with the solid and then again after the solid is added to the mixture. This
calculates exactly how much solid is added to the mixture, taking into account any grains
left in the weighing boat.

Measuring volume of gas

● In some experiments it may be necessary to collect a​ volume of gas​, this may seem
difficult but with the right setup it is easily achieved using either of the two setups below. For
the setup with the measuring cylinder, note that the measuring cylinder must be full of water
before the experiment starts.
● Once you have set up the apparatus as shown, you may mix the reagents in the conical
flask and quickly close the conical flask using the bung. The gas produced in the reaction
will then collect in the​ gas syringe ​or ​measuring cylinder.

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Measuring pH
● pH is measured in two different ways. It can be measured with a​ pH probe​ or using ​pH
scales​ with a suitable ​indicator​.
● Using a pH probe is quite simple. The probe is placed in the solution you are testing. You
wait until the reading is ​steady ​and record the pH shown on the digital display. To get
consistent results with a pH probe, the electrode must be ​washed​, then ​calibrated ​using
buffer solutions​ of known pH.
● Using pH scales to find pH typically has a ​greater uncertainty​ and is ​less precise​, but
works when a pH meter is not available or cannot be used. To find pH using a scale add an
indicator ​to the solution (or add solution to paper containing the indicator), then compare
the ​colour ​that is produced to a suitable scale, like the one shown below:

Observation

Qualitative ​data is the type that is ​observed​. Things like colour changes or the type of chemical
present ​cannot be described with a number​. In an experiment it is important to write down every
change seen, even if it seems insignificant, it may come into play when you make your
conclusions ​and ​analysis​. It is also important that everything you do is written down: the changes
made to the experiment should be recorded exactly so that observations and measurements can
be repeated. If an experiment cannot be repeated all conclusions drawn from that experiment could
be completely wrong.

Estimates

Estimates, or ​approximations​, are useful measurements which ​quickly​ can show a ​rough
relationship​ between variables. It can be used at the beginning of an experiment to show the
region in which an exact value will lie.

Examples of the use of estimates can be seen in titrations:

In an ​acid-alkali titration​ an estimate is used to get the rough point at which ​neutralisation
occurs. The estimate is often referred to as a ​‘rough titration’​. It distinguishes the approximate
volume of solution that needs to be added from the burette which means, on future titrations, care
can be taken around this region by adding the solution ​dropwise​ to get a value which is as
accurate as possible. This use of an estimate speeds up the process and means accurate results
are collected early on in the experiment since the region of neutralisation is established straight
away.

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 CIE Chemistry IGCSE

AO3 Practical Skills 4: Interpret and

evaluate experimental observations and
data

Notes

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Processing data and drawing conclusions

Data Tables
Tables of data are the most common form of ​recording observations​ in chemistry. A table should
be set up ​before ​the experiment starts, and should have the correct number of rows so that there
is enough space to record all of your observations. A student must therefore have a good idea of
how many observations they will make as well as what they will be observing. Tables can contain
quantitative or qualitative data or both, they help to organise the data so ​conclusions ​can more
easily be made. ​Units​ of measurements must be in the headings of the columns and not in each
individual box.

The​ independent variable ​is always in the ​first column ​of the table and the ​dependent
variable(s)​ is in the ​next column(s).

The table below is an example of a table containing qualitative data.

Solution A Solution B Solution C

Test with AgNO​3 No reaction White precipitate Yellow precipitate

Test with Ba(NO​3​)​2 White precipitate No reaction No reaction

Test with NH​3 Blue precipitate Pink precipitate Green precipitate

In the exam you may have to ​complete tables​, some of them will require ​simple calculations
such as​ calculating the mean ​- remember to ​exclude anomalies​. You may have to fill in a table
like the one above using knowledge of how to identify different ions from the results of chemical
tests.

Drawing conclusions
Once all of your data has been collected and you have made your analysis, ​conclusions ​can be
made, these may be drawn from the ​shapes of graphs​ that may show certain ​trends​, or values
given by the analysis. From there you can begin to ​evaluate ​your experiment. Is the experiment
accurate ​enough for the conclusion to be supported? Does the experiment need to be ​repeated​?
It is vitally important that all observations are written down in the experiment as it makes evaluating
the method much easier.

When drawing conclusions from an experiment it is important to ​reference the data.​ In the exam
this includes ​giving examples of data​ collected to illustrate a ​trend or pattern​ and ​averages
such as the ​mean and ranges​. You are expected to use a ​calculator ​when necessary, such as
when calculating these averages. An ​explanation ​of the trends and observations from your
experiment should accompany the data you’ve included in your conclusion. These explanations
should draw upon ​scientific knowledge​ from your entire course.

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Presentation of data

Introduction
A ​table ​is a good way of ​recording results ​and ​observations​ during the experiment and for
qualitative data​ it is also a good way of ​presenting ​the data. However, for ​quantitative data​, a
graph ​is generally best used to present the data, as it clearly shows patterns and trends and how
the dependent variable varies with the independent variable.

Drawing graphs
You will not only need to be able to​ read and interpret​ graphs given to you in the exam, you may
also be expected to ​draw ​a graph from a set of data given. Here are some important tips for
drawing graphs:
● Always use a ​sharpened pencil​ and ​ruler ​to draw the axis and line of best fit.
● Label ​the ​axis ​with its variable and its ​units.
● Draw your graph a​ sensible size.
○ Use up at least half of the graph paper given.
● Use a sensible ​scale.
● The ​dependent variable​ goes on the ​vertical y axis.
● The ​independent variable​ goes on the ​horizontal x axis.
● Determine the ​ranges ​of the axis so you can include all the data points collected.
● Give the graph an appropriate ​title .
● Indicate any ​anomalies ​but identify them as anomalous.
○ Ignore these when drawing your line of best fit.
● Draw a​ line of best fit​ if possible.
○ The ‘line’ could be ​straight or curved. ​If the line of best fit is not a straight line, a
freehand continuous curve must be drawn.
○ Never ​just connect the points like a dot-to-dot.
○ Bring a long, ​clear ​ruler to the exam so you can see the data points when drawing a
straight line of best fit.

A helpful way to remember which axis the independent and dependent variables go on is to
imagine the letters ‘I’ and ‘D’ sat on their respective axis as shown:

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Shown below is an example graph drawn for the following table of results:
Notice that the ​units​ of measurements are only included in the title of each column. Each
measurement of the same type must be given to the same ​degree of accuracy ​- e.g. in the table
below, each weight value is given to three significant figures.

Length (cm) Weight (g)

10 35.0

15 38.5

25 50.0

33 58.0

40 65.0

45 100

58 88.0

59 85.0

70 96.0

The ​graph​ to represent this data:

An example conclusion:
The data collected shows that as the length of oak leaves increases, the weight of them also
increases linearly. For instance, a leaf which measured 10 cm weighed only 35.0 g whereas a leaf

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which measured 59 cm weighed 85.0 g. The explanation for this is that longer leaves have a larger
surface area and, therefore, a greater mass. If I were to repeat this experiment I would measure
longer leaves to investigate whether the trend remains the same and if it remains linear for lengths
past 80 cm.

This conclusion includes:

● The ​pattern/trend
● Data points ​to illustrate the trend
● A ​scientific explanation​ for the trend
● A short ​evaluation

Exam questions
As well as drawing graphs you will need to be able to ​interpret and read graphs​ given to you in
the exam. Possible skills you could be tested on include:
● Reading data points​ off a graph
● Drawing ​an appropriate​ line of best fit
○ Remember it may not be straight!
● Suggesting the​ type of graph​ you would use for a given set of data
○ General rule of thumb - if ​quantitative ​use a​ scatter graph​, if ​qualitative ​use a ​bar
chart.
● Identifying ​patterns ​and ​trends
● Drawing conclusions​ from the graph which must include ​referencing data points
● Comparing ​2 similar graphs
○ For instance, comparing 2 graphs which have the same dependent and independent
variables but a different subject of study (e.g. for the example above, comparing that
graph to another graph which shows the lengths and weights for a different species
of leaf).

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 CIE Chemistry IGCSE

AO3 Practical Skills 5: Evaluate methods

and suggest possible improvements

Notes

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Evaluation and analysis of experimental methods

Introduction
An important skill in chemistry is being able to ​describe, explain ​and ​comment​ on ​experimental
techniques ​and ​methods.​ This includes:

How a proposed method could be improved

Examples:
● Carrying out ​repeats ​to identify ​anomalies ​and calculate a ​mean.
● When observing a ​colour change​ in solution, does the method suggest placing a white tile
underneath the beaker to better observe the colour change?

How the apparatus used could be improved

Using apparatus with a​ higher resolution​ improves the ​precision ​of your readings.
Examples:
● Using a pH probe instead of universal indicator.
● Using a 25 cm​3​ measuring cylinder instead of a 50 cm​3​ flask to measure out 20 cm​3​.

Identifying any steps that could cause error

As well as identifying areas that could ​cause error​ you may also have to suggest how this error
could be ​minimised​.
Examples​:
● An experiment used to investigate the water potential of potatoes requires wet potatoes to
be dried, in this example, drying should be done by the same person for the same length of
time with each potato piece.
● An experiment which investigates rates of reaction uses the reaction between hydrochloric
acid and sodium thiosulfate which produces a white precipitate, causing the solution to turn
cloudy. A white cross is placed under the beaker and the time taken for the black cross to
disappear is measured. The exact point when the cross disappears is ​subjective ​and the
time would vary from person to person, so the same one person should say when the cross
disappears each time.

If you were to repeat an experiment, what changes you would make and why
This can include changes to the ​method​, ​apparatus ​or the ​range ​and ​intervals ​of the
independent variable.
Examples:
● If a trend was difficult to see then more values of the independent variable should be tested,
such as instead of taking measurements at pH 6, pH 7, pH 8 and pH 9, next time you would
test every 0.5 pH units from 5.5 to 9.5.
○ Testing over a ​larger range ​and at​ smaller intervals

Explaining why certain techniques / apparatus are used over others

Examples:
● A good ​technique ​for measuring mass is the ​‘weighing by difference’ method​ and is
more ​accurate ​that taking a single mass measurement. The method - first weigh the

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 container with the solid in it, then add the solid to the reaction and reweigh the container,
the difference between these two values would be the mass of solid added.
● This comes back to the ​resolution ​and ​precision ​of the apparatus
○ High resolution isn’t always best though - it would be better to measure 100 cm​3​ of a
liquid using a 100 cm​3​ beaker that had divisions every 10 cm​3​ instead of measuring
out 10 cm​3​ in a 10 cm​3​ beaker with divisions every 1 cm​3​ - but having to do that 10
times to reach 100 cm​3​!

Identifying variables that need to be controlled and how you would control them
● These variables are called ​control variables​ and they are needed in order to carry out a
‘fair test’. ​If the variables are not controlled, the data produced is ​invalid​.
○ It enables the effects of changing the independent variable alone to be observed
and recorded.
● A fair test is one that ​controls all of the variables in an experiment except one ​- the one
that you, the experimenter, changes. This is the ​independent variable​ and the thing that
changes as a result of changing the independent variable is the ​dependent variable.
○ Because it is ​dependent ​on the other variable.
● Examples:
○ Controlling temperature​ - place the required flask/beaker etc. in which the
experiment is taking place in into a ​water bath.​ The temperature in the water
changes much more slowly and is much more constant than the temperature in the
air.
○ Using the ​same volumes / concentrations / masses ​of chemicals used besides
the independent variable in repeats. If the rate of reaction of two solutions is being
measured at different temperatures, the concentration and volumes of the solutions
must be kept exactly the same.
○ Controlling pH​ - a ​pH buffer​ can be used to limit the changes in pH during a
reaction

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