Available online at www.sciencedirect.
com Current Opinion in
ScienceDirect
Recent advances in micropollutant removal and mitigation from
water using three dimensional adsorbent materials
R. Selvakumar1, A. Guhananthan1 and Thavamani Palanisami2
Abstract
A micropollutant (MP) at ng/L to mg/L concentration in envi-
ronment has detrimental impact on various ecosystems. Such
micropollutants have been removed or adsorbed using various
types of adsorbents. Despite of various adsorbents reported,
recent developments on three dimensional (3D) materials for
MP removal from water and related environment are found to
be interesting and superior with respect to porosity, MP inter-
action, field applicability, surface functionalisation etc.
Considering the superiority and possibility of use in field, in this
review, we have reviewed various 3D materials developed for
MP removal like 3D foam, 3D aerogels, 3D ceramic materials,
use of 3D additive manufacturing and 2D/3D incorporated 3D/
2D materials. This review details the methods of synthesis, its
adsorption capacity, mechanism of interaction of pollution to
material, challenges and possible scope for future works for
use of 3D materials for MP removal from water.
Addresses
1
Nanobiotechnology Laboratory, Department of Nanobiotechnology,
PSG Institute of Advanced Studies, Coimbatore, 641 004, India
2
Environmental Plastic and Innovation Cluster (EPIC), Global Inno-
vation Centre for Advanced Nanomaterials (GICAN), The University of
Newcastle, NSW2308, Australia
Corresponding author: Selvakumar, R (rsk@psgias.ac.in), (selvabio-
tech@gmail.com)
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023,
34:100475
This review comes from a themed issue on Environmental Technolo-
gies 2023: Eco-Friendly and Advanced Technologies for Pollutant
Remediation and Management
Edited by Palanivel Sathishkumar, Abirami Ramu Ganesan, Tony
Hadibarata and Thava Palanisami
For complete overview of the section, please refer to the article
collection - Environmental Technologies 2023: Eco-Friendly and
Advanced Technologies for Pollutant Remediation and Management
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2023.100475
2468-5844/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords
Micropollutant, 3D adsorbents, Technologies, Adsorption, Functionali-
sation, Challenges.
Introduction
Micropollutants (MP) are complex mixtures of chem-
icals that are present in nanogram to microgram level in
various types of water samples. Since these compounds
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Environmental Science & Health
create complex mixture when present in some water
sources, it becomes challenging for removal, recovery or
treatment. Such residual MP’s cause severe health
issues including cancer on prolonged exposure. Nitro-
samines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols,
phthalate esters, etc are a few carcinogenic MP to
mention [1]. Hence removal of MP from water sources
is important and inevitable. Table 1 shows the concen-
tration of a variety of MP present in the effluent from
wastewater treatment plant [2]. Various technologies
have been researched for the removal of MPs like bio-
logical treatment, adsorption, photocatalysis, ozonolysis,
reverse osmosis, etc. Despite these technologies,
incomplete removal of MP in biological treatment, un-
wanted derivatives and byproducts in ozonolysis, inef-
ficient removal in photocatalysis, higher cost in reverse
osmosis technology are seen as setbacks for these
technologies. However, adsorption remains an attractive
methodology owing to its ease of operation in the field,
ability to scale up to a larger volume and does not pro-
duce any toxic byproducts by itself. Among various ad-
sorbents studied, recently 2D and 3D adsorbents have
been of greater focus due to its high reactivity, enhanced
surface properties, ability to be functionalized easily and
have shown higher and stronger adsorption capacity
when compared to conventional adsorbents. Moreover,
these materials have less tendency to form aggregates,
especially after functionalization due to a decrease in
pep interaction, thereby increasing surface area [3].
The distribution of pore size and differentiability of
pollutants through the adsorbent is superior when
compared to the conventional random-shaped adsor-
bents. 3D material or 3D modification of 2D material
has been suggested to improve enzyme distribution in
membranes [4]. Moreover, the separation of 3D adsor-
bents is easier, especially in adsorption systems that clog
when added to water due to aggregation resulting in
reduced effectiveness. Konig et al. [5] reported 3D-
printed alumina support along with zeolite-coated filter
that possessed a high surface area with the potential to
remove MP from downstream municipal or industrial
wastewater. Apart from 3D structure formation, 3D
modification also has been helpful in increasing the
adsorption efficiency of MPs [4]. Converting biochar
into 3D porous aerogel by one-step direct carbonization-
activation method was found to be efficient against
phenicol antibiotics wherein pore filling effect, pep/n-
p and electrostatic interactions play crucial role along
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023, 34:100475
2 Environmental Technologies 2023: Eco-Friendly and Advanced Technologies for Pollutant Remediation and Management

Table 1

Maximum reported concentration of most often determined MPs present in effluent from wastewater treatment plant arranged in
descending order of concentration [2].

S.No. Group of compounds Identified compounds Highest concentration

determined (mg/L)

1. Antidepressant agents Citalopram 840

2. Nanoparticles Nanoscale fragments containing 70–85% of carbon, 550 ± 130
low amounts of oxygen and heavy metals
3. Antiepileptics Gabapentin 79.86
4. Analgesics/anti inflammatories Tramadol 59.05
5. Antiretroviral agents Lamivudine 55.76 ± 5.48
6. Zidovudine 37.14 ± 2.56
7. Efavirenz 34 ± 2.8
8. H2-receptor antagonists Valsartan 28.22
9. Metabolites N-acetyl-4 aminoantipyrine 25.03
10. Industrial chemicals 4-Methyl-1H-benzotriazole 24.30
11. Analgesics/anti-inflammatories Diclofenac 23.50
12. Artificial sweetener Acesulfame 22.50
13. Industrial chemical 1H-benzotriazole 22.10
14. Artificial sweetener Sucralose 18.80
15. Angiotensin receptor antagonist Irbesartan 17.90
16. Contrast media Iopromide 17.90
17. Antiretroviral agents Darunavir 17 ± 0.55
18. Contrast media Iopamidol 16.29
19. Anti-anxiety agents Bromazepam 15.54
20. Analgesics/anti-inflammatories Naproxen 14.40
21. Acetaminophen 11.73
22. Contrast media Diatrizoate 11.73
23. Stimulants Caffeine 11.45
24. Metabolites Metronidazole-OH 11.34
25. Contrast media Iomeprol 11.25
26. Antidiabetic drugs Metformin 10.35
27. Diuretics Furosemide 9.96
28. Analgesics/anti-inflammatories Nimesulide 9.73
29. Metabolites 4-Aminoantipyrine 9.29
30. 4-Methylaminoantipyrine 9.25
31. Analgesics/anti-inflammatories Ibuprofen 9.20
32. Metabolites Erythromycin-H2O 7.84
33. Anti-anxiety agents Oxazepam 7.43
34. Contrast media Diatrizoic acid 7.03
35. Metabolites 40 -Hydroxy Diclofenac 7.02
36. Beta-blockers Metoprolol 5.76
37. Metabolites Erythro/threo-hydrobupropion 5.70
38. O-desmethylvenlafaxine 5.50
39. Antidepressant agents Venlafaxine 5.50
40. Analgesics/anti-inflammatories Codeine 5.27
41. Ketoprofen 5.25
42. Antibiotics Cephalexin 5.07
43. Flame retardants Tri-(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate 4.90
44. Analgesics/anticonvulsant Carbamazepine 4.61
45. Flame retardants Tris-(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate 4.60
46. Sunscreen Agent 4-Benzophenone 4.31
47. Preservative and anti-infective agent Triclosan 4.26
48. Industrial chemicals 2,4,7,9-Tetramethyl-5-decyne-4,7-diol 4.20
49. Antiepileptics Lamotrigine 4.12
50. Diuretics Theobromine 4.01
51. Antiretroviral agents Lopinavir 3.8 ± 0.35
52. Metabolites 10,11-Dihydro-trans-10,11-dihydroxycarbamazepine 3.60
53. Carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide 3.58
54. Antiretroviral agents Raltegravir 3.5 ± 1.3
55. Diuretics Hydrochlorothiazide 3.42
56. Transformation product (oxidation) Carboxy-Acyclovir 3.40
57. Beta-blockers Sotalol 3.33
58. Antibiotics Sulfamethoxazole 3.25
59. Bronchodilator Theophylline 3.17
60. Lipid regulator Bezafibrate 3.12

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 3D adsorbent materials for micropollutant removal Selvakumar et al. 3

Table 1 (continued )

S.No. Group of compounds Identified compounds Highest concentration

determined (mg/L)

61. Metabolites Cotinine 3.10

62. Beta-blockers Atenolol 2.87
63. Angiotensin receptor antagonist Telmisartan 2.75
64. H2-receptor antagonists Cimetidine 2.61
65. Metabolites Metoprolol acid 2.51
66. Antibiotics Trimethoprim 2.40
67. Flame retardant Tris (2-butoxyethyl)phosphate 2.40
68. Antibiotics Penicillin G 2.22
69. Industrial chemicals Tolyltriazole 2.20
70. Antibiotics Levofloxacin 2.19
71. Analgesics Salicylic acid 2.18
72. Angiotensin receptor antagonist Candesartan 1.99
73. Antiretroviral agents Nevirapine 1.9 ± 0.68
74. Metabolites 10-Hydroxy-10,11-dihydrocarbamazepine 1.90
75. Psychoanaleptics Desmethylvenlafaxine 1.87
76. Metabolites Guanylurea 1.86
77. Antibiotics Clarithromycin 1.79
78. Lipid-regulators Simvastatin 1.74
79. Analgesics/anti-inflammatories Aminopyrine 1.68
80. Anti-allergic agents Fexofenadine 1.61
81. Metabolites Benzoylecgonine 1.60
82. 40-Hydroxy aceclofenac 1.60
83. Flame retardant Tris (1-chloro-2-propyl)phosphate 1.60
84. Antiretroviral agents Ritonavir 1.50 ± 0.053
85. Antibiotics Norfloxacin 1.50
86. Phytosterols Beta-sitosterol 1.50
87. Metabolites O-Desmethyltramadol 1.47
88. Industrial chemicals Methylindole 1.42
89. Beta-blockers Labetalol 1.40
90. Solvents 2-Butoxyethanol 1.40
91. Antibiotics Erythromycin 1.39
92. H2-receptor antagonists Ranitidine 1.38
93. Hormones Progesterone 1.34
94. Metabolites Carboxy-ibuprofen 1.27
95. Antihistamines Cetirizine 1.24
96. Antiepileptics Pregabalin 1.24
97. Flame retardant/plasticizer Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate 1.16
98. Antibiotics Ciprofloxacin 1.08
99. Angiotensin receptor antagonist Eprosartan 1.04
100. Analgesics/anti-inflammatories Lidocaine 1.00

with hydrogen bonding. The material was also found to
have synergistic action of hydrophobic interactions
thereby influencing the adsorption process [6].
3D adsorbents are superior to 2D adsorbents owing to the
fact that 3D adsorbents have a higher specific surface area
(93 m2/g for 3D carbonaceous sponges when compared to
4 m2/g for graphite) [7], higher scope for functionaliza-
tion [8,9], better directional properties, better stability
and integrity, higher loading capacity, etc. 3D structures
like foam/sponges, aerogels and other 3D structures act as
a matrix in loading photo and electrocatalysts thereby
enhancing the stability and regeneration of the catalyst.
However there are some setbacks in getting accuracy in
3D material printing and processing [9]. Figure 1 shows
the number of publications with the keyword “3D ad-
sorbents” published between 2001 and 2023. This data
from the web of science emphasizes the focus on 3D
adsorbents by the global scientific community in recent
years. 3D adsorbents are superior to both conventional
adsorbents (with irregular pore size) and 2D adsorbents.
Table 2 compares the advantages or superiority of 3D
adsorbents with 2D and conventional adsorbents.Consi-
dering these advantages and the superiority of 3D ad-
sorbents, this review focuses on types of 3D materials
(both micro & nanomaterials) that have the potential for
MP removal and degradation. 3D aerogels, 3D foams, 2D/
3D nanomaterials incorporated 3D/2D materials, addi-
tive manufactured 3D materials, use of 3D numerical
modelling, etc have been reviewed critically.
3D foam-based materials for MP removal
Foam materials have been considered to be an excellent
matrix for the immobilization of photocatalytic mate-
rials, carbon and metal-based adsorbents, enzymes, mi-
crobes, etc that can potentially degrade or adsorb various

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4 Environmental Technologies 2023: Eco-Friendly and Advanced Technologies for Pollutant Remediation and Management
Figure 1
Number of publications with the keyword “3D adsorbents” published between 2001 and 2023, Source: Web of Science.
pollutants from wastewater or contaminated water
sources [23]. Such foams have been made into 3D to
enhance their adsorption properties with MP. Foams are
macroporous, reticulated materials that are lighter when
compared to conventional adsorbents and act as sub-
strates in heterogeneous photocatalysis that can exhibit
better mass and photon transfer, large surface area and
higher photocatalytic performance that suits best for
photocatalytic degradation of MPs [23]. Such immobi-
lization of photocatalytic material bridges the gap in
performance between slurries and immobilized catalysis
[24]. Silicon carbide, nickel, copper and alumina have
been considered to prepare commercial foam supports
[25]. Such foams also enable post-recovery of nano-
materials, photocatalysts and other adsorbents that still
remain a challenge during the commercial utilization of
these materials in wastewater treatment units [26].
Guaraldo et al. [27] developed and characterized self-
supported photocatalytic 3D ZnO foams using 2 step
sintering process and achieved 95% degradation of car-
bamazepine (CBZ) MP with a photocatalytic quantum
yield of 1.2*103 and 24 KWhm3 electrical energy per
order (EE0) on recirculation. Additionally, the zinc
leaching through the photo corrosion was observed to be
less than the WHO permissible limit. Song et al. [28]
synthesized 3D reticulated Ag2O/ZnO Z-scheme
heterojunction on Ni foams for removal of rhodamine B
and antibiotics like tetracycline, sulfadiazine and cip-
rofloxacin. EE0 indicated that the photocatalyst/simu-
lated sunlight system was more energy efficient.
Similarly, Yang et al. [29] synthesized ultrafine palla-
dium nanoparticles immobilised 3D self-supported Ni
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023, 34:100475
foam for cathodic de-chlorination of florfenicol. These
foams showed excellent electrocatalysis of florfenicol
through mass transfer enhancement and formation of
Pd-Ni micro-interference leading to higher utilization of
atomic hydrogen.
Shao et al. [30] fabricated novel silicon carbide foam
based amide material for electrocatalytic oxidation of
alizarin red dye with an aim to reduce the energy con-
sumption of wastewater electrochemical oxidation
treatment. These 3D electrodes with 60 pores per inch
(PPI) possessed a significant advantage in the electro-
chemical degradation performance. Zhan et al. [31]
synthesized multifunctional 3D graphene oxide/
graphitic carbon nitride/TiO2 melamine foam by hy-
drothermal treatment and freeze-drying method that
could be used for oil-water and dye separation from
contaminated water sources (Figure 2) [32]. The 3D
foam was reported to have ultra-high separation effi-
ciency (>99% removal) and was found to be superior
compared to the foam materials reported in the
literature.
Chitin-based sponge composed of graphene oxide and
oxygen-doped carbon nitride was reported to remove
microplastics like polystyrene and functionalized poly-
styrene like amine-modified and carboxylic acid-
modified polystyrene with a removal efficiency be-
tween 71.6 and 92.1%. The adsorption mechanism in-
cludes electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding and
p-p interactions [33]. Despite of these superiorities,
metal foam have challenges like arbitrary control of
material parameters, ambiguous understanding of the
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Table 2
Comparison of advantages or superiority of 3D adsorbents with 2D and conventional adsorbents.
S.No. Parameter Conventional/2D adsorbents
1. Surface Area Low surface area.
Eg. Graphite -4 m2/g.
2. Pore size and Random pore size with broad
distribution average pore size
distribution.
Eg. 0.35–500 nm pores for
TiO2 – alginate beads.
3. Pore network Regular packing structure with
poor interconnected pore
network.
Eg. 2D – heterostructures
4. Adsorption Low adsorption efficiency.
efficiency Eg. Calcium alginate and
gelatin composite has a lower
adsorption efficiency of
43.6% for methylene blue
removal.
5. Retention time More retention time is required
for complete adsorption.
Eg. In the biological treatment
of wastewater, bio-carriers
take up to 12 h.
6. Customizable Non-Customizable geometry of
geometry adsorbents.
Eg. Spherical shape, Bead
shape or sheet like geometry.
7. Adsorption Functionalized/Surface
capacity of modified materials have a
functionalized relatively low adsorption
adsorbents capacity than functionalized
3D adsorbents.
Eg. GO/Iron oxide has an
adsorption capacity of 39 mg/
g for methylene blue.
8. Stability and Poor stability and mechanical
mechanical strength.
strength Eg. Chitosan-based
adsorbents are unstable in
acidic medium and have poor
mechanical strength.
9. Recovery post- Recovery is difficult.
adsorption Eg. Sodium alginate cannot
be recovered/regenerated
post-adsorption due to poor
stability.
10. Regeneration Low regeneration capacity.
Eg. Conventional zeolites
have poor regeneration
under ozonation and
adsorption efficiency of
ammoniacal nitrogen
decreases 18% after 5
adsorption cycles.
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3D adsorbent materials for micropollutant removal Selvakumar et al.
3D adsorbents
High surface area.
Eg. 3D carbonaceous
Sponge – 93 m2/g.
Precise pore size with narrow
average pore size
distribution.
Eg. 8.6–23 nm pores for TiO2
aerogels.
3D- interconnected pore
network.
Eg. Aerogels, Foams.
Relatively high adsorption
efficiency.
Eg. Metal-organic framework
(MOF-3D structure) loaded
calcium alginate and gelatin
composite has 99%
efficiency in removing
Methylene blue.
Less retention time is sufficient
for adsorption.
Eg. In the biological treatment
of wastewater, 3D printed
bio-carriers take 7 h for
complete adsorption.
Customizable geometry of
adsorbents.
Eg. Membrane like, cheese
like, foam like, etc.
Functionalized/Surface
modified materials have a
relatively high adsorption
capacity than functionalized
2D adsorbents.
Eg. Sulfonated Carbon
nanofiber has an adsorption
capacity of 943.1 mg/g for
methylene blue.
Better stability and mechanical
strength.
Eg. Chitosan/GO aerogels
have good mechanical
strength and stability in a
wide range of solvents.
Easy recovery.
Eg. Alginate-EDTA hybrid
aerogel can be easily
recovered/regenerated using
a simple acid-washing
process.
High regeneration capacity.
Eg. Cationic hydrogels for
column adsorption of Cr6+
maintained a constant
adsorption efficiency of 90%
even after 6 adsorptive
cycles.
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023, 34:100475
5
Inference Reference
3D adsorbents have a higher [7]
surface area than 2D and
conventional adsorbents.
3D adsorbents have better pore [10,11]
size resolution with narrow
average pore size distribution
when compared to
conventional adsorbents.
Interconnected pore network [12]
facilitates better adsorption in
3D when compared to 2D
adsorbents.
Introducing a 3D material [13]
enhances the loading
capacity of the adsorbent,
resulting in increased
adsorption efficiency.
Increased surface area [9]
decreases the retention time
in 3D printed adsorbents
when compared to
conventional adsorbents.
Customizable geometry [14,15]
improves spatial
arrangement of pores and
better directional properties in
3D adsorbents.
Functionalization of 2D [16]
adsorbents has better
adsorption capacity than their
pristine counterpart, however
when compared to
functionalized 3D adsorbents
it is relatively lower.
3D adsorbents have better [17,18]
stability and strength
compared to conventional
adsorbents.
3D adsorbents can be easily [19,20]
recovered than conventional
adsorbents.
Complete regeneration in 3D [21,22]
adsorbents facilitates
reproducible adsorption
efficiency even after
consecutive cycles, whereas
in conventional adsorbents
complete regeneration does
not occur.
6 Environmental Technologies 2023: Eco-Friendly and Advanced Technologies for Pollutant Remediation and Management

Figure 2

Multifunctional 3D graphene oxide/graphitic carbon nitride/TiO2 melamine foam (GCT) synthesis by hydrothermal treatment and freeze-drying method
(Reproduced with permission [15]).

gelation process, fragile nature, poor mechanical prop-
erties etc. Focus on creative fabrication approaches with
a deep understanding and systematic studies of pre-
cursor chemistry, ligand chemistry, reductant chemistry,
initiator chemistry, etc could be used to overcome
the challenges.
3D aerogels-based MP removal
3D porous networks like aerogels and hydrogels have
been considered as promising material for the removal of
MPs from various polluted water systems due to its
lower density, higher porosity, high specific surface area
and ease of separation [32]. These aerogels are pro-
duced through freeze drying, carbonization, in-situ
polymerization, post decoration and supramolecular as-
sembly either as single or as composite material [6,34].
Despite aerogels having lower mechanical stability and
higher degradation rate [8], efforts to form composite
materials including carbon, biochar, nanomaterials and
additives have improved the aerogels’ mechanical
properties considerably to fit its application as adsorbent
for MP. Liu et al. [6] developed 3D hierarchical porous
biochar aerogel for removal of phenicol antibiotics from
water (Figure 3). These aerogels had a large surface area
of 2607 m2/g and supports an effective mass transfer
rate. The maximum adsorption capacity of these aero-
gels was found to be 691.9, 751.5 and 786.1 mg/g with
respect to various phenicol antibiotics like thiamphe-
nicol, florfenicol and chloramphenicol respectively. Such
huge adsorption capacity can be attributed to a combi-
nation of p-p and n-p interactions along with hydrogen
bonding. Nie et al. [35] prepared b-cyclodextrin
graphene oxide aerogel microsphere (CD-GAM) with
3D structure using electrospinning in combination with
freeze drying followed by a mild self-assembly process.
These aerogels with 3D porosity potentially removed

Figure 3

SEM image (a) and TEM image (b) image of 3D porous-structured biochar aerogel (Reproduced with permission [6]).

Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023, 34:100475 www.sciencedirect.com

 3D adsorbent materials for micropollutant removal Selvakumar et al.
various MP like anionic and cationic dyes, aromatic MPs,
pharmaceuticals, plastics and contraceptive compounds
within 10 min. Maximum adsorption was observed with
anionic dyes like methylene blue (439 mg/g). The
aerogel showed 80% regenerative capacity within 5
repeated cycles of use. The mechanism behind such
superior multi-element adsorption was attributed to the
host-guest interaction, hydrogen bonding, pep inter-
action and electrostatic interaction with specific MP
selected for the study (Figure 4).
3D compressible polyaniline/cellulose nanofiber aero-
gels (PCNFA) were prepared by Lyu et al. [32] using in-
situ crosslinking and acid-induced polymerization for
removal of organic dyes like acid red (AR) and methy-
lene blue (MB). PCNFA had an adsorption capacity of
600.7 & 1396.6 mg/g towards AR & MB with adsorbent
recyclability of 84 & 70% for AR and MB until 3
Figure 4
Schematic illustrating the adsorption mechanisms of b-cyclodextrin graphene oxide aerogel microsphere for dyes and organic micropollutants (Repro-
duced with permission [19]).
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7
regenerative cycles. Here also, electrostatic and stacking
pep interaction was observed to be the key adsorption
mechanism. Chen et al. [36] used a scalable molecular
templating strategy for the preparation of microporous
3D carbon aerogels using a simple polycondensation
process within a reaction time of 8 s. These carbon
aerogels were efficient in removing organic MP
within 10 s.
Graphene oxide (GO) doped 3D chitosan-gelatin aero-
gel prepared through the bulk or surface deposition was
found to have enhanced removal of fluoroquinolonic
antibiotics like ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin and heavy
metal like lead (Pb2þ). The bulk or surface deposition of
GO into 3D aerogel was having minimum impact on
adsorption. However, without GO there was no
adsorption found [37]. Intermetallic PdBi aerogels with
3D interconnected nanowire network architecture were
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023, 34:100475
8 Environmental Technologies 2023: Eco-Friendly and Advanced Technologies for Pollutant Remediation and Management
synthesized using one step spontaneous gelation
method [38]. These aerogels showed 4.2 to 6.2 times
higher catalytic activity for 4-nitrophenol and MB when
compared to commercial Pd/C. The superior adsorption
was attributed to a 3D-high porosity system, free-
standing bulk structure and ultrathin nanowires acting
as reactors for speeding transfer and diffusion of sub-
strates and products followed by efficient electron
transfer between catalyst and substrate. Shadkam et al.
[39] reinforced waste paper extracted cellulose fibers
into reduced GO/cellulose nanocrystal hybrid aerogel for
removal of toluene from water. The maximum adsorp-
tion capacity for toluene was found to be 454 mg/g in an
aqueous solution. Possible pep conjugation interaction
between toluene molecules and pep conjugated re-
gions rGO was proposed as the mechanism of adsorp-
tion. Commercial carbon aerogel NANOLITÒ 3D
monolith NQ40 honeycomb supplied by Nanoquinia
S.L, Spain, was tested for removal of fluoxetine, an anti-
depressant [40].
Zhu et al. [41] developed adsorption-photocatalytic dual-
functional aerogels (3D GCPA) with tunable pore
structure by coupling graphene nanosheets and covalent
triazine frameworks using polyvinyl alcohol for the
removal of organic MP from water. 3D GCPA-m (Medium
chain PVA) with a specific surface area of 611.9 m2/g
exhibited the highest adsorption capacity of 1259 mmol/g,
1573 mmol/g and 1862 mmol/g for organic MP like
benzophenone (BP), 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-
1), and 2,20 ,4,40 -tetrahydroxybenzophenone (BP-2). This
aerogel had excellent stability and self-regenerative per-
formance of 89.3% in its fourth cycle. The photocatalytic
regeneration mechanism revealed that the production of
oxygen and hydroxyl free radicals are responsible for this
higher regenerative performance.
Figure 5
CAD images of the rotated-cube cell and the cylindrical lattice based on it (left), sintered Al2O3 support (middle) and zeolite calcined filter (right)
(Reproduced with permission [5]).
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023, 34:100475
Coral-inspired positively charged polydopamine
enhanced magnetic chitosan (PDA-MCS) aerogels was
reported to remove negatively charged microplastics like
polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene and poly-
styrene from wastewater with a removal efficiency of
97.3%, 94.6%, and 92.3%, respectively through hydrogen
bonding and p-p interactions [42].
3D adsorbents developed using additive
manufacturing for MP removal
Traditional adsorbents are mostly in the shape of beads,
granules, extrudates or pellets. Despite its high adsor-
bent loading, these beads or pellets face high-pressure
drop and mass and heat resistance resulting in
decrease in the production rate and energetic efficiency
of the separation industries. To know more about tech-
niques for developing shape-adsorbent materials please
refer to Pereira et al. [43]. Additive manufacturing (AM)
is a potential tool for developing 3D structural materials
and is a superior alternative when compared to tradi-
tional shaping techniques.AM involves printing or
deposition of the printable materials layer by layer after
giving a CAD file as input. Please refer Rosseau et al.
[44] for different types of AM technologies. Figuerola
et al. [45] extracted bisphenol A, pharmaceutical prod-
ucts and organic dyes using carbon@ceramic 3D printed
devices derived through immobilization of PVDF-
derived carbons on highly stable SLA ceramic 3D prin-
ted device. More than 98% removal of combined pol-
lutants containing Bisphenol- A, tert-octyl phenol, 4-
tert-butyl phenol, ibuprofen, diclofenac and acetamin-
ophen was achieved. 3D printed engineered porous
ceramic architectures by additive manufacturing using
zeolite coating was prepared for adsorption of various
antibiotics like metoprolol, citalopram, venlafaxine,
clarithromycin, etc (Figure 5) [5]. The adsorption
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 3D adsorbent materials for micropollutant removal Selvakumar et al.
capacity was in the range of 25%e87% with and without
zeolite coating. E-beam crosslinking of alginate nano
clay ink was used to improve the functional properties of
3D-printed hydrogel for removing heavy metals [46].
The crosslinking not only inhibited the loss of crystal-
linity, % thermal instability but also increased the heavy
metal ion adsorption.
3D/2D incorporated 2D/3D material for MP
removal
Modification of 2D materials like ultrafiltration mem-
branes and adsorption/filtration membranes with 3D
materials has been a recent advancement with respect to
adsorbent development. For example, metal-organic
frameworks (MOFs), a novel porous material having a
higher specific surface area, uniform and tunable porous
structure with an enormous functional site has been
reinforced with 3D materials to enhance MP removal
from water [4]. 2D polyacrylonitrile and ultrafiltration
membrane modification have been carried out by a
strategy called 3D modification using a bottom-up
approach. Laccase enzyme and MOFs were sequentially
loaded onto membranes by reverse filtration and used for
the removal of Bisphenols (BPA) with a removal effi-
ciency of 92%. Such high performance can be attributed
to the synergistic effect between enzymatic catalysis and
dual adsorption effect of MOF particles. These MOF
particles are not only high performing but are also non-
toxic to the environment. The BPA concentration was
found to be lower in retentate when compared to
permeate. Dai et al. [47] synthesized 2D layered laponite
nanosheets in-situ on a 3D diatomite template and
studied its MB removal properties. Such modifications
showed higher adsorption capacity with 76.7% MB
removal within 5 min. Cellulose nanofilm/graphene oxide
hybrid aerogels were fabricated via one step ultra-
sonication method for the adsorption of various antibi-
otics [48]. These aerogels showed interconnected 3D
network microstructures in 2D GO nanosheets and were
grown along with CNF via hydrogen bonding. Maximum
removal was observed in the following order:
Tetracyclines > quinolines > sulfonamides > chloram-
phenicol > b-lactams > macrolides showing more than
69% removal.
Recently 3D graphene-like carbon assembled over 2D
Mg-Al layered double oxide (G@LDO) was reported as
an innovative adsorbent material for the removal of
microplastics like polystyrene. The p-p interaction be-
tween the adsorbent and polystyrene was effective in
removing 80% of polystyrene with a maximum adsorp-
tion capacity of 209.39 mg/g over wide pH range [49].
Challenges & future scope of 3D materials
for MP removal
The major challenge/limitation for 3D adsorption process
is the availability of 3D printable materials unlike other
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9
natural and hybrid materials. The cost of instrumentation
is high when compared to conventional adsorbent prep-
aration. Moreover, 3D printing of adsorbents needs
extensive optimization starting from material selection,
printing parameters and characterization leading to an
increase in the cost of the adsorbent preparation.
Although 3D adsorbents give enhanced removal proper-
ties, their mechanical stability and degradability have to
be enhanced. Equipment cost and scalability of the 3D
materials is a real challenge along with overcoming
operational parameters at industrial level. Detailed
modeling of 3D structure needs to be carried out to un-
derstand its behavior with respect to MP and its other
operational parameters. The versatility of the 3D in-
struments needs to be improved for making it a viable
commercial technology. Detailed study on binders and
additives for 3D printing has to be carried out to deter-
mine the field adaptability. Despite these challenges, 3D
adsorbents definitely have an edge over conventional
adsorbents with superior functionalization and absorbing
capacity. Future researchers need to optimize the 3D
printers specifically for environmental remediation and
treatment with more natural adsorbents to avoid further
release of polymeric debris post treatment.
Conclusion
This review clearly indicates that 3D adsorbents have
superior adsorption properties and strong interaction
with micropollutants through electrostatic & stacking
pep interaction etc., Functionalization using functional
groups like amine, carboxylic group onto the surface of
3D adsorbents have further improved its adsorption and
retention capacity. The results clearly indicate that 3D
materials can be potentially used for removal of MP
starting from antibiotics, phenolics, heavy metals etc.
Hence, they remain a material of choice. Despite of
these advantages, large scale production of 3D materials
with precision, reproducibility at field scale and main-
taining surface functional groups and adsorbent porosity
remains a challenge. The byproduct analysis, toxicolog-
ical impact and eco-friendliness needs to well tested
before being used in field studies.
Editorial Disclosure Statement
Given the role as Guest Editor, Thavamani Palanisami
had no involvement in the peer-review of this article and
has no access to information regarding its peer-review.
Full responsibility for the editorial process for this
article was delegated to Palanivel Sathishkumar,
co editor.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
R. Selvakumar - Conceptualization, Methodology, Vali-
dation, Fund acquisition and Writing original draft. A.
Guhananthan- Resources, formal analysis and Editing.
Thavamani Palanisami- Conceptualization, Methodol-
ogy, Validation and Supervision.
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2023, 34:100475
10 Environmental Technologies 2023: Eco-Friendly and Advanced Technologies for Pollutant Remediation and Management
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in
this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the funding provided by DST-SERB for (CRG/
2021/003260 dated 20th Jan 2022). The authors thank Dr P. Radhak-
rishnan, Director, PSG Institute of Advanced Studies, Coimbatore and
PSG Management, Coimbatore, India, for supporting this work.
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