CHEM 111

Inorganic Chemistry
TRISHA DIANNE F. CORONEL
Instructor
REVIEW
 TOPIC 2:
CHEMICAL APPARATUS
and
UNIT OPERATIONS OF ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the safety rule in the laboratory
2. Practice the proper use of analytical balance
3. Practice the procedure of using volumetric flask and
making a correct reading
Learning Outcomes cont.

4. Convert measurement units accurately

5. Identify various types of errors in chemical analyses and

the methods to be used to detect them;

6. Differentiate precision and accuracy

LABORATORY PROTOCOLS
and
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE SAFETY AND LABORATORY

GUIDELINES THAT MUST BE OBSERVED AT ALL TIMES:

1. Students should familiarize the safety measures and

operating procedures of the laboratory such as: location
of safety showers, fire extinguishers and medicine/ first
aid kit. Know the fire alarm and exit locations.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

2. EATING, DRINKING, SMOKING and HORSEPLAYING in the

laboratory are strictly prohibited.

3. NO littering and loitering inside the laboratory.

4. ALWAYS wear laboratory coats or apron in performing an

experiment.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

5. Wear safety glasses and face shields when working

hazardous materials.

6. Wear gloves when handling hazardous materials and toxic

agent.

7. Open-toes footwear are not allowed inside the laboratory.

SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

8. ALWAYS tie loose hair as this might catch fire.

9. AVOID floppy things, avoid things that dangle.
10. DO NOT LEAVE an on-going experimental unattended.
11. Never use open flames unless instructed by the teacher.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

12. Students should always keep their work orderly.

Bags, books, and other belongings are to be placed in
designated areas, not on the worktables.

13. Students will be working in a group. Each group

should always keep their workplace clean and organize.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

14. A MONITORING GROUP will be assigned in every

laboratory experiment. This monitoring will be
responsible for the preparation of reagents, borrowing
of chemicals, checking the laboratory experiment,
distribution of laboratory manual/activity sheet before
and after the experiment and inspection of laboratory
areas.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

15. REAGENTS AND EQUIPMENT

a. The label of reagent bottles and equipment
instruction should be read carefully before use.
b. Chemicals should be place in one designated
area .
c. Only required quantity of chemicals is to be taken
from the reagent bottle.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

d. DO NOT interchanged spatulas, droppers and pipettes

assigned from each reagent to avoid contamination.

e. Excess reagents should never be poured back into the

reagent bottles.

f. Proper disposal of waste chemicals must be observed .

SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

16. Accidents and Injuries

a. All forms of injuries should be reported
immediately to the instructor.
b. Cracked or broken glassware should be discarded
immediately.
c. Use caution and the proper equipment to handle
hot glassware.
 SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

d. Never leave the burner unattended.

e. If you will spill acid or any other corrosive chemicals on
your skin or clothes, wash immediately with large
amount of water.
f. Apply pressure to any severe cuts to stop bleeding.
h. If chemical will splash in your eyes, immediately flush
running water.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

17. Chemical Handling Safety

a. Never mix chemicals just for fun.
b. Smelling and tasting of chemicals is prohibited.
c. Do not inhale directly chemicals directly from the
container.
d. Keep all lids of containers closed.
 SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

e. Never pipette solution using your mouth.

f. Be extra careful when working with acid and base.
g. Keep combustible materials away from open
flames.
h. The hood should be used for experiments
involving the use/production of objectionable gases.
 SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

18. Practice CLAYGO.

a. All glassware is properly clean.
b. Water and gas outlets are turns off.
c. Working area or tables are clean and ready for the next class.
d. All used/borrowed equipment should be returned.

19. After each laboratory period, the student should always wash
his/her hand.
SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

FIRST AID AND EMERGENCY MEASURES

• Thermal Burns – hold the burned area under cold water
or ice for several minutes.
• Fires from Burning Reagents – turn off gas burners and
cover the area with a damp cloth.
• Eye Accidents – Immediately flush the eyes with water
for at least 15 minutes.
 SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

• Chemicals on skin – wash the affected area immediately and

thoroughly with plenty of water.
FOR ACID: Wash with saturated sodium bicarbonate.
FOR ALKALI: Wash with saturated boric acid solution.
FOR ORGANIC CHEMICALS:
Wash with rubbing alcohol (75% isopropyl alcohol)

• Electrical Shock – remove the source of shock. Use dry towel when
moving wires.
 SAFETY LABORATORY
GUIDELINES cont.

• Cuts – allow minor cuts to bleed for a few seconds. Remove

bits of substances from the wound area, and apply
disinfectant and bandage.

• Poisoning by swallowing – dilute the poison by drinking

plenty of water. Then neutralize the poison:
ACIDS – use milk of magnesia
ALKALIS- use vinegar
LABORATORY SAFETY SYMBOLS
LABORATORY SAFETY SYMBOLS cont.
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS

 ANALYTICAL BALANCE
-an instrument for
determining mass with a
maximum capacity that ranges
from 1 g to a few kilograms.
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS cont.

Precautions in Using an Analytical Balance:

1. Center the load on the pan as well as possible.
2. Protect the balance from corrosion.
3. Observe special precautions for weighing liquids.
4. Consult your instructor if the balance appears to need
adjustment.
5. Keep the balance and its case scrupulously clean.
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS cont.

6. Always allow an object that has been heated to return to

room temperature before weighing it.

7. Use tongs, finger pads, or a glassine paper strip to handle

dried objects to prevent transferring moisture to them.
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS cont.

TO WEIGH A CHEMICAL:
1. Place a clean receiving vessel on the balance pan.
NOTE: TARE is the mass of an empty vessel.
2. Weigh the container or glass bottle. Read its mass.
3. Add the chemical into the vessel and read its mass.
• The mass of the sample is the difference between the
two masses.
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS cont.

• Volume may be
measured reliably
with a pipette, a
burette, or a
volumetric flask.
• The unit of volume is
the liter (L).
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS cont.

 VOLUMETRIC FLASK
-used when it is necessary to
know both precisely and
accurately the volume of the
solution that is being prepared
- has only one calibration mark
(on the neck of the flask)
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS cont.

• In reading volumes, the eye must

be at the level of the liquid surface
to avoid an error due to parallax.
• It is common practice to use the
bottom of the meniscus as the
point of reference in calibrating
and using volumetric equipment
COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS cont.
CONVERSION OF UNITS
AND STATISTICAL
METHODS
MEASUREMENT
- usually consist of a unit and a number expressing the
quantity of that unit

Unfortunately, many different units may be used to

express the same physical measurement.
Ex. 1.5 g also may be expressed as 0.0033 lb or 0.053 oz.
MEASUREMENT cont.

 International System of Units (SI) Système

International d’Unités – standardized system of units
MEASUREMENT cont.
 MEASUREMENT cont.

DERIVED SI unit
- obtain by
multiplication or
division of one or
more of the base
unit.
 MEASUREMENT cont.

• DENSITY – is define as the amount of mass in a unit

volume of a substance.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT cont.

• Dimensional Analysis
-converts one unit to another
- a way to analyze and solve problems using the
units, or dimensions, of the measurements.
Dimensional Analysis cont.
Dimensional Analysis cont.
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

• Two kinds of numbers are encountered in scientific

work: exact numbers (those whose values are known
exactly) and inexact numbers (those whose values have
some uncertainty).

Remember: Uncertainties always exist in measured

quantities.
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT cont.

• SIGNIFICANT FIGURES - are all numbers that add to the

meaning of the overall value of the number
- those digits in a measured numbers that include all
certain digits plus a final one that is somewhat uncertain.
EX. 26.86
0.55
0.0057
RULES IN COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

1. Non-zero digits are always significant.

Ex. 1.234 has 4 significant figures
2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.
Ex. 40035 has 5 significant figures
3. A final zero or trailing zero in the decimal portion only are significant .
Ex. 0.30400 has 5 significant figures
4. Leading zeros or zeros after the decimal point are not significant.
Ex. 0.0032 has 2 significant figures
5. A zero to the left of the decimal point on numbers less than one is not significant.
Ex. 0. 61 has 2 significant figures
RULES IN COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

6. A zero at the end of a number and to the left of the decimal may or
may not be significant. Ex. 200 has 2 or 3 significant figures
NOTE: To avoid this kind of confusion, express the number in
scientific notation.
Ex. 2.0 x 102 has 2 significant figures
2.00 x 102 has 3 significant figures
7. If a number has more numbers than the desired number of
significant digits, the number is rounded. For example, 432,500 is
433,000 to 3 significant digits (using half up (regular) rounding).
Writing measurements in scientific notation

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
– is the representation of a number in the form of A x 10n
Example: 1. 56000000 mg can be written as 5.6 x 107 mg.
2. 0.00000320 hour can be written as 3.20 x 10-7 hour.

PRACTICE:
1. 0.00150
2. 230000
Writing measurements in scientific notation

CALCULATIONS WITH SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

1. Addition and Subtraction – transform all exponents to be the
same before you can add and subtract.
Writing measurements in scientific notation

2. Multiplication – when exponents are multiplied, add them.

Example: 2.3 x 107 X 1.9 x 105 = 105

3. Division – when exponents are divided, subtract them.

Example: (8 x 103 )3 / 2x102 = 101

4. When parenthesis are involved, you multiply.

Example: (103)2 = 106
NOTE :

 Measurements invariably involve errors and uncertainties.

 Errors are caused by faulty calibrations or standardizations or by
random variations and uncertainties in results.
 Frequent calibrations, standardizations, and analyses of known
samples can sometimes be used to lessen all but the random
errors and uncertainties
 measurement data can only give us an estimate of the “true”
value
CENTRAL TENDENCY OF DATA

• ARITHMETIC MEAN - usually considered to represent

the central tendency of a data set collected from
replicates
- Average value of the sample, can be calculated using
the formula:
CENTRAL TENDENCY OF DATA cont.

• Find the arithmetic mean of the following

measurements: 4, 4, 5,7 ,7, 7
CENTRAL TENDENCY OF DATA cont.

• MEDIAN - can be used as a way to eliminate the effect of

significant outliers in determining the estimated value.
• data should be arranged in order of their magnitude and the
middle value of the set will be the set’s median (M)
CENTRAL TENDENCY OF DATA cont.

• MODE – the value that appears most frequently

– set of data of may have one mode or more
EXAMPLE
3, 3,3,3 6, 9, 16, 16, 16, 27, 27, 27, 37, 48
ACCURACY VS. PRECISION
ACCURACY VS. PRECISION

• PRECISION – refers to how close measurements of

the same item are to each other

• ACCURACY – refers to how close a measurement is to

the true or accepted value
Important terms used in
Inorganic Chemistry
WAY OF EXPRESSING ACCURACY

- The difference between the obtained result and the

expected result is usually divided by the expected
result and reported as percent relative error
Measures of Spread Data

• Precision is a measure of the spread of data, may be

expressed as the:
-Range
-Standard deviation
- variance
Measures of Spread Data

• Precision is a measure of the spread of data, may be

expressed as the:
-Range
-Standard deviation
- Variance
Measures of Spread Data

• RANGE – the difference between the largest value and the

smallest value in a data set.
– Provides the total variability in the data set but do not
provide the information about the distribution of
individual measurements

– EXAMPLE: 4, 6, 9, 3, 7
9- 3= 6
Measures of Spread Data cont.

• STANDARD DEVIATION – most widely used measure of precision

or
Measures of Spread Data cont.

• Relative Standard Deviation – also known as the

coefficient
– The measure of relative precision and expressed as a
percentage of the mean value or result
– FORMULA : Sr = (s/x)̅ X 100
Measures of Spread Data cont.

• VARIANCE – the square of standard deviation (S2)

Variance= S2 = (0.051) 2= 0.0026

ANY QUESTION???